语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版word版本
胡壮麟语言学第四章概念
Chapter 4Syntactic relationsSyntactic relations refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences.Relation of substitutability refers to word classes (相同词类）or sets of words（相同词汇集合）substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.By the relation of co-occurrence one means that words of different sets of classes may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence.Syntactic construction⏹Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for everylinguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Several constituents together form a construction.⏹Construction refers to any linguistic form which is composed ofconstituents and is able to be segmented.In other words, a construction is a relationship between constituents.●Immediate constituent analysis may be defined as: the analysis of asentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups, whichare in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. For example,The boy ate the apple. (A)the boy (B) +ate the apple (C)( the + boy ) ( ate + the + apple)In this case, B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A. The two constituents the boy (B) and ate the apple (C) can also be split into further constituents (e.g. the + boy). This process can be continued until we are left with just individual words. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called Immediate Constituent Analysis or IC analysis (直接成分分析）.The criterion used in IC analysisThe criterion used in IC analysis is substitutability: Whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a singular word and the structure remains the same.Advantage of IC analysisThrough IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may bedemonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.Endocentric and exocentric constructions(向心结构和离心结构）●Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionallyequivalent to that of one of its constituents, which serves as the head of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a head construction (有主词的结构）.●Exocentric construction is just the opposite of endocentricconstruction. It refers to a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents.There is no noticeable “Head” in it.The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements，etc.A simple sentence is a group of words which expresses a single independent thought. It consists of a single independent clause which contains a subject and a predicate. The single clause stands alone as a sentence.A compound sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more connected and coordinate thoughts. It contains two clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction such as and, but, or.A complex sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more unified thoughts, one of which is the main thought dependent on it one or more subordinate thoughts. It contains two or more clauses. One of the clauses is incorporated (包含）into the otherWhy does a sentence have both a linear and hierarchical structure? Sentences are formed by following a set of syntactic rules. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Therefore the structure of a sentence is first linear. However, the superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are only linearly structured. In fact, sentences are made up of layers of word groups, which are in turn made up of words. This determines that sentences are also hierarchically structured.。
语言学重要知识点(胡壮麟版)
Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design featureswhich can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.eg.the dog barks wowwow in english but 汪汪汪in chinese.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.eg.dog-woof(but not w-oo-f)Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Eg. An experiment of bee communication.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Origin of language The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.4.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.5. Main branches of linguistics✧Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acousticphonetics, and auditory phonetics.✧Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and theshape of syllables.✧Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.✧Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply,the study of the formation of sentences.✧Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is concerned with both meanings of wordsas lexical items and levels of language below the word and above it.✧Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It concerned with the way language is used to communicaterather than with the way language is structured.6.Important distinctions in linguistics1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Lyons2)Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study.3)Langue & parole langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). Saussure4)Competence and performance According to Chomsky,a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence7.consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, orcompletely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. Vowel:are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. [p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant[f v]labiodental fricative[ ]dental fricative[t d]alveolar stop[k g]velar stop[w]velar approximant8. Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units. Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.9.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.10. Assimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.11. Classification of wordsa)Variable and invariable words E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer tothose words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc.b)grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles andpronouns. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.c)Closed-class words and open-class words pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.d)4.Word class particles助词auxiliaries助动词pro-form代词形式determiners限定词13.morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morpheme is a branch of morphology.Types of morphemesa)Free morpheme and bound morpheme Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitutewords by themselves, are free morphemes.eg.dog,nation,free.Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes. Eg.dogs,national,disclose.b)Root, affix and stem A root is the base form of a word that cannot further beanalyzed.eg.internationalism,the root is nation. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.friend in friendsc)Inflectional affix and derivational affix The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivationalaffixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. pounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc. Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes.un＋conscious→unconscious15. Lexical change propera)Invention Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexicalitems come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.eg.coke,kodak,nylonb)Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining theinitial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.eg.smoke+fog→smog,breakfast+lunch→bru nchc)Abbreviation / clipping A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cuttingboth the initial parts of the original words.eg.bicyle→bike,aeroplane→plane,influenza→flud)Acronym Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavilymodified headword.WTO world trade organizatione)Back-formation Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word isderived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language. editor→edit gangling→ganglef)Analogical creation The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms,regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.work→wrought→workedg)Borrowing English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words fromother languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.feast was borrowed directly from the middle french festa16.constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit,which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Immediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence or a word group or a word.Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.17.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents. Eg.the boy smiled.(neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole)18.Meanings of “meaning”Meaning: Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.Connotation: The additional meaning that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaning.Denotation: That part of the meanings of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible word.Different types of meaning (Recognized by Leech, 1974)(1)Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, or denotative content.(2)Associative meaning a.Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. b.Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use. c.Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker / writer.d.Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.e.Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.(3) Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.19.The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impressio n of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.20..The referential theoryThe referential theory: The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.The semantic triangle theory Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the followin g diagram, in which the “symbol” refers to the linguist elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent” refers to the object in the world of experience, and the “thought” or “reference” refers to concept or notion. Thus the symbol of a word signifies “things” by virtue of the “concept,” associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The concept thus considered is the meaning of the word. The connection (represented with a dotted line) between symbol and referent is made pos sible only through “concept.”21. Sense relations sense: the semantic relations between one world and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another.(1)Synonymy:is the technical name for the sameness relation.eg.buy and purchase Antonymy:is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy.Gradable antonymy e.g. good / bad, long / short, big / small, plementary antonymy , e.g. alive / dead, hit / miss, male / female, boy / girl, etc.Converse antonymy e.g. buy / sell, parent / child, above / below, etc.Hyponymy.It is a matter of class membership. e.g. under flower, there are peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc., peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc. are co-hyponyms.ponential analysis Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. That is, the meaning of a word is not an unanalyzable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. E.g Boy: [+human][-adult][+male] Girl: [+human][-adult][-male]Son: child (x, y) & male (x) Daughter: child (x, y) & -male (x)Take: cause (x, (have (x, y))) Give: cause (x, (-have (x, y)))Sense relations between sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y (2) X is inconsistent with Y(3) X entails Y (4)X presupposes Y (5) X is a contradiction (6)X is semantically anomalous23. What is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of (1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentence24.The theory of conversational implicature austin’sa)The cooperative principle (CP)refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims duringthe conversation. There are four conversational maxims:b)Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation iscalled conversational implicature.1. How do you understand the design features of human language?1) Arbitrariness,According to Saussure, it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. For instance,we cannot explain why a book is called a /buk/ and a pen a /pen/. 2) Duality.It refers to the property of having two levels of structures: units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 3）Creativity.by creativity we mean language is resouceful owing to its duality and its recursiveness. Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.For example,“ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed” 4) nguage can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. Displacement enables people to handle generalizations and abstractions.For example,a dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.2. What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the Articulatory phonetics —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Auditory phonetics -–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic phonetics -–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.3. Cite examples from English and Chinese to discuss the concept of the syllable.English: a unit of speech sounds consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant. Chinese: word or part of word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.In English we can divide a syllable into two parts: the phyme and the onset. As the vowel within the thyme is the nucleus, the consonant after it will be termed the coda, for example clasp .All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable, for example: bar, tie. While a syllable with coda is known as closed syllable, forexample: hard, tied, dead.English syllable can be represented as (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C) , However ,the Chinese syllable allows at most one consonant in the onset position and only nasals in the coda for the Putonghua .Thus the Chinese syllable is represented as (C)V(C)e.g. “split”, “sixths” and “prompts”. “您好，请问河南工业大学在哪里？”4. Morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship betweenSince morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit.A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme,such as I,but usually not,as in pig,in which the morpheme is the whole word,i.e. an independent,free morpheme,but the phonemes are/p/,/i/,and/g/.5. Use examples to illustrate the concept of “recursiveness”.Recursiveness is an umbrella term, under which may be brought together several important linguistic phenomena such as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic. All these are means to extend sentences. Theoretically, there is no limit to the number of embedded clauses in a sentence, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication. This is what we call recursiveness, for example, (1) I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped withelectrical appliances that were new. Recursiveness, together with openness, is generally regarded as the core of creativity of language. Coordination and conjoining are different names for the same linguistic phenomenon, that is, to use and, but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same function. For instance, the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentence like this “[NP A man, a woman, a boy, a car and a dog] got into the car”. Subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or more syntactic elements with different functions into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element (here a relative clause). Other examples of this type include:(2) I saw the man who had visited you last year. (relative clause)(3) I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book. (complement clause)(4) If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes. (adverbial clause) Hypotaxis and parataxis are two traditional terms for the description of syntacticrelations between sentences. In the examples below, the former is hypotactic, whilethe latter is paratactic:(5) We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.(6) He dictated the letter. She wrote it.6.The sentence "John saw the police with binoculars" has two semantic interpretations. You are required to explain why the sentence is two way ambiguous. Syntactic tree diagrams are necessary for your explanation.SS N VPN VP V NPVP DET NPV NP PP N PPDET N P N P NJohn saw the police with binoculars John saw the police with binoculars 7. Why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative thanIn addition to revealing a linear order,a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent,and consequently is believed to most truth fully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.For example,the phrase“the old men and women”may have two interpretations,i.e.the adjective“old”may modify the noun“men”,or the following two nouns“men and women”.Linear order analysis cannot tell this difference,so it is ambiguous.Whereas,the constituent or tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clear.So,we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure analysis.NP NPNP NP NP NPThe old men and the women the old men and the old women8 why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations? As the relation between a signifier and its signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign cannot be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know thesigns it is used together with and those it issubstitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.9.“任何语言里的任何一句话，它的意义绝不等于一个个字的总和，而是还多些semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence(without taking context into consideration).pragmatics is the study of the intended meaning of a speaker(taking context into consideration).For example,“Today is Sunday”,semantically,it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker,say,making a suggestion or giving an invitation.10. What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle? Please give examples(1)quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange. eg.War is war.> War is cruel----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. eg. A: Where is Tom?B: He has gone to the library. He said so when he left.> I am not sure and I do not believe what he said.(2)quality----Do not say what you believe to be false. eg.He is made of iron ----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. eg. A:would you like to come to our party tonight?B:I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well tonight.(3)relation----Be relevant. eg. A: Prof. Wang is an old bag.B: Nice weather for the time of year. > I don’t want to talk about Prof. Wang. (4)manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.Eg.A:Let’s get the kids something.B:Ok, but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.> Don’t give them chocolate ----Avoid ambiguity. eg. A: Name and title, please?B: John Smith, Associate Editor and professor.----Be brief. eg.A:Did you get my assignment?B: I received two pages clipped together and covered with rows of black squiggles.> not satisfied.----Be orderly.11. In recent years, people, e.g. 上网，海选.If we compare newspaper articles published recently with those published five years ago, we will catch a big difference in their lexical choice—there are so many new words and expressions in these new articles. Based on the results of this comparison, we may predict that today's readers will find it a little bit difficult to understand what future newspapers will carry.Over the past decades, Chinese people have enjoyed a much more colorful life,materially and spiritually. The rapid development in science, technology, economics,culture, and education has brought in our daily communication thousands andthousands of new words. Words such as 短信、鼠标、上网、博客、动漫、网游、按揭、干细胞、海选(in an election or contest)、海面(in a job interview), which used to sound so professional, have now become part of our active vocabulary and are used frequently in our speech. Facing a situation like this, you may ask this question: Where do these new words and expressions come from? It is not an easy job to tell a complete story of these words. If you look at the question from a sociolinguistic point of view,you may claim that language changes with society. Words are the most active, sensible, and changeable component of language. Following this line of reasoning, we may conclude that, as society changes, the vocabulary of our language will become richer, more colorful and expressive in the days to come.。
胡壮林语言学重要章节笔记总结
第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四章From word to t
1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence
It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
2
What are the three basic syntactic relations?
3
1. Syntactic relations
Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds:
relations of position relations of substitutability relations of co-occurrence
To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.
