英语 语言学 知识点整理

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英语语言学知识点总结

英语语言学知识点总结

英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。

以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学:英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。

其中,英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。

2. 英语语法学:英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则,包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。

3. 英语词汇学:英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况,包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。

4. 英语语用学:英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境,包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。

5. 英语语音语调学:英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统,包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。

6. 英语文体学:英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯,包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。

7. 英语词汇记忆学:英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇,包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。

8. 英语跨文化交际学:英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用,包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。

以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结,不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。

英语语言学超强总结

英语语言学超强总结

语言学总结一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征:Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能(不是很重要)信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程,考查人类语言中的声音音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构,词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义,还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。

如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics5语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式:规定式:prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式:descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究:共时:synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时:diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语:语言:langue指语言系统的整体言语:parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用:乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力:competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用:performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA(国际音标)是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3 音位变体allophones4 互补分布complementary distribution5 自由变体free variation6 区别特征distinctive features7 超音段特征suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例:editor—edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例:work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词borrowing五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体,而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分分析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分-短语,再把这些短语依次切分,得到下一集直接成分,这样层层切分,直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions 向心:指一个结构中有中心词,例an old man ,中心为man离心:指结构中没有明显的中心词。

教师资格证科目三-英语语言学知识点整理

教师资格证科目三-英语语言学知识点整理

第一个辅音字母归前,第二个归后; 截短法 clipping:通过删掉一个或更多音节
affricative;nasals;liquids/lateral;glides;
d)两个元音字母并列且无固定发音,各 的方式缩短多音节词的方法;
2) place of articulation
自划为前后两个音节。
缩合法 blending:通过将不同的非词素部分
3)phonemic contrast: vet wet
曲折词素 inflectional morpheme:只改变 phrasse
tongue:
4)allophone 音位变体:/p/ /t/ /k/ /g/ 语法属性,不构成新词,如变复数,过去式 限定词 determiner
front vowel / central vowel / back vowel
知识点
classification of english speech sounds
1 相关术语
1 词素分类-最小的有意义的语言单位,不能 句法范畴 syntactic categories
依据: the obstruction of airstream
1)音位 phoneme :能辨别意义的最小语 再分,词素的功能就是构成单词;
2 音系规则 phonological rules
等,只有后缀形式;
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
形容词 adjective
b)the highest tongue rising:
1)序列规则:sequential rule
派生词素 derivational morpheme:改变 副词 adverb
high vowel / middle vowel / low vowel

(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理

(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理

Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位,是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。

f45英语语言文学基础知识

f45英语语言文学基础知识

f45英语语言文学基础知识摘要:1.英语语言基础知识2.英语文学基础知识3.实用英语学习技巧4.提高英语语言文学能力的建议正文:一、英语语言基础知识1.语法:掌握英语的基本语法规则,如名词、动词、形容词、副词等词性的用法,以及句子的结构和解构。

