曼昆宏观经济学-课后答案-中文版
曼昆宏观经济学原理第五版chap33to35课后习题答案(中文)
答：这种“为了安全的资本外逃”对美国经济是件好事。
当外国人增加了对美国政府债券的需求时，这种行动减少了美国的资本净流出。
国外净投资减少时，美国可贷资金市场上的可贷资金需求减少，可贷资金的需求减少使利率下降，利率下降增加了国内投资，减少了国民储蓄。
资本净流出减少使得美国外汇市场上的美元供给减少，外汇市场上美元供给的减少引起实际汇率上升，实际汇率上升使贸易余额倾向于赤字。
13．假设美国共同基金突然决定更多地在加拿大投资。
A．加拿大的资本净流出、储蓄和国内投资会发生什么变动?答：加拿大的资本净流出会下降，加拿大的国内投资会增加，储蓄会下降。
B．这对加拿大资本存量的长期影响是什么?答：这会增加加拿大的长期资本存量。
C．资本存量的这种变化将如何影响加拿大劳动市场？这种美国在加拿大的投资使加拿大工人状况变好还是变坏?答：资本存量的这种变化会增加加拿大劳动市场的劳动需求。
这种美国在加拿大的投资使加拿大工人状况变好。
D．你认为这将使美国工人状况变好还是变坏？你能想到有什么原因一般会使这对美国公民的影响与对美国工人的影响不同?答：这将使美国工人状况变坏。
因为美国共同基金增加在加拿大的投资增加了美国公民的投资利润，但由于国内投资下降，美国工人的情况变坏。
第十二篇短期经济波动第三十三章总需求与总供给复习题1．写出当经济进入衰退时下降的两个宏观经济变量。
写出当经济进入衰退时上升的一个宏观经济变量。
答：当经济进入衰退时，实际GDP和投资支出下降，失业率上升。
2．画出一个有总需求、短期总供给和长期总供给的曲线的图。
仔细并正确地标出坐标轴。
答：图33—1经济的长期均衡3．列出并解释总需求曲线向右下方倾斜的三个原因。
答：为了理解总需求曲线向右下方倾斜的原因，我们必须考察物价水平如何影响消费、投资和净出口的物品与劳务需求量。
(1)庇古的财富效应：物价水平下降使消费者感到更富裕，这又鼓励他们更多地支出，消费支出增加意味着物品与劳务的需求量更大。
曼昆宏观经济学原理第五版chap31to32课后习题答案(中文)
未预期的通货膨胀降低了政府债券的投资价值。
11．解释一种与未预期到的通货膨胀相关而与预期到的通货膨胀无关的害处。
然后解释一种既与预期到的通货膨胀相关，又与未预期到的通货膨胀相关的害处。
答：未预期到的通货膨胀会以一种既与才能无关又与需要无关的方式在人们中重新分配财富，这种再分配的发生最可能发生在以固定价格来计量的贷款中。
它会以损害债权人的代价而减轻债务人的偿还负担。
无论通货膨胀是否预期到了，它都会扭曲价格信号、影响货币的正常使用，使现金的名义利率从零变为负数。
12．说明以下陈述正确、错误，还是不确定。
A．“通货膨胀伤害了债务人的利益而帮助了债权人，因为债务人必须支付更高的利率。
”答：这种陈述不确定。
如果实际通货膨胀率高于预期通货膨胀率，则帮助了债务人，因为实际利率低于预期名义利率。
如果实际通货膨胀率低于预期通货膨胀率，则帮助了债权人，因为实际利率高于预期名义利率。
B．“如果价格以一种使物价总水平不变的方式变动，那么，没有一个人的状况会变得更好或更坏。
”答一：这种陈述正确。
答二：这种陈述错误。
因为即使物价总水平保持不变，但相对价格的变动也会使一些人的福利变好，而使另一些人的福利变坏。
C．“通货膨胀并没有降低大多数工人的购买力。
”答一：这种陈述错误。
因为通货膨胀降低了大多数工人的购买力。
大多数工人的工资由于长期劳资合约的限制不能迅速调整，因此工人的工资增长慢于通货膨胀的攀升。
答二：这种陈述正确。
因为大多数工人的工资根据通货膨胀率的变动而进行合理的调整。
第十一篇开放经济宏观经济学第三十一章开放经济宏观经济学：基本概念复习题1．定义净出口与资本净流出。
解释它们如何相关以及为什么相关。
答：净出口是一国的出口值减去进口值，又称贸易余额。
资本净流出是指本国居民购买的外国资产减去外国人购买的国内资产。
一个开放经济以两种方式与世界其他经济相互交易——在世界物品与劳务市场上和世界金融市场上。
净出口和资本净流出分别衡量了这些市场上的不平衡类型。
曼昆经济学原理第六版中文答案
曼昆经济学原理第六版中文答案曼昆经济学原理第六版中文答案【篇一：曼昆《经济学原理(宏观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解】class=txt第34章货币政策和财政政策对总需求的影响课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．流动性偏好理论（theory of liquidity preference）该理论假设中央银行选择了一个固定的货币供给，在此模型中，价格水平p也是固定的，所以实际货币余额供给固定。
实际货币余额需求取决于利率――持有货币的机会成本。
当利率很高时，因为机会成本太高，人们只会持有较少的货币。
反之，当利率很低时，因为机会成本较低，人们会持有较多的货币。
根据流动性偏好理论，利率会调整到使实际货币余额供给与需求相等的水平。
2．财政政策（fiscal policy）答：财政政策指政府变动税收和支出以便影响总需求进而影响就业和国民收入的政策。
变动税收是指改变税率和税率结构。
变动政府支出是指改变政府对商品与劳务的购买支出以及转移支付，它利用政府预算（包括税收和政府支出）来影响总需求，从而达到稳定经济目的的宏观经济政策。
其特点是政府用行政预算来直接控制消费总量和投资总量，调节国家的需求水平，使总需求和总供给达到理想的均衡状态，从而促进充分就业和控制通货膨胀。
从其内容上看，包括财政收入政策和财政支出政策。
前者的政策手段主要是税率，后者的政策手段主要是政府购买（支出）。
从对经济发生作用的结果上看，财政政策分为扩张性的财政政策和紧缩性的财政政策。
前者是指降低税率、增加转移支付、扩大政府支出，目的是刺激总需求，以降低失业率。
宏观经济学课后习题答案(共9篇)
宏观经济学课后习题答案(共9篇)宏观经济学课后习题答案（一）: 这是曼昆的宏观经济学的24章的课后习题，求高手解答，我要详细的计算过程！答案我已经知道，是变动0.4美元在长期中，糖果的价格从0．10美元上升到0．60美元。
在同一时期中，消费物价指数从150上升到300。
根据整体通货膨胀进行调整后，糖果的价格变动了多少我要详细的解答过程，怎么算的就行了！由CPI可知，通货膨胀率=（300-150）/150*100%=100%糖果的原始价格P=0.1在这段时间通过通货膨胀变为0.1*（1+通货膨胀率）=0.2实际上糖果在后来卖到了0.6，所以糖果实际价格变动了0.6-0.2=0.4美元宏观经济学课后习题答案（二）: 曼昆宏观经济学26章课后题答案是不是错了假设政府明年借债比今年多了200亿美元,对于可贷资金市场的利率和投资,供给和需求曲线的变动,答案是不是有错答案说是供给曲线不变,需求曲线右移,我认为是需求曲线不动,供给曲线左移……财政政策当然变动的是需求,供给怎么可能变动,你可能是总供给和总需求有些混淆,我开始的时候也不是很清楚,多看几遍就明白了,供给曲线可能因为劳动力变动,而合财政货币政策无关.这些政策变动的都是需求.另外右移就是借钱多了,就是投资需求多了,就是G多了,那就是需求曲线右移了宏观经济学课后习题答案（三）: 谁有高鸿业版《西方经济学》宏观部分——第十七章课后题答案第十七章总需求——总供给模型1、（1）总需求是经济社会对产品和劳务的需求总量,这一需求总量通常以产出水平来表示.一个经济社会的总需求包括消费需求、投资需求、.政府购买和国外需求.总需求量受多种因素的影响,其中价格水平是一个重要的因素.在宏观经济学中,为了说明价格对总需求量的影响,引入了总需求曲线的概念,即总需求量与价格水平之间关系的几何表示.在凯恩斯主义的总需求理论中,总需求曲线的理论来源主要由产品市场均衡理论和货币市场均衡理论来反映.（2）在IS—LM模型中,一般价格水平被假定为一个常数（参数）.在价格水平固定不变且货币供给为已知的情况下,IS曲线和LM曲线的交点决定均衡的收入水平.现用图1—62来说明怎样根据IS—LM图形推导总需求曲线.图1—62分上下两部.上图为IS—LM图.下图表示价格水平和需求总量之间的关系,即总需求曲线.当价格P的数值为时,此时的LM曲线与IS曲线相交于点 , 点所表示的国民收入和利率顺次为和 .将和标在下图中便得到总需求曲线上的一点 .现在假设P由下降到 .由于P的下降,LM曲线移动到的位置,它与IS曲线的交点为点. 点所表示的国民收入和利率顺次为和 .对应于上图的点 ,又可在下图中找到 .按照同样的程序,随着P的变化,LM曲线和IS曲线可以有许多交点,每一个交点都代表着一个特定的y和p.于是有许多P与的组合,从而构成了下图中一系列的点.把这些点连在一起所得到的曲线AD便是总需求曲线.从以上关于总需求曲线的推导中看到,总需求曲线表示社会中的需求总量和价格水平之间的相反方向的关系.即总需求曲线是向下方倾斜的.向右下方倾斜的总需求曲线表示,价格水平越高,需求总量越小；价格水平越低,需求总量越大.2、财政政策是政府变动税收和支出,以便影响总需求,进而影响就业和国民收入的政策.货币政策是指货币当局即中央银行通过银行体系变动货币供应量来调节总需求的政策.无论财政政策还是货币政策,都是通过影响利率、消费和投资进而影响总需求,使就业和国民收入得到调节的,通过对总需求的调节来调控宏观经济,所以称为需求管理政策.3、总供给曲线描述国民收入与一般价格水平之间的依存关系.根据生产函数和劳动力市场的均衡推导而得到.资本存量一定时,国民收入水平碎就业量的增加而增加,就业量取决于劳动力市场的均衡.所以总供给曲线的理论来源于生产函数和劳动力市场均衡的理论.4、总供给曲线的理论主要由总量生产函数和劳动力市场理论来反映的.在劳动力市场理论中,经济学家对工资和价格的变化和调整速度的看法是分歧的.古典总供给理论认为,劳动力市场运行没有阻力,在工资和价格可以灵活变动的情况下,劳动力市场得以出清,使经济的就业总能维持充分就业状态,从而在其他因素不变的情况下,经济的产量总能保持在充分就业的产量或潜在产量水平上.因此,在以价格为纵坐标,总产量为横坐标的坐标系中,古典供给曲线是一条位于充分就业产量水平的垂直线.凯恩斯的总供给理论认为,在短期,一些价格是粘性的,从而不能根据需求的变动而调整.由于工资和价格粘性,短期总供给曲线不是垂直的,凯恩斯总供给曲线在以价格为纵坐标,收入为横坐标的坐标系中是一条水平线,表明经济中的厂商在现有价格水平上,愿意供给所需的任何数量的商品.作为凯恩斯总供给曲线基础的思想是,作为工资和价格粘性的结果,劳动力市场不能总维持在充分就业状态,由于存在失业,厂商可以在现行工资下获得所需劳动.因而他们的平均生产成本被认为是不随产出水平变化而变化.一些经济学家认为,古典的和凯恩斯的总供给曲线分别代表着劳动力市场的两种极端的说法.在现实中工资和价格的调整经常介于两者之间.在这种情况下以价格为纵坐标,产量为横坐标的坐标系中,总供给曲线是向右上方延伸的,这即为常规的总需求曲线.总之,针对总量劳动市场关于工资和价格的不同假设,宏观经济学中存在着三种类型的总供给曲线.5、解答：宏观经济学在用总需求—总供给说明经济中的萧条,高涨和滞涨时,主要是通过说明短期的收入和价格水平的决定来完成的.如图1—63所示. 从图1—63可以看到,短期的收入和价格水平的决定有两种情况.第一种情况是,AD是总需求曲线, 使短期供给曲线,总需求曲线和短期供给曲线的交点E决定的产量或收入为y,价格水平为P,二者都处于很低的水平,第一种情况表示经济处于萧条状态.第二种情况是,当总需求增加,总需求曲线从AD向右移动到时,短期总供给曲线和新的总需求曲线的交点决定的产量或收入为 ,价格水平为 ,二者都处于很高的水平,第二种情况表示经济处于高涨状态.现在假定短期供给曲线由于供给冲击（如石油价格和工资等提高）而向左移动,但总需求曲线不发生变化.在这种情况下,短期收入和价格水平的决定可以用图1—64表示.在图1—64中,AD是总需求曲线,是短期总供给曲线,两者的交点E决定的产量或收入为,价格水平为P.现在由于出现供给冲击,短期总供给曲线向左移动到,总需求曲线和新的短期总供给曲线的交点决定的产量或收入为,价格水平为,这个产量低于原来的产量,而价格水平却高于原来的价格水平,这种情况表示经济处于滞涨状态,即经济停滞和通货膨胀结合在一起的状态.6、二者在“形式”上有一定的相似之处.微观经济学的供求模型主要说明单个商品的价格和数量的决定.宏观经济中的AD—AS模型主要说明总体经济的价格水平和国民收入的决定.二者在图形上都用两条曲线来表示,在价格为纵坐标,数量为横坐标的坐标系中,向右下方倾斜的为需求曲线,向右上方延伸的为供给曲线.但二者在内容上有很大的不同：其一,两模型涉及的对象不同.