14
What is the relation of co-occurrence?
Is the relation syntagmatic or paradigmatic?
Chapter Four From Word to Text
1
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Synta x is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, i ncluding the combination of morphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules. 3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto a nother following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internali zed linguistic knowledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic com petence. 5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but ther e is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. 6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of gram maticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories ar e open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly rec ognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, a nd auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in th e mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather th an grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the i nsertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which b egins with the letter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single cla use which contains a sub-ject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprise s a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 1 7.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually pre cedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatical ly called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clause s, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, th e incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a ca se assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P___ ____ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in o ne way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between a nd among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condition explains the f act that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the em bedded clause. A. coordinator B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 2 7. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties. A. recursive B. grammatica l C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better und erstand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammati cality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sent encesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditi onally called ________. A. transformational rulesB. generative rules C. phrase s tructure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object po sitions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The synt actic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rul es may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structure IV. Define the following ter ms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rule s 42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major ty pes of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a s entence linearly structured? Why? 46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 47. What is NP movement. Il lustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There are four given choices fo r each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statemen t: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allo w words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually compri ses a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which co ntains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate s entence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating co njunction, such as "and", "but", "or". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sen tences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a le xical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a partic ular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logica l functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The gra mmatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the s entence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in t he grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic c ompetence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules tha t transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure i s the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes plac e. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentence s at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43. What are t he basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at leas t a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 4 4. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. T raditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple senten ce, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentenc e consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and s tands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whic h is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do n ot have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before J ohn gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the e lements in a sentence linearly structured? Why? No. Language is both line arly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto an other following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchi cally structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can b e seen from the following tree diagram: S NP VP Det N Vt NP De t N The boy likes the music. 46. What are the advant ages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most t ruthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movement in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sen tence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A) The man beat t he child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the mov ement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original posi tions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right an d "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, ho wever, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passiv e voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they hav e the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Diale ctal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as Britis h English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. 2. Sense is concer ned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of t he linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have diff erent references in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of e xperience. 5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can deriv e meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in whic h the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its componen ts. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ran ked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a n o-place predication because it contains no argument. 10. In grammatical anal ysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meani ng of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word whic h begins with the letter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link betw een a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13. R______ means what a linguis tic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__ ________. 16.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversa l of a relationship between the two items. 17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning componen ts. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules c alled s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predicatio n, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According t o the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be la bels of the objects they stand for. III. There are four choices following each s tatement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The nami ng theory is advanced by ________. A. Plato B. Bloomfield C. Geoffrey Leech D. Firth 22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conceptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Which of t he following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning o f the linguistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the ling uistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspe ct of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.” A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with C. entails D. presupposes 25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componenti al analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “aliv e”and “dead”are ______________. A. gradable antonyms B. relati onal opposites C. complementary antonyms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. Concept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. Polyse my B. Synonymy C. Homonymy D. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homony ms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic features IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homop hones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Argument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say tha t a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. 5 0. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth valu es? 52. According to the way synonyms differ, how many groups can we cl assify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blan ks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homophones 16.Relational 17. Componential 1 8. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are four choices following ea ch statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in lan guage. 32. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is ab stract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Reference means what a linguisti c form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Sy nonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have mo re than one meaning. 36. Homonymy :Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different w ords are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homophones :When tw o words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they a re called complete homonyms. 