2.词汇:积累常用的英语词汇,了解词义、词性以及词组的搭配,逐步扩大词汇量。

3.发音:学习并掌握英语发音规则,提高口语表达能力。

4.拼写:熟悉英语单词的拼写规律,纠正常见的拼写错误。

二、英语文学基础知识1.文学流派:了解不同历史时期的文学流派,如现实主义、浪漫主义、现代主义等。

2.文学作品:阅读经典英语文学作品,了解作品背景、作者生平以及作品的主题和风格。

3.文学术语:学习文学批评和分析的基本术语,如象征、比喻、拟人等。

4.文学奖项:了解世界著名的文学奖项,如诺贝尔文学奖、普利策奖等。

三、实用英语学习技巧1.制定学习计划:根据自己的实际情况,制定合理的学习计划,确保学习效果。

2.多媒体辅助学习:利用网络资源和手机应用,进行听、说、读、写的综合训练。

3.练习题库:做大量的练习题,巩固所学知识,提高应试能力。

4.学习小组:加入英语学习小组,与他人分享学习心得,共同进步。

四、提高英语语言文学能力的建议1.坚持每天学习:养成良好的学习习惯,保持学习的连续性和稳定性。

2.大量阅读:阅读英语文章、书籍,提高阅读速度和理解能力。

3.口语实践:积极参加英语角、语言交换等活动,提高口语实际应用能力。

4.学习与实践相结合:将所学知识运用到实际生活和工作场景中,实现学以致用。

通过以上四个方面的学习和实践,相信大家的英语语言文学能力会得到显著提高。

英语 语言学 知识点整理

英语 语言学 知识点整理

★Haliday—child language. Macrofunctions: ideational, interpersonal, textual.★what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Chapter2 Phonology★three branches of phonetics:①Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. ②Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. ③Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.★Organs of Speech : Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔Oral cavity–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity–鼻腔★Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. (leaf /l/) ★Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.(dark /l/~)★Phonetics and Phonology区别: are concerned with the same aspect of language- the speech sounds. ①Phonetics: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; phonetic features they possess; how they can be classified, etc. ②Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.★rules in Phonology:①Sequential rules: Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. ②Assimilation rules: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.③Deletion rule: It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.★Suprasegmental超切分特征: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.(intonation: when pitch, stress and sound lenth are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. //tone: Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature.)Chapter3 Morphology★open class words: new words can be added to these classes regularly. Such as nouns, verbs,adjectives and adverbs. Such as Beatnik. Closed class words:conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the grammatical or functional words. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added.Chapter4 Syntax★determine a word’s category:①meaning. Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.(pretty lady, attribute the property “pretty”to the lady.) ②inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. ③distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, the girl and a card ④小结A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.★phrase包括: head, specifier, complement. ①The word round which phrase is formed is termed head. ②The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles: Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically make a phrase boundary. ③The words on the right side of the heads are complements. Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.★phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.★XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P. (XP-----> (specifier) X (complement))★coordination rule:Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure. (Four important properties:①There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. ②A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated. ③Coordinated categories must be of the same type. ④The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.) Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con X)★deep structure and surface structure: There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). //The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).Chapter 5 Semantics★The naming theory: (Greek scholar Plato) According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.★The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through themediation of concepts in the mind.★Contextualism: (J.R. Firth) people should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behaviour. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. {A) the situational context: Every utterance occurs in a particular situation, the main components of which include, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing, the various objects and events existent in the situation.-----The seal could not be found. B) the linguistic context: co-text, is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.-----black coffer& black hair.}★Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized. //Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality. //关系: ①Linguistic forms, having the same sense, may have different reference in different situations. ②Linguistic forms with the same reference may differ in sense.-----morning star= evening star. ③Linguistic forms may have sense, but have no reference in the real world.------dragon, ghost.★Hyponymy:It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.★X entails Y: entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead. (X :John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.)★componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult]. semantic features:The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. //Advantages: by specifying the semantic features of certain word, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.★Predication Analysis:①The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. E.g: The dog bit the man. & The man bit the dog.②There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. Grammaticality: grammatical (well-formedness); Semantically meaningful: selectional restrictions. (selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.)……(consist of predicate and argument)Chapter 6 pragmatics★Context(John Firth): The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. ★Speech act theory(John Austin)★Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts: 1 representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. 2 directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something. 3commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. 4 expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state. 5 declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something. ///Conclusion: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force.★cooperative Principle(CP): Proposed by Paul Grice, the principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.★Historical linguistics: a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.★semantic broadening: when the meaning of a word becomes broader, it may include all the meanings it used to mean, and then more. Such as holiday, which originally meant holy day, but it means any day which we don’t have to work.★semantic narrowing: semantic change has narrowed the meaning of some words. such as deer(any animal—a particular kind of animal)★semantic shif t: a lexical item may undergo a shift in meaning is the third kind of semantic change.★sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.★Inter-relationship between language and society:A) language is used not only to communicate meaning, but also establish and maintain social relationships. B) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently, due to their social backgrounds. C) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. E.g. there is only one word in English for snow, and there are several in Eskimo.D) Language is related to the structure if the society in which it is used, therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.E.g. the use of postvocalic [r] in England and in New Y ork city.★speech community: the social group that is