微观经济学的供求模型是微观领域的事物,而宏观经济中的AD—AS模型是宏观领域的事物.其二,各自的理论基础不同.微观经济学中的供求模型中的需求曲线的理论基础是消费者行为理论,而供给曲线的理论基础主要是成本理论和市场理论,它们均属于微观经济学的内容.宏观经济学中的总需求曲线的理论基础主要是产品市场均衡和货币市场均衡理论,而供给曲线的理论基础主要是劳动市场理论和总量生产函数,它们均属于宏观经济学的内容.其三,各自的功能不同.微观经济学中的供求模型在说明商品的价格和数量的决定的同时,还可以来说明需求曲线和供给曲线移动对价格和商品数量的影响,充其量这一模型只解释微观市场的一些现象和结果.宏观经济中的AD—AS模型在说明价格和产出决定的同时,可以用来解释宏观经济的波动现象,还可以用来说明政府运用宏观经济政策干预经济的结果.7、（1）由得；2023 + P = 2400 - P于是 P=200, =2200即得供求均衡点.（2）向左平移10%后的总需求方程为：于是,由有：2023 + P = 2160 – PP=80 , =2080与（1）相比,新的均衡表现出经济处于萧条状态.（3）向右平移10%后的总需求方程为：于是,由有：2023 + P = 2640 – PP=320 , =2320与（1）相比,新的均衡表现出经济处于高涨状态.（4）向左平移10%后的总供给方程为：于是,由有：1800 + P = 2400 – PP=300 , =2100与（1）相比,新的均衡表现出经济处于滞涨状态.（5）总供给曲线向右上方倾斜的直线,属于常规型.宏观经济学课后习题答案（四）: 宏观经济学问题题号:11 题型:单选题（请在以下几个选项中选择唯一正确答案）本题分数:5内容:一般把经济周期分为四个阶段,这四个阶段为（）.选项:a、兴旺,停滞,萧条和复苏b、繁荣,停滞,萧条和恢复c、繁荣,衰退,萧条和复苏d、兴旺,衰退,萧条和恢复题号:12 题型:单选题（请在以下几个选项中选择唯一正确答案）本题分数:5内容:“面粉是中间产品”这一命题（）选项:a、一定是对的b、一定是不对的c、可能是对的也可能是不对的d、以上三种说法全对.题号:13 题型:单选题（请在以下几个选项中选择唯一正确答案）本题分数:5内容:下列哪种情况下执行财政政策的效果较好（选项:a、LM陡峭而IS平缓b、LM平缓而IS陡峭c、LM和IS一样平缓d、LM和IS一样陡峭题号:14 题型:单选题（请在以下几个选项中选择唯一正确答案）本题分数:5内容:政府财政政策通过哪一个变量对国民收入产生影响（）.选项:a、进口b、消费支出c、出口d、政府购买.题号:15 题型:单选题（请在以下几个选项中选择唯一正确答案）本题分数:5内容:在国民收入核算体系中,计入GDP的政府支出是指（）.选项:a、政府购买物品的支出b、政府购买物品和劳务的支出c、政府购买物品和劳务的支出加上政府的转移支出之和d、政府工作人员的薪金和政府转移支出题号:16 题型:是非题本题分数:5内容:长期总供给曲线所表示的总产出是经济中的潜在产出水平选项:1、错2、对题号:17 题型:是非题本题分数:5内容:GDP中扣除资本折旧,就可以得到NNP选项:1、错2、对题号:18 题型:是非题本题分数:5内容:在长期总供给水平,由于生产要素等得到了充分利用,因此经济中不存在失业选项:1、错2、对题号:19 题型:是非题本题分数:5内容:个人收入即为个人可支配收入,是人们可随意用来消费或储蓄的收入选项:1、错2、对题号:20 题型:是非题本题分数:5内容:GNP折算指数是实际GDP与名义GDP的比率选项:1、错2、对C,C,A,D,B对,对（NNP国民生产净值）,错（可能还有摩擦失业）,错,错宏观经济学课后习题答案（五）: 一道宏观经济学的习题，求答案及解析7、将一国经济中所有市场交易的货币价值进行加总a、会得到生产过程中所使用的全部资源的市场价值b、所获得的数值可能大于、小于或等于GDP的值c、会得到经济中的新增价值总和d、会得到国内生产总值`b 正确市场交易的可能有中间产品，如此中间产品加上最终产品，则重复计算的结果大于GDP;不在国内市场交易，出口销往国外的漏算，则计算结果会小于gdp；如果重复的和漏算的正好相等，则结果可能等于gdp。
曼昆宏观经济学第四版答案
曼昆宏观经济学第四版答案【篇一：曼昆经济学原理(第四版)课后习题中文答案(6)】ass=txt>政府购买＝税收－公共储蓄g＝1．5－0．2＝1．3 万亿美元储蓄＝投资i＝0．7 万亿美元消费＝国民收入－投资－政府购买c＝8－0．7－1．3＝6 万亿美元7．假设英特尔公司正考虑建立一个新芯片工厂。
a．假设英特尔公司需要在债券市场上借钱，为什么利率上升会影响英特尔关于是否建立这个工厂的决策?答：因为利率上升增加了英特尔公司在债券市场上借钱的成本，减少了建立这个工厂预期利润，因此英特尔公司有可能不会建立这个工厂。
b．如果英特尔公司有足够的自有资金来为新工厂筹资而不用借钱，利率的上升还会影响英特尔公司关于是否建立一个工厂的决策吗？解释之。
答：也会。
因为利率上升意味着英特尔公司自有资金的其他投资方式的预期回报增加，因而增加了建立这个工厂的机会成本。
8．假设政府明年将借的款比今年多 200 亿美元。
a．用供求图分析这种政策。
利率会上升还是会下降?答：图 26－3 货币市场供求图当政府明年借款增加 200 亿美元时，它将使可贷资金需求增加 200亿美元。
和此相比，由于政府借款并不影响在任何一种既定利率时家庭的储蓄量，所以它不影响可贷资金的供给。
在图中，可贷资金需求增加使得可贷资金需求曲线向右从 d1 移动到 d2，可贷资金需求的增长使可贷资金市场的均衡利率从 i1 增加到 i2。
b．投资会发生什么变动？私人储蓄呢？公共储蓄呢？国民储蓄呢？将这些变动的大小和政府 200 亿美元的额外借款进行比较。
答：可贷资金市场上的利率上升改变了参和贷款市场的家庭和企业行为。
特别是许多可贷资金需求者受到高利率的抑制，买新房子的家庭少了，选择建立新工厂的企业也少了，因此，投资会减少。
利率上升后，家庭会增加他们的储蓄量，所以私人储蓄增加，由于公共储蓄不受利率的影响，所以公共储蓄不变，最后国民储蓄会增加。
c．可贷资金供给弹性如何影响这些变动的大小？答：(a)可贷资金供给弹性大 (b)可贷资金供给弹性小141【篇二：曼昆经济学原理(第四版)课后习题中文答案(2)】生活水平。
曼昆宏观经济学课后答案第版
(6)由于高中生从事不创造市场的物品与劳务的活动到可创造市场的物品与劳务活动,实际 GDP 上升。但是,经济福利可能下降。在理想的国民核算中,上学作为投资的增加,因为它 可能提高工人未来的生产率。实际国民核算没有衡量此类投资。同时,如果学生上学,未来 的 GDP 可能会低于实际的,因为未来劳动力受到教育更少。一 (7)由于父亲生产市场的物品与劳务更少,可衡量的实际 GDP 下降。但是,实际产品与劳务 的产出没有下降。可衡量的产品（父亲有酬劳动）下降,而不可衡量的抚养小孩的劳务上升。 一 9、正如议员罗伯特指出的,GDP 是经济成果和福利不完善的衡量。同时他忽略了：GDP 没有 考虑耐用物品的估算租金,比如汽车、冰箱、剪草机；许多家务活动中的产品与劳务,比如 烹饪、清洁；非法活动生产和销售的产品的价值,比如毒品交易。GDP 衡量中的不完善不会 降低其有用性。只有这些衡量不完善性的大小一直保持大体不变,GDP 比较不同年份的经济 活动是有用的。同时,巨额 GDP 允许我们为孩子提供更好的医疗保健、他们教育所需的新书 以及更多的玩具。一 第三章长期中的经济一 温 题一 1、生产要素和生产技术决定一个经济生产的产出。生产要素是用于生产物品与劳务的投入。 最重要的生产要素是资本和劳动。生产技术是用既定的资本和劳动量可以生产多少产由。任 一个生产要素增加或生产技术的进步都会增加经济产出。+2、一个企业决定所需生产要素的数量时,它考虑壤决策如何影响利润。比如,多雇佣一单 位劳动增加生产以及利澜,企业要比较额外收益和支付更多薪水的额外成本进行比较。企业 获得的额外收益取决于劳动的边际产量(MpL)和产品的价格(P)。额外的一单位劳动生产了 MPL 单位的产品,每单位的产品以 p 价格出售,所以额外的收益是 pxMPL。多雇佣一单位劳 动的额外成本是是薪水 W。多雇佣一单位劳动的利润变动：△利润=△收益一△成本=(p× MPL)-W。如果额外的收益 pxMPL 大于薪水 W,额外的一单位劳动会增加利润。企业会一直雇 佣劳动,直到下一单位劳动不再有利为止,即直到 MPL 减少到使额外收益为零时。+在上述等式,△利润=o 时,P×MPL-W,也可以写成 W/P=MPL。一 因此,一个竞争性的利润最大化的企业雇佣的劳动要到劳动边际产量等于实际薪水时为 止。同样逻辑,企业租用的资本要到资本边际产量等于实际租赁价格为止。+3、如果所有生产要素增加相同百分比引起产出增加同样的百分比,生产要素有规模报酬不 变。比如,如果企业把资本和劳动都增加 50%,产量也增加 500.'0．那生产函数是规模报酬 不 变。如果生产函数是规模报酬不变,经济中竞争性的利润最大化的企业的总收入（等同总产 出）分为劳动报酬（MPLxL）和资本报酬(MPKxK)：F(I<,L)=(MPK×K)-(MPL×L)。+ 如果向每种要素支付其边际产量,那这些要素支付的总和等于总产出。换言之,规模收益不 变,利润最大化,以及竞争性配合意味着经济利润为零。一 -I、消费水平直接取决于可支配收入水平：支付了所有税收之后的收入。可支配收入越高, 消费也越多。投资品需求量与实际利率负相关。为了使一个投资项目有利,投资收益必须大 于其成本。因为实际利率衡量为投资筹借资金的成本,实际利率上升使投资的成本更高,因 此投资品需求量就减少。一 5、政府购买是政府直接购买的物品与劳务。例如,政府购买枪支、导弹、修路以及提供类 似空 中交通管制的劳务。所以这些活动属于 GDP 的部分。转移支付是政府对不用交换物品和劳务 的个 人的支付。转移支付是减少家庭可支配收入的税收的对立面,它增加家庭的可支配收入。例
曼昆宏观经济学第九版 课后习题答案
Answers to Textbook Questions and ProblemsCHAPTER 1 The Science of MacroeconomicsQuestions for Review1. Microeconomics is the study of how individual firms and households make decisions, andhow they interact with one another. Microeconomic models of firms and households are based on principles of optimization—firms and households do the best they can given the constraints they face. For example, households choose which goods to purchase in order to maximize their utility, whereas firms decide how much to produce in order to maximize profits. In contrast, macroeconomics is the study of the economy as a whole; it focuses on issues such as how total output, total employment, and the overall price level are determined. These economy-wide variables are based on the interaction of many households and many firms; therefore, microeconomics forms the basis for macroeconomics.2. Economists build models as a means of summarizing the relationships among economicvariables. Models are useful because they abstract from the many details in the economy and allow one to focus on the most important economic connections.3. A market-clearing model is one in which prices adjust to equilibrate supply and