40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense r elation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning comp onents, which are called semantic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its gra mmatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by t he grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is sai d about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do w e say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of themeanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence w ere the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanin gs. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical me an-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both le xical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the consti tuent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntag matically to another. 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exa mples. Componential analysis, pro-posed by structural semanticists, is a wa y to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the me aning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called s emantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certai n semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the wo rd “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do you distinguish between entailme nt and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inc lusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is n ecessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not hav e been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may n ot need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If Jo hn does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as syn onymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelo r all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, i f X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsist ent with Y e.g. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According t o the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms int o? Illustrate them with examples. According to the ways synonyms differ, s ynonyms can be divided into the following groups. i. Dialectal synonyms Th ey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the Englis h language. For examples: British English American Englishautumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal s ynonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For exa mple, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is call ed "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For example: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pa l, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative m eaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express differentemotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “collaborator” a nd “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who h elps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done somethin g wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accu se. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonym s Semantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly i n what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in me aning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meanin g. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the stud y of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest was the naming theor y, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic for m and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the m ediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguisti c context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context i n which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper b ecame worried. (seal meaning an aquatic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the king's stamp) Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of ling uistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language for m as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls f orth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is Tr ue or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore meth ods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between la nguages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore of ten indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The history of the E nglish language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English an d Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative case s. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was t he revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabula ry of a language. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, a nd in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjec tive agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12. The word order of Modern Englis h is more variable than that of Old English. 13. Derivation refers to the proc ess by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, s tems, or words. 14. “Smog”is a word formed by the word-forming process。
语言学导论第四章
XP rule:
XP
specifier the seldom very
(1) categories: ategories: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Kate likes classical music.(sentence) classical music (noun phrase) like (verb)
S Infl VP
Hale Waihona Puke Det Will theN train e
V arrive
Do insertion: insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. CP CP C NP N birds S Infl VP C NP S Infl VP V fly
three criteria for determining a word’s category
meaning inflection distribution
2.phrase categories: The category of phrases is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. [NP a poor boy] boy] [VP run quickly, like music] [AP extremely cold] cold] [PP mainly about] about]
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第四章
Chapter 4 Syntax1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法)DefinitionIt may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。
实际操作中，为了方便，通常切到词为止。
直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。
Advantages：Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法，句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来，如果有歧义，也会被揭示出来。
Problems①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at anylevel, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.开始的时候，一些提倡者坚持二元切分。
(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
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语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版Chapter 44.1 syntactic （句法的） relations4.1.1 positional relation(位置关系）For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause.Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential （有序的） arrangement of words in a language.Positional relation are a manifestation(表现）of one aspect of syntagmatic relations Word order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words.Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.4.1.2 relation of substitutability(可代替性）Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure.Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is what Saussure called associative(联想的） relations or in Hjemslev ’sparadigmatic(纵聚性的) relation.4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence(共现）Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations. 4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents 4.2.1 Grammatical construction Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain complex lexemes(词位） 4.2.2 immediate constituents(直接成分） Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:SNP VP De t N V NPDe t N The girl ate the appleThis is tree diagram. 在句子结构分析中，成分用来指任何语言单位，而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分，如在The girl ate the apple 本身的（A） the boy（B) ate the apple (C）都是一个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位，如果两个成分B（the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成一个更高的成分AWord-levelN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionPhrasalNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clauseTo dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis.Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.4.2.3.Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.3.1Endocentric（相信结构）Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.4.2.3.1 Exocentric（并列结构）Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually includingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate (verb + object) construction, andthe connective (be + complement) construction.2.4 Coordination and SubordinationEndocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Coordination of NPs:[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]Coordination of VPs:[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]Coordination of PPs:[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]Coordination of APs:[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]Coordination of Ss:[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination（从属） refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:4.3. Syntactic（句法） FunctionThe syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 SubjectIn English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” and “logical subject”Word orderSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:Pro-formsThe first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: Agreement with the verbIn the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbContent questionsIf the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in4.4Category （范畴）The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 NumberNumber is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.4.4.2Gende(性）Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.4.4.3Case（格）The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.4.4.4Agreement.Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship withone another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).4.5Phrase, Clause and Sentence4.5.1phrasePrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.4.5.3SentenceBasic sentence types: QuirkSVC Mary is kind.a nurse.SVA Mary is here.in the house.SV The child is laughing.SVO Somebody caught the ball.SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.4.6.1ConjoiningConjoining: coordination.Conjunctions: and, but, and or.联系一个小句或者其他并列或链接的过程，通过这种过程组成的句子即并列4.6.2Embedding（嵌入）Embedding: subordination.Main clauses and subordinate clauses.Three basic types of subordinate clauses:Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause:。