chapter 9 Language and Culture
文化的重叠与扩散 overlap and diffusion
Chapter 9 Language and Culture
Hierarchical diffusion
(等级扩散)
如伊斯兰教和阿拉伯文化在 7世纪 以来从其源地阿拉伯半岛扩大到埃及、 北非和中东，后来甚至到中亚、印度以 及东南亚，扩大了伊斯兰教和阿拉伯文 化的分布范围。
Contagious diffusion
Effect 2
nguistic nationalism
①France has made special efforts to protect the
purity of their language avoid being corrupted by other languages especially American English (Twice legislation in 1975 and 1994 )
7
ultural Overlap And Diffusion
Cultural Overlap And Diffusion
Cultural Overlap And Diffusio
A NEW CONCISE COURSE ON LINGUISTICS FOR STUDENTS OF ENGLISH
Chapter 9 Language and Culture
4
ultural Overlap And Diffusion
Cultural Overlap And Diffusion
Cultural Overlap And Diffusio
A NEW CONCISE COURSE ON LINGUISTICS FOR STUDENTS OF ENGLISH
Types of cultural diffusion
语言学09--Chapter 9 Language and Literature.ppt
Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism.
7
In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language.
14
In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a
translation of the Czech aktualisace
(actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.
12
The red-haired woman, smiling, waving to the disappearing shore. She left the maharajah; she left innumerable other lights o’ passing love in towns and cities and theatres and railway stations all over the world. But Melchior she did not leave.
语言学
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
• Franz Boas (1858-1942), • Edward Sapir (1884-1939), • and his pupil Benjamin Lee Whorf (18971941) • The claim that the structure of a language influences how its speakers view the world is usually referred to as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis or the Whorfian hypothesis.
• 2. Components
• a. material • b. spiritual
Material and spiritual culture
• a. material (the concrete, substantial and tangible things), such as cars, buildings, dishes, etc. • b. spiritual (mostly the intangible element), such as customs, values, beliefs, institutions, knowledge, language, etc. • Only a small part of spiritual culture is tangible, i.e. the products of the mind--works of philosophy, history and literature, for example.
Conclusion: The relationship between language and culture
language--Culture--and-Translating(1)
Style is not the frosting on the cake, but an integral part of the process of interlingual communication. It must be built into the text right from the beginning. It is usually better to aim first at a stylistically satisfactory rendering of the source text and then review it carefully to “tighten it up” by analyzing and testing the correspondences. A few errors in the correspondences of lexical meaning are much more excusable than missing the spirit and aesthetic character of the source text.
(完整word版)语言学教(胡壮麟版)英文目录
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1why Study Language1.2what Is Language1.3 Design Features Language1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 Creativity1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of Language1.5functions of Language1.5.1 Informantive1.5.2 Interpersonal Function1.5.3 Performative1.5. 4 Emotive Function1.5.5 Phatic Communion1.5.6 Recreational Function1.5.7 Metalingual Function1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics1.7.2 Phonology1.7.3 Morphology1.7.4 Syntax1.7.5 Semantics1.7.6 Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.9 Important Distinction in Linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive Vs. Prescriptive1.9.2 Synchronic Vs. Diachronic1.9.3 Langue & Parole1.9.4 Competence and PerformanceChapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech Organs2.1.2 The IPA2.2 consonants and Vowels2.2.1 Consonants2.2.2 V owels2.2.3 The Sounds of English2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription2.3.2 Phonemes2.3.3 Allophones2.4 Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features2.4.1 Assimilation2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering, and the Elsewhere Condition2.4.3 Distinctive Features2.5 Suprasegmentals2.5.1 The Syllable Structure2.5.2 Stress2.5.3 Intonation2.5.4 ToneChapter 3 From Morpheme To Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology3.1.2 Types of Morphemes3.1.3 Morphological Change and Allomorph 3.2 What Is Word?3.2.1Word and Lexical Items3.2.2 Classification of Words3.3 Word Formation (1): From Morpheme to Word3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation3.3.2The Derivational Way of Formation 3.4 Word Formation (2): Lexical Change3.5 Word Group and PhraseChapter 4 From Word To Text4.1 Syntactic Relation4.1.1The Positional Relation4.1.2Relation of Substitubility4.1.3Relation of Co-Occurrence4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction4.2.1 Immediate Constituents4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination4.3 Syntactic Function4.3.1Subject4.3.2Predicate4.3.3Object4.3.4The Relation between Classes and Functions 4.4 Category4.4.1 Number4.4.2 Gender4.4.3 Case4.4.4 Agreement4.5 Phrase,clause,sentence4.5.1 Phrase4.5.2 Clasue4.5.3 Sentence4.6 Recursiveness4.6.1Conjoining4.6.2 Embedding4.7 Beyond the Sentence4.7.1 Sentential Connection4.7.2 CohesionChapter5 meaning5.1 Meanings of MEANING5.2 The Referential Theory5.3 Sense Relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential Analysis5.5 Sentence Meaning5.5.1 An Integrated Theory5.5.2 Logical SemanticsChapter 6 Language and Cognition6.1 What Is Cognition?6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics?6.2.1 Language Acquisition6.2.2 Language Comprehension6.2.3 Language Production6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics?6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations6.3.2 Categorization6.3.3 Image Schemas6.3.4 Metaphor6.3.5 Metonymy6.3.6 Blending TheoryChapter 7 Language, Culture and Society7.1 Language and Culture7.1. 