demand.Market-clearing models are useful in situations where prices are flexible. Yet in many situations, flexible prices may not be a realistic assumption. For example, labor contracts often set wages for up to three years. Or, firms such as magazine publishers change their prices only every three to four years. Most macroeconomists believe that price flexibility is a reasonable assumption for studying long-run issues. Over the long run, prices respond to changes in demand or supply, even though in the short run they may be slow to adjust.Problems and Applications1. Monetary policy in the United States and the European Union has been a big topic ofconversation in early 2015. The EU embarked upon a quantitative easing policy in March 2015 in an attempt to stimulate growth and prevent deflation. There has been some concern that the inflation rate in Europe will turn negative. In the United States, there is continued discussion and speculation concerning when the Federal Reserve might choose to increase the target federal funds rate. Also in the United States, the unemployment rate has declined to about 5.5 percent and this suggests that wages may begin to increase.The Federal Reserve will be watching for wage and price increases as they decide when to increase interest rates.2. Many philosophers of science believe that the defining characteristic of a science is theuse of the scientific method of inquiry to establish stable relationships. Scientists examine data, often provided by controlled experiments, to support or disprove a hypothesis.Economists are more limited in their use of experiments. They cannot conduct controlled experiments on the economy; they must rely on the natural course of developments in the economy to collect data. To the extent that economists use the scientific method of inquiry, that is, developing hypotheses and testing them, economics has the characteristics of a science.3. We can use a simple variant of the supply-and-demand model for pizza to answer thisquestion. Assume that the quantity of ice cream demanded depends not only on the price of ice cream and income, but also on the price of frozen yogurt:Q d = D(P IC, P FY, Y).We expect that demand for ice cream rises when the price of frozen yogurt rises, because ice cream and frozen yogurt are substitutes. That is, when the price of frozen yogurt goes up, I consume less of it and, instead, fulfill more of my frozen dessert urges through the consumption of ice cream.The next part of the model is the supply function for ice cream, Q s = S(P IC). Finally, in equilibrium, supply must equal demand, so that Q s = Q d. Y and P FY are the exogenous variables, and Q and P IC are the endogenous variables. Figure 1-1 uses this model to show that a fall in the price of frozen yogurt results in an inward shift of the demand curve for ice cream. The new equilibrium has a lower price and quantity of ice cream.4. The price of haircuts changes rather infrequently. From casual observation, hairstyliststend to charge the same price over a one- or two-year period irrespective of the demand for haircuts or the supply of cutters. A market-clearing model for analyzing the market for haircuts has the unrealistic assumption of flexible prices. Such an assumption isunrealistic in the short run when we observe that prices are inflexible. Over the long run, however, the price of haircuts does tend to adjust; a market-clearing model is therefore appropriate.Answers to Textbook Questions and ProblemsCHAPTER 2 The Data of MacroeconomicsQuestions for Review1. GDP measures the total income earned from the production of the new final goods and services in theeconomy, and it measures the total expenditures on the new final goods and services produced in the economy. GDP can measure two things at once because the total expenditures on the new final goods and services by the buyers must be equal to the income earned by the sellers of the new final goods and services. As the circular flow diagram in the text illustrates, these are alternative, equivalent ways of measuring the flow of dollars in the economy.2. The four components of GDP are consumption, investment, government purchases, and net exports.The consumption category of GDP consists of household expenditures on new final goods and services, such as the purchase of a new television. The investment category of GDP consists of business fixed investment, residential fixed investment, and inventory investment. When a business buys new equipment this counts as investment. Government purchases consists of purchases of new final goods and services by federal, state, and local governments, such as payments for new military equipment. Net exports measures the value of goods and services sold to other countries minus the value of goods and services foreigners sell us. When the U.S. sells corn to foreign countries, it counts in the net export category of GDP.3. The consumer price index (CPI) measures the overall level of prices in the economy. Ittells us the price of a fixed basket of goods relative to the price of the same basket in the base year. The GDP deflator is the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP in a given year. The GDP deflator measures the prices of all goods and services produced, whereas the CPI only measures prices of goods and services bought by consumers. The GDP deflator includes only domestically produced goods, whereas the CPI includes