1How Does Language Relate To Culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis7.1.3 Case Studies7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom7.2 Language and Society7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective7.2.3 What Should We Know About Sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get From Sociolinguistics?7.3 Cross-Culture Communication7.3.1 What Should We Know All About Cross-Culture Communication?7.3.2 Case Studies7.4 SummaryThe Chapter 8 Language in Use8.1 Speech Act Theory8.1.2 Performatives and Constatives8.1.3 A Theory of Illocutionary Act 8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 8.3 Post-Gricean Development8.3.1 Relevance Theory8.3.2 The Q- And R-Principles8.3.3 The Q-, I- And M-Principles9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language9.2.1 Foregrounding and Grammatical Form9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 9.3 The Language in Poetry9.3.1 Sound Patterning9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning9.3.4 Conversational Forms of Metre and Sound9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry9.4 The Language in Fiction9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point Of View9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation9.4.3 Prose Style9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction 9.5 The Language in Drama9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts?9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature9.6.1 Theoretical Background9.6.2An Example of Cognitive Analysis10.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs CALL10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development10.1.3 Technology10.2 Machine Translation10.2.1 History of Development10.2.2 Research Methods10.2.3 MT Quality10.2.4 MT and the Internet10.2.5 Speech Translation10.2.6 MT and Human Translation10.3 Corpus Linguistics10.3.1 Definition10.3.2 Criticism and Revival of Corpus Linguistics10.3.3 Concordance10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation10.3.5 The Roles and Corpus Data10.4 Computer Mediated Communication10.4.1 Mail and News10.4. 2 PowerPoint10.4.3 Blog10.4.4 Chatroom10.4.5 Emoticons and SmileysChapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning11.2.3 Input and Language Learning11.2.4 Interlinguage in Language Learning11.3linguistics and Language Teaching11.3.1 The Discourse-Based View of Language Teaching11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms: Syllabus and Curriculum11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design11.4.3 Types of Syllabus11.4.4 Components of Syllabus11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)11.5.2 Error Analysis (EA)11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching11.6.1Types of Corpora11.6.2What Uses Can We Make Of Corpora?11.7 SummaryChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction12.1the Plague School12.1.1 Introduction12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 12.2 The London School12.2.1 Malinowski’s Theory12.2.2 Firth’s Theory12.2.3 Holliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 12.3 American Structuralism12.3.1 Early Period: Boas and Sapir12.3.2 Bloomfield’s Theory12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis12.4.2 What Is Generative Grammar12.4.3 The Classical Theory12.4.4 The Standard Theory12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory12.4.6 The Government and Binding Theory12.4.7 The Minimalist Theory And After12.4.8 Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution12.5 Revisionist or Rebels12.5.1 Case Grammar12.5.2 Generative Semantics。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章
Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。
）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。
格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。
他把这种机制称作合作原则。
2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。
②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。
质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。
①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。
语言学重点章节介绍
语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。
错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。
因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。
unit 9 Language and Culture
• The relationship between language and culture • What we say influences what we think, what we feel and what we believe. Humans learn their culture through language; culture is transmitted through language. • Language use is heavily tinted with its culture. The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background, e.g. the word “dog”. • Language embodies cultural identity. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc. • The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically. • Culture also affects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.
• Features of culture: • 1. culture is socially acquired instead of biologically transmitted. • 2. Culture is shared among the members of a community instead of being unique to an individual. • 3. Culture is symbolic. Symbolizing means assigning to entities and events meanings which are external to them and not able to be grasped by themselves alone. Language is the most typical symbolic within culture. • 4. Culture is integrated. Each aspect of culture is tied in with the other aspects. • In other words, culture is composed of the following systems: techno-economic system, social system, ideational system and linguistic system.
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Chapter 9 Language and CultureIntroduction语言和文化之间有密切的联系，这是一条不证自明的公理。
如果我们简要回顾一下过去一个世纪中语言学领域发生的事情，就可以找到更多的证据支持这个观点。
必须承认，18世纪初以来，对语言的探究从本质上说要么是历史比较的，要么是结构形式化的；然而，一些新的变化在20世纪开始的时候出现了。
无论是在英国还是在北美，语言研究都开始了人类学转向这种新传统的特征就是将语言研究置于社会文化的语境之中。
在英国，马林诺夫斯基和弗斯是这一运动的先驱，而在与之平行却有着独立传统的北美，鲍阿斯，萨丕尔和沃尔夫自然是其代表。
由于他们的创新和不懈努力，在语言和文化关系的研究领域中，许多重要而有创造性的工作得以完成。
尤为重要的是，这些研究建立了一种范式。
在此后多年中，这一学科范式引发了对这个问题的各种研究。
早在20世纪20年代，一个人类语言学学派在英国产生。
人类学家马林诺夫斯基在新几内亚东岸的Trobriand岛进行田野调查时，观察到这这种原始文化中，一个词的意义在很大程度上依赖于它所出现的语境，或者说依赖于生活中真实的语言环境。
比如wood一词，在本地文化中，它既有英语中相当的用法，即指树的坚固的物质成分，也可以更具体地指独木舟。
独木舟是这些岛屿居民的一种重要交通工具，在这个言语社会的日常生活中具有十分重要的功用。
然而这个词的第二种释义有着极强的环境色彩和文化意味，对一个来自不同文化环境的外来者而言，可能不那么容易掌握。
文化在语言研究中占什么地位？从20世纪70年代初开始，随着向水门(Watergate)事件这样的政治丑闻不断被揭露，一连串的衍生词语涌进了英语。
如―Billygate (比利门)‖，―Cattlegate (牲畜门)‖都是这样的复合形式。
在这种情形下人们感到在―(gate)‖构成的组合形式和衍生形式进行社会语言学研究时，有必要考察这些新词涉及的语义，结构以及功能的发展情况，同时在进行构词研究时需要更多了解这些相关因素之间的相互关系。
在对这一现象进行仔细研究后人们发现1): 美国英语中，这个词缀有丰富的能产性；2): 源于此的衍生词不可避免地暗含文化上的贬损意义，即指―被揭发出来的高层丑闻‖，它们也就成了各种类型丑闻事件的同义词，不管是政治的还是金钱的；3): 在这种复合形式能产性的研究中国，各种衍生形式(即换称法，功能转换法，词缀附加法)可以得到解释。
基于这些发现，我们可以得到一些假设性的结论：1 Watergate 作为一个指称任何高层政治丑闻的隐喻贬义词将在英语中存在相当长一段时间。
2 它在造词过程中不断产生新的衍生形式，导致其结构在语言中的地位变得十分稳固。
3 它的隐喻意义将和该词一起存在相当长一段时间。
实际上，这种组合形式变得如此广泛，以致有些以-gate 结尾的词已经走出了美国社会，在其他文化中也用来指称政治丑闻。
如：艳照门；杨幂门；车震门What is culture?The total set of beliefs, attitudes, customs, behavior, social habits, etc. of the members of a particular society. (Longman: 117)Broad sense: integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that is both a result of and integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations. Culture thus consists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, coded, institutions,tools, techniques, and works of art, rituals, ceremonies, symbols, etc. Culture reflects a total way of life of a people in a community.Narrow sense: local or specific practice, beliefs or customs which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture.英国文化人类学家爱德华·泰勒，在其1871年出版的《原始文化》一书中，首次把文化作为一个中心概念提出来，并且将它的涵义系统地表述为：―文化是一种复杂体，它包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗以及其余社会上习得的能力与习惯。