domestic and foreign goods bought by consumers. Finally, the CPI is a Laspeyres index that assigns fixed weights to the prices of different goods, whereas the GDP deflator is a Paasche index that assigns changing weights to the prices of different goods. In practice, the two price indices tend to move together and do not often diverge.4. The CPI measures the price of a fixed basket of goods relative to the price of the samebasket in the base year. The PCE deflator is the ratio of nominal consumer spending to real consumer spending. The CPI and the PCE deflator are similar in that they both only include the prices of goods purchased by consumers, and they both include the price of imported goods as well as domestically produced goods. The two measures differ because the CPI measures the change in the price of a fixed basket whereas the goods measured by the PCE deflator change from year to year depending on what consumers are purchasing in that particular year.5. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) classifies each person into one of the following threecategories: employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force. The unemployment rate, which is the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed, is computed as follows:Unemployment Rate = Number of UnemployedLabor Force´100.Note that the labor force is the number of people employed plus the number of people unemployed.6. Every month, the Bureau of Labor Statistics undertakes two surveys to measureemployment. First, the BLS surveys about 60,000 households and thereby obtains an estimate of the share of people who say they are working. The BLS multiplies this share by an estimate of the population to estimate the number of people working. Second, the BLS surveys about 160,000 business establishments and asks how many people they employ. Each survey is imperfect; so the two measures of employment are not identical. Problems and Applications1. From the main Web page click on the interactive data tab at the top, select GDP,begin using the data, section 1, and then table 1.1.1. Real GDP grew at a rate of 2.2 percent in quarter 4 of 2014. When compared to growth rates of −2.1 percent, 4.6 percent, and 5 percent for the first three quarters of 2014, the rate of 2.2 percent was slightly below average. From the main Web page select the data tools tab, then top picks. Check the box for the unemployment rate and retrieve the data. The unemployment rate in March 2015 was 5.5 percent, which was about equal to the natural rate of unemployment, or the long run average rate. From the main page, select the economic releases tab, then inflation and prices. Access the report for the CPI. In February 2015, the inflation rate for all items was 0 percent, and if food and energy were excluded the rate was 1.7 percent. The inflation rate was below average and below the Federal Reserve’s target of 2 percent.2. Value added by each person is equal to the value of the good produced minus theamount the person paid for the materials needed to make the good. Therefore, the value added by the farmer is $1.00 ($1 – 0 = $1). The value added by the miller is $2: she sells the flour to the baker for $3 but paid $1 for the flour. The value added by the baker is $3: she sells the bread to the engineer for $6 but paid the miller $3 for the flour. GDP is the total value added, or $1 + $2 + $3 = $6. Note that GDP equals the value of the final good (the bread).3. When a woman marrie s her butler, GDP falls by the amount of the butler’s salary. Thishappens because GDP measures total income, and therefore GDP, falls by the amount of the butler’s loss i n salary. If GDP truly measures the value of all goods and services, then the marriage would not affect GDP since the total amount of economic activity is unchanged. Actual GDP, however, is an imperfect measure of economic activity because the value of some goods and services is left out. Once the butler’s work becomes part of his household chores, his services are no longer counted in GDP. As this example illustrates, GDP does not include the value of any output produced in the home.4. a. The airplane sold to the U.S. Air Force counts as government purchases because theAir Force is part of the government.b. The airplane sold to American Airlines counts as investment because it is a capitalgood sold to a private firm.c. The airplane sold to Air France counts as an export because it is sold to a foreigner.d. The airplane sold to Amelia Earhart counts as consumption because it is sold to aprivate individual.e. The airplane built to be sold next year counts as investment. In particular, the airplaneis counted as inventory investment, which is where goods that are produced in one year and sold in another year are counted.5. Data on parts (a) to (f) can be downloaded from the Bureau of Economic Analysis. Go tothe Website, click on the interactive data tab at the top, select GDP, begin using the data, section 1, and then table 1.1.5. Choose the “modify the data” option to select the years you in which you are interested. By dividing each component (a) to (f) by nominal GDP and multiplying by 100, we obtain the following percentages:1950 1980 2014a. Personal consumption expenditures 64.0% 61.3% 68.5%b. Gross private domestic investment 18.8% 18.5% 16.4%c. Government consumption purchases 16.9% 20.6% 18.2%d. Net exports 0.2% –0.5% 3.1%e. National defense purchases 7.6% 6.3% 4.4%f. Imports 3.9% 10.3% 16.5%(Note: The above data was downloaded April 3, 2015, from the BEA Web site.)Among other things, we observe the following trends in the economy over the period 1950–2015:a. Personal consumption expenditures have been around two-thirds of GDP between1980 and 2015.b. The share of GDP going to gross private domestic investment remained fairly steady.c. The share going to government consumption purchases rose sharply from 1950 to1980.d. Net exports, which were positive in 1950, have been negative since that time.e. The share going to national defense purchases has fallen.f. Imports have grown rapidly relative to GDP.6. a. GDP measures the value of the final goods and services produced, or $1,000,000. b. NNP is equal to GNP minus depreciation. In this example, GDP is equal to GNP because there areno foreign transactions. Therefore, NNP is equal to $875,000.c. National income is equal to NNP, or $875,000.d. Employee compensation is equal to $600,000.e. Proprietors’ income measures the income of the owner, and is equal to 150,000.f. Corporate profit is equal to corporate taxes plus dividends plus retained earnings, or $275,000.Retained earnings is calculated as sales minus wages minus dividends minus depreciation minus corporate tax, or $75,000.g. Personal income is equal to employee compensation plus dividends, or $750,000. h. Disposable personal income is personal income minus taxes, or $550,000.7. a. i. Nominal GDP is the total value of goods and services measured at current prices. Therefore,Nominal GDP 2010 = P hotdogs 2010´Q hotdogs 2010()+P burgers 2010´Q burgers 2010()= ($2 ⨯ 200) + ($3 ⨯ 200)= $400 + $600= $1,000.Nominal GDP 2015 = P hotdogs 2015´Q hotdogs 2015()+P burgers 2015´Q burgers 2015()= ($4 ⨯ 250) + ($4 ⨯ 500)= $1,000 + $2,000= $3,000.ii. Real GDP is the total value of goods and services measured at constant prices.Therefore, to calculate real GDP in 2015 (with base year 2010), multiply thequantities purchased in the year 2015 by the 2010 prices:Real GDP 2015 = P 2010hotdogs ´Q 2015hotdogs ()+P 2010burgers ´Q 2015burgers ()= ($2 ⨯ 250) + ($3 ⨯ 500)= $500 + $1,500= $2,000.Real GDP for 2010 is calculated by multiplying the quantities in 2010 by the pricesin 2010. Since the base year is 2010, real GDP 2010 equals nominal GDP 2010, which is$10,00. Hence, real GDP increased between 2010 and 2015.iii. The implicit price deflator for GDP compares the current prices of all goods and services produced to the prices of the same goods and services in a base year. It is calculated as follows:Implicit Price Deflator2015= Nominal GDP2010Real GDP2010= 1Using the values for Nominal GDP2015 and real GDP2015 calculated above:Implicit Price Deflator2015 = $3,000$2,000= 1.50.This calculation reveals that prices of the goods produced in the year 2015 increased by 50 percent compared to the prices that the goods in the economy sold for in 2010. (Because 2010 is the base year, the value for the implicit price deflator for the year 2010 is 1.0 because nominal and real GDP are the same for the base year.)iv. The consumer price index (CPI) measures the level of prices in the economy. The CPI is called a fixed-weight index because it uses a fixed basket of goods over time to weight prices. If the base year is 2010, the CPI in 2015 is measuring the cost of the basket in 2015 relative to the cost in 2010. The CPI2015 is calculated as follows:CPI 2015= (P2015hotdogs´Q2010hotdogs) + (P2015burgers´Q2010burgers)(P2010hotdogs´Q2010hotdogs) + (P2010burgers´Q2010burgers)= $16,000,000 $10,000,000= 1.6.This calculation shows that the price of goods purchased in 2015 increased by 60 percent compared to the prices these goods would have sold for in 2010. The CPI for 2010, the base year, equals 1.0.b. The implicit price deflator is a Paasche index because it is computed with a changingbasket of goods; the CPI is a Laspeyres index because it is computed with a fixed basket of goods. From (7.a.iii), the implicit price deflator for the year 2015 is 1.50, which indicates that prices rose by 50 percent from what they were in the year 2010.From (7.a.iv.), the CPI for the year 2015 is 1.6, which indicates that prices rose by 60percent from what they were in the year 2010.If prices of all goods rose by, for example, 50 percent, then one could say unambiguously that the price level rose by 50 percent. Yet, in our example, relative prices have changed. The price of hot dogs rose by 1020 percent; the price of hamburgers rose by 33.33 percent, making hamburgers relatively less expensive.As the discrepancy between the CPI and the implicit price deflator illustrates, the change in the price level depends on how the goods’ prices are weighted. The CPI weights the price of goods by the quantities purchased in the year 2010. The implicit price deflator weights the price of goods by the quantities purchased in the year 2015.Since the quantity of the two goods was the same in 2010, the CPI is placing equal weight on the two price changes. In 2015, the quantity of hamburgers was twice as large as hot dogs, so there is twice as much weight placed on the hamburger price relative to the hot dog price. For this reason, the CPI shows a larger inflation rate –more weight is placed on the good with the larger price increase.8. a. The consumer price index uses the consumption bundle in year 1 to figure out howmuch weight to put on the price of a given