‖后来，美国一些社会学家，文化人类学家把泰勒的定义修正为：―文化是复杂体，包括实物、知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗以及其余社会上习得的能力与习惯。
‖由此看来，文化的辐射范围包罗万象，凡人类所创造的一切经验、感知、知识、科学、技术理论以及财产制度、教育、语言等都属于文化现象；大则宇宙观、时空观、人生观、价值观；小则衣食住行、婚丧嫁娶、一切社会的生活方式、行为方式、思维方式、语言方式、等级观念、道德规范等等，都属于文化的范畴。
概括地讲，文化即人们所思、所言（言语和非言语）、所为、所觉的总和。
在不同的生态或自然环境下，不同的民族创造了自己特有的文化，也被自己的文化所塑造。
我们可以把文化的特性概括为：1 文化由人类进化过程中衍生出来或创造出来的。
自然存在物不是文化，只有经过人类有意或无意加工创造出来的东西才是文化。
2 文化是后天习得的。
3 文化是共有的。
文化史人类共同创造的社会性产物，而不是个人私有的东西。
4 文化史一个连续不断地动态过程。
5 文化具有特定的民族性和阶级性。
文化的要素：1 精神要素，即精神文化。
主要指哲学和其他具体科学、宗教、艺术、伦理道德以及价值观念等，其中尤以价值观念最为重要，是文化的核心。
2 语言和符号。
两者是文化沉淀和贮存的手段。
人类只有通过语言和符号才能沟通。
只有沟通和互动才能创造文化。
3 规范体系。
4 社会关系和社会组织。
5 物质产品。
T ypes of Culture♦Material Culture: concrete, substantial and observable.♦Spiritual Culture: abstract, ambiguous, and hidden. (e.g. ideologies, beliefs, values and concepts of time and space, etc.)Culture, especially material culture is reproduced and preserved through the maintaining of beliefs, traditions, education and other institutional mechanisms, meanwhile, it changes slowly with the development of the society.The relationship between language and culture♦Language use is heavily tinted with its culture. Same word stir up different association.E.g. dog♦Language expresses cultural reality and embodies cultural identity.♦Culture affects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.♦Culture is a wider system that completely includes language as a subsystem.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) , American linguist and anthropologist noted for his studies of Native American languages and his theories on the ways in which language shapes our perceptions.The structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave. (Linguistic relativity 语言相对论)其主要原理是人们的思维方法在一定程度上取决于语言使人们能够最方便地进行思维的方式，结果是不同的语言形成不同的观察世界的方法。
它否定那种认为全人类都生活在具有相同事物的同一世界中，因而不同的语言只是给相同事物提供不同名称的观点。
美人类学家沃尔夫拿美洲印第安民族霍皮人（Hopi）和―标准的普通欧洲人‖做例子，说霍皮人的语言是他们的世界观的部分起因，而欧洲人的是亚里士多德逻辑学形成的，亚里士多德逻辑学又是在古希腊语和拉丁语的语言结构中孕育出来的。
Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic RelativityDifferent languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently.♦Strong Version: the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior.♦Weak Version: the language patterns influence people’s thinking and behavior.♦语言相对论：语言现象属于背景现象，说话的人对此浑然不觉，至多有一点十分模糊的意识。