good:CPI2=$2´10()+$1´0() $1´10()+$2´0()=P2red´Q1red()+P2green´Q1green()P1red´Q1red()+P1green´Q1green()= 2.According to the CPI, prices have doubled.b. Nominal spending is the total value of output produced in each year. In year 1 andyear 2, Abby buys 10 apples for $1 each, so her nominal spending remains constant at $10. For example,Nominal Spending2 = P2red ´Q2red()+P2green´Q2green()= ($2 ⨯ 0) + ($1 ⨯ 10)= $10.c. Real spending is the total value of output produced in each year valued at the pricesprevailing in year 1. In year 1, the base year, her real spending equals her nominal spending of $10. In year 2, she consumes 10 green apples that are each valued at their year 1 price of $2, so her real spending is $20. That is,Real Spending2= P1red ´Q2red()+P1green´Q2green()= ($1 ⨯ 0) + ($2 ⨯ 10)= $20.Hence, Abby’s real spending rises from $10 to $20.d. The implicit price deflator is calculated by dividing Abby’s nominal spending in year2 by her real spending that year:Implicit Price Deflator2= Nominal Spending2 Real Spending2= $10 $20= 0.5.Thus, the implicit price deflator suggests that prices have fallen by half. The reason for this is that the deflator estimates how much Abby values her apples using prices prevailing in year 1. From this perspective green apples appear very valuable. In year 2, when Abby consumes 10 green apples, it appears that her consumption has increased because the deflator values green apples more highly than red apples. The only way she could still be spending $10 on a higher consumption bundle is if the price of the good she was consuming fell.e. If Abby thinks of red apples and green apples as perfect substitutes, then the cost ofliving in this economy has not changed—in either year it costs $10 to consume 10 apples. According to the CPI, however, the cost of living has doubled. This is because the CPI only takes into account the fact that the red apple price has doubled; the CPI ignores the fall in the price of green apples because they were not in the consumption bundle in year 1. In contrast to the CPI, the implicit price deflator estimates the cost of living has been cut in half. Thus, the CPI, a Laspeyres index, overstates the increase in the cost of living and the deflator, a Paasche index, understates it.9. a. The labor force includes full time workers, part time workers, those who run their ownbusiness,and those who do not have a job but are looking for a job. The labor force consists of 70 people. The working age population consists of the labor force plus those not in the labor force. The 10 discouraged workers and the 10 retired people are not in the labor force, but assuming they are capable of working, they are part of the adult population. The adult population consists of 90 people, so the labor force participation rate is equal to 70/90 or 77.8 percent.b. The number of unemployed workers is equal to 10, so the unemployment rate is10/70 or 14.3 percent.c. The household survey estimates total employment by asking a sample of householdsabout their employment status. The household survey would report 60 people employed. The establishment survey estimates total employment by asking a sample of businesses to report how many workers they are employing. In this case the establishment survey would report 55 people employed. The 5 people with 2 jobs would be counted twice, and the 10 people who run their own business would not be counted.10. As Senator Robert Kennedy pointed out, GDP is an imperfect measure of economicperformance or well-being. In addition to the left-out items that Kennedy cited, GDP also ignores the imputed rent on durable goods such as cars, refrigerators, and lawnmowers;many services and products produced as part of household activity, such as cooking and cleaning; and the value of goods produced and sold in illegal activities, such as the drug trade. These imperfections in the measurement of GDP do not necessarily reduce its usefulness. As long as these measurement problems stay constant over time, then GDP is useful in comparing economic activity from year to year. Moreover, a large GDP allows us to afford better medical care for our children, newer books for their education, and more toys for their play. Finally, countries with higher levels of GDP tend to have higher levels of life expectancy, better access to clean water and sanitation, and higher levels of education. GDP is therefore a useful measure for comparing the level of growth and development across countries.11. a. Real GDP falls because Disney World does not produce any services while it is closed.This corresponds to a decrease in economic well-being because the income of workers and shareholders of Disney World falls (the income side of the national accounts), and people’s consumption of Disney World falls (the expenditure side of the national accounts).b. Real GDP rises because the original capital and labor in farm production now producemore wheat. This corresponds to an increase in the economic well-being of society, since people can now consume more wheat. (If people do not want to consume more wheat, then farmers and farmland can be shifted to producing other goods that society values.)c. Real GDP falls because with fewer workers on the job, firms produce less. Thisaccurately reflects a fall in economic well-being.d. Real GDP falls because the firms that lay off workers produce less. This decreaseseconomic well-being because workers’ incomes fall (the income side), and there are fewer goods for people to buy (the expenditure side).e. Real GDP is likely to fall, as firms shift toward production methods that produce fewergoods but emit less pollution. Economic well-being, however, may rise. The economynow produces less measured output but more clean air. Clean air is not traded in markets and, thus, does not show up in measured GDP, but is nevertheless a good that people value.f. Real GDP rises because the high school students go from an activity in which they arenot producing market goods and services to one in which they are. Economic well-being, however, may decrease. In ideal national accounts, attending school would show up as investment because it presumably increases the future productivity of the worker. Actual national accounts do not measure this type of investment. Note also that future GDP may be lower than it would be if the students stayed in school, since the future work force will be less educated.g. Measured real GDP falls because fathers spend less time producing market goodsand services. The actual production of goods and services need not have fallen because but unmeasured production of child-rearing services rises. The well-being of the average person may very well rise if we assume the fathers and the children enjoy the extra time they are spending together.Answers to Textbook Questions and ProblemsCHAPTER3 National Income: Where It Comes From and Where It GoesQuestions for Review1. The factors of production and the production technology determine the amount ofoutput an economy can produce. The factors of production are the inputs used to produce goods and services: the most important factors are capital and labor. The production technology determines how much output can be produced from any given amounts of these inputs. An increase in one of the factors of production or an improvement in technology leads to an increase in the economy’s output.2. When a firm decides how much of a factor of production to hire or demand, it considershow this decision affects profits. For example, hiring an extra unit of labor increases output and therefore increases revenue; the firm compares this additional revenue to the additional cost from the higher wage bill. The additional revenue the firm receives depends on the marginal product of labor (MPL) and the price of the good produced (P).An additional unit of labor produces MPL units of additional output, which sells for P dollars per unit. Therefore, the additional revenue to the firm is P ⨯MPL. The cost of hiring the additional unit of labor is the wage W. Thus, this hiring decision has the following effect on profits:ΔProfit= ΔRevenue –ΔCost= (P ⨯MPL) –W.If the additional revenue, P ⨯MPL, exceeds the cost (W) of hiring the additional unit of labor, then profit increases. The firm will hire labor until it is no longer profitable to do so—that is, until the MPL falls to the point where the change in profit is zero. In the equation abov e, the firm hires labor until ΔP rofit = 0, which is when (P ⨯MPL) = W.This condition can be rewritten as:MPL = W/P.Therefore, a competitive profit-maximizing firm hires labor until the marginal product of labor equals the real wage. The same logic applies to the firm’s decision regarding how much capital to hire: the firm will hire capital until the marginal product of capital equals the real rental price.3. A production function has constant returns to scale if an equal percentage increase in allfactors of production causes an increase in output of the same percentage. For example, if a firm increases its use of capital and labor by 50 percent, and output increases by 50 percent, then the production function has constant returns to scale.If the production function has constant returns to scale, then total income (or equivalently, total output) in an economy of competitive profit-maximizing firms is divided between the return to labor, MPL ⨯L, and the return to capital, MPK ⨯K. That is, under constant returns to scale, economic profit is zero.4. A Cobb–Douglas production function has the form F(K,L) = AKαL1–α. The text showed thatthe parameter αgives capital’s share of income. So if capital earns one-fourth of total income, then α= 0.25. Hence, F(K,L) = AK0.25L0.75.5. Consumption depends positively on disposable income—i.e. the amount of income afterall taxes have been paid. Higher disposable income means higher consumption.The quantity of investment goods demanded depends negatively on the real interest rate. For an investment to be profitable, its return must be greater than its cost. Because the real interest rate measures the cost of funds, a higher real interest rate makes it more costly to invest, so the demand for investment goods falls.6. Government purchases are a measure of the value of goods and services purchaseddirectly by the government. For example, the government buys missiles and tanks, builds roads, and provides services such as air traffic control. All of these activities are part of GDP. Transfer payments are government payments to individuals that are not in exchange for goods or services. They are the opposite of taxes: taxes reduce household disposable income, whereas transfer payments increase it. Examples of transfer payments include Social Security payments to the elderly, unemployment insurance, and veterans’ benefits.7. Consumption, investment, and government purchases determine demand for theeconomy’s output, whereas the factors of production and the production function determine the supply of output. The real interest rate adjusts to ensure that the demand for the econo my’s goods equals the supply. At the equilibrium interest rate, the demand。
曼昆宏观经济学-课后答案-中文版
人的支付。转移支付是减少家庭可支配收入的税收的对立面，它增加家庭的可支配收入。例如对
老年人的社会保障支付、失业包厢以及退伍军人津贴，它不包括在GDP中。一
6、消费、投资、Βιβλιοθήκη 府购买决定经济产出的需求，而生产要素与生产函数袂定经济产出的供求。
济活动不完善的衡量。一旦男管家的工作成为他家务劳动的一部分，他的劳务就不再计入GDP。
这例子说明，GDP不包括任何在家里产出的价值。同样，GDP也不包括耐用品（汽车以及电冰箱
等）的估算租金和非法贸易等物品或劳务。一
_I、政府采购、投资、净出口、消费、投资一
6、(1)2000年名义GDP-10000000，2010年名义GDP-15200000，2010年实际GDP-IOOOOOOO
因此，一个竞争性的利润最大化的企业雇佣的劳动要到劳动边际产量等于实际工资时为
止。同样逻辑，企业租用的资本要到资本边际产量等于实际租赁价格为止。+-
3、如果所有生产要素增加相同百分比引起产出增加同样的百分比，生产要素有规模报酬不
变。比如，如果企业把资本和劳动都增加50%，产量也增加5 00.'0．那生产函数是规模报酬不
(5)当企业转变为少生产少排放污染的生产方法时，实际GDP可能下降。然而，经济檑利增加。
现在经济中可衡量的产出更少而清洁空气更多，清洁空气在市场上不可交易，因此无法显示可衡
量的GDP上升，但它是对人们有价值的物品一
(6)由于高中生从事不创造市场的物品与劳务的活动到可创造市场的物品与劳务活动，实际GDP
清模型无用。首先偷格并不总是呆滞的，最终价格要根据供求的变动而调整。市场出清模型
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第一章宏观经济学的课后答案复习题1、由于整个经济的事件产生于许多家庭与许多企业的相互作用，所以微观经济学和宏观经济学必然是相互关联的。
当我们研究整个经济时，我们必须考虑个别经济行为者的决策。
由于总量只是描述许多个别决策的变量的总和，所以宏观经济理论必然依靠微观经济基础。
2、经济学家是用模型来解释世界，但一个经济学家的模型往往是由符号和方程式构成。
经济学家建立模型有助于解释GDP、通货膨胀和失业这类经济变量。
这些模型之所以有用是因为它们有助于我们略去无关的细节而更加明确地集中于重要的联系上。
模型有两种变量：内生变量和外生变量，一个模型的目的是说明外生变量如何影响内生变量。
3、经济学家通常假设，一种物品或劳务的价格迅速变动使得供给量与需求量平衡，即市场走向供求均衡。
这种假设称为市场出清。
在回答大多数问题时，经济学家用市场出清模型。
持续市场出清的假设并不完全现实。
市场要持续出清，价格就必须对供求变动作出迅速调整。
但是，实际上许多工资和价格调整缓慢。
虽然市场出清模型假设所有工资和价格都是有伸缩性的，但在现实世界中一些工资和价格是粘性的。
明显的价格粘性并不一定使市场出清模型无用。
首先偷格并不总是呆滞的，最终价格要根据供求的变动而调整。
市场出清模型并不能描述每一种情况下的经济，但描述了经济缓慢地趋近了均衡。
价格的伸缩性对研究我们在几十年中所观察到的实际GDP增长这类长期问题是一个好的假设。
第二章宏观经济学数据复习题1、GDP既衡量经济中所有人的收入，又衡量对经济物品与劳务的总支出。
GDP能同时衡量这两件事，是因为这两个量实际上是相同的：对整个经济来说，收入必定等于支出。
这个事实又来自于一个更有基本的事实：由于每一次交易都有一个买者和一个卖者，所以，一个买者支出的每一美元必然成为一个卖者的一美元收入。
2、CPI衡量经济中物价总水平。
它表示相对于某个基年一篮子物品与劳务价格的同样一篮子物品与劳务的现期价格。
3、劳工统计局把经济中每个人分为三种类型：就业、失业以及不属于劳动力。
一失业率是失业者在劳动力中所占的百分比，其中劳动力为就业者和失业者之和。
一-I、奥肯定理是指失业与实际GDP之间的这种负相关关系。
就业工人有助于生产物品与劳务，而失业工人并非如此。
失业率提高必定与实际GDP的减少相关。
舆肯定理可以概括为等式：实际GDP变动百分比-3%-2×失业率的变动，印如果失业率保持不变，实际GDP增长3%左右。
这种正常的增长率是由于人口增长、资本积累和技术进步引起的。
失业率每上升一个百分比，实际GDP一般减少2个百分比。
一问题和应用一1、大量经济统计数字定期公布，包括GDP、失业率、公司收益、消费者物价指数及贸易结余。
GDP是一年内所有最终产品与劳务的市场价值。
失业率是要工作的人中没有工作的人的比例。
公司利润是所有制造企业税后会计利润，它暗示公司一般的财务健康情况。
消费者物价指数是衡量消费者购买的物品的平均价格，它是通货膨胀的衡量指标。
贸易结余是出口物品与进口物品之间的价差。
一2、每个人的增值是生产的物品的价值减去生产该物品所需的原材料的价值。
因此，农夫增值是1美元，面粉厂的增值是2美元，面包店的增值是3美元。
GDP就是总的增值，即为6 美元，它正好等于最终物品的价值。
一3、妇女与她的男管家结婚，GDP减少量等于男管家的工资。
这是由于GDP是衡量经济中所有人的收入，此时男管家没有工资收入。
如果GDP是真正衡量所有物品与劳务的价值，既然经济活动总量不变，那结婚是不会影响GDP的。
但是，由于有些物品及劳务的价值没忽略，实际GDP 是经济活动不完善的衡量。
一旦男管家的工作成为他家务劳动的一部分，他的劳务就不再计入GDP。
这例子说明，GDP不包括任何在家里产出的价值。
同样，GDP也不包括耐用品（汽车以及电冰箱等）的估算租金和非法贸易等物品或劳务。
一_I、政府采购、投资、净出口、消费、投资一6、(1)2000年名义GDP-10000000，2010年名义GDP-15200000，2010年实际GDP-IOOOOOOO 2010年GDP隐含的价格平减指数-1. 52，2010年(’PI-1.6一(2)隐含的价格平减指数是帕氏指数，因为它是用一篮子可变物品计算的。
CPI是拉斯派尔指数，因为它是用一篮子固定物品计算的。
由(1)中计算得2010年隐含的价格平减指数是1.52，它表示物价从2000年到2010年上涨了5)0，o；而（1PI是1.6，它表示物价从2000年到2010年上涨了600.o。
假设所有物品价格都上涨50%，毫无疑问物价水平应该上涨500，o，一然而例子中相对物价发生变化。
汽车价格上涨20%，面包价格上涨1000/o。
（’PI和隐含的价格平减指数的差异说明，物价水平变动依赖于如何加权物品价格。
（’PI是用2000年购买数量加权物品价格，隐含的价格平减指数用2010年购买数量加权物品价格。
一2000年消费的面包数量多于201 0年，CPI对面包加高其权重。
由于面包价格上涨幅度高于汽车，CPI就显示出物价水平较高的上涨。
一(3)这问题没有清晰的答案。
理想的是，能有一个准确衡量生活成本的物价水平的指标。
当一种物品价格相对较昂贵时，人们会少买该种物品而多买其它物品。
例子中，消费者少买面包多买汽车．固定权重的指数，比如CPI，会高估生活成本的变化，因为它没有考虑人们可以用不太昂贵的物品替代较为昂贵的物品。
．另一方面，可变权重的指数，比如GDP平减指数，会低估生活成本的变化，因为它没有考虑这种替代可能引起的人们经济福利的减少一7、(1)第二年(’PI-2一(2)第一年名义支出为10美元，第二年名义支出为20美元√(3)第一年实际支出为10美元，第二年实际支出为20美元一(4)隐含的物价平减指数为05一(5)假设阿贝认为红苹果和绿苹果完全玎替代，那实际的生活费用不变：每年都花1 0美元消费1 0个苹果。
但是，根据CPI，生活费用加倍。
这是因为CPI仅考虑红苹果价格加倍，忽略绿苹果价格下降，因为它们不在第一年的消费篮子里。
与CPI相反，隐含的物价平减指数估算生活费用减半。
因为CPI，拉斯派尔指数，高估生活费用的增加，而平减指数，帕氏指数，低估生活费用的增加+．8、(1)由于迪斯尼停业没有提供任何劳务，实际GDP下降。
经济福利会相应的减少，是因为迪斯尼股东和工人的收入减少（国民核算收入方面）以及人们对迪斯尼消费的下降（国民核算支出方面）一(2)由于农场中原有的资本和劳动力现在生产出更多的小麦，实际GDP上升。
社会的经济福利相应的增加，是因为现在人们可以消费更多的小麦（如果人们不想消费更多的小麦，农夫和农田可以转而生产其他对社会有价值的物品）一(3)由于在岗工人减少，公司生产下降，实际GDP下降。
这确切的反应经济福利的减少。
一(4)解雇工人的企业生产下降，实际GDP下降。
鏖降低经济福利，因为工人收入减少（收入方面）以及人们要购买的产品变少（支出方面）一(5)当企业转变为少生产少排放污染的生产方法时，实际GDP可能下降。
然而，经济檑利增加。
现在经济中可衡量的产出更少而清洁空气更多，清洁空气在市场上不可交易，因此无法显示可衡量的GDP上升，但它是对人们有价值的物品一(6)由于高中生从事不创造市场的物品与劳务的活动到可创造市场的物品与劳务活动，实际GDP上升。
但是，经济福利可能下降。
在理想的国民核算中，上学作为投资的增加，因为它可能提高工人未来的生产率。
实际国民核算没有衡量此类投资。
同时，如果学生上学，未来的GDP 可能会低于实际的，因为未来劳动力受到教育更少。
一(7)由于父亲生产市场的物品与劳务更少，可衡量的实际GDP下降。
但是，实际产品与劳务的产出没有下降。
可衡量的产品（父亲有酬劳动）下降，而不可衡量的抚养小孩的劳务上升。
一9、正如议员罗伯特指出的，GDP是经济成果和福利不完善的衡量。
同时他忽略了：GDP没有考虑耐用物品的估算租金，比如汽车、冰箱、剪草机；许多家务活动中的产品与劳务，比如烹饪、清洁；非法活动生产和销售的产品的价值，比如毒品交易。
GDP衡量中的不完善j陡丕会降低其有用性。
只有这些衡量不完善性的大小一直保持大体不变，GDP比较不同年份的经济活动是有用的。
同时，巨额GDP允许我们为孩子提供更好的医疗保健、他们敦育所需的新书以及更多的玩具。
一第三章长期中的经济一复习题一1、生产要素和生产技术决定一个经济生产的产出。
生产要素是用于生产物品与劳务的投入。
最重要的生产要素是资本和劳动。
生产技术是用既定的资本和劳动量可以生产多少产由。
任一个生产要素增加或生产技术的进步都会增加经济产出。
+-2、一个企业决定所需生产要素的数量时，它考虑壤决策如何影响利润。
比如，多雇佣一单位劳动增加生产以及利澜，企业要比较额外收益和支付更多工资的额外成本进行比较。
企业获得的额外收益取决于劳动的边际产量(MpL)和产品的价格(P)。
额外的一单位劳动生产了MPL单位的产品，每单位的产品以p价格出售，所以额外的收益是px MPL。
多雇佣一单位劳动的额外成本是是工资W。
多雇佣一单位劳动的利润变动：△利润=△收益一△成本=(p×MPL) -W。
如果额外的收益px MPL大于工资W，额外的一单位劳动会增加利润。
企业会一直雇佣劳动，直到下一单位劳动不再有利为止，即直到MPL减少到使额外收益为零时。
+-在上述等式，△利润=o时，P×MPL-W，也可以写成W/P=MPL。
一因此，一个竞争性的利润最大化的企业雇佣的劳动要到劳动边际产量等于实际工资时为止。
同样逻辑，企业租用的资本要到资本边际产量等于实际租赁价格为止。
+-3、如果所有生产要素增加相同百分比引起产出增加同样的百分比，生产要素有规模报酬不变。
比如，如果企业把资本和劳动都增加50%，产量也增加5 00.'0．那生产函数是规模报酬不变。
如果生产函数是规模报酬不变，经济中竞争性的利润最大化的企业的总收入（等同总产出）分为劳动报酬（MPLx L）和资本报酬(MPKxK)：F(I<，L)=(MPK×K) - (MPL×L)。
+ 如果向每种要素支付其边际产量，那这些要素支付的总和等于总产出。
换言之，规模收益不变，利润最大化，以及竞争性共同意味着经济利润为零。
一-I、消费水平直接取决于可支配收入水平：支付了所有税收之后的收入。
可支配收入越高，消费也越多。
投资品需求量与实际利率负相关。
为了使一个投资项目有利，投资收益必须大于其成本。
因为实际利率衡量为投资筹借资金的成本，实际利率上升使投资的成本更高，因此投资品需求量就减少。
一5、政府购买是政府直接购买的物品与劳务。
例如，政府购买枪支、导弹、修路以及提供类似空中交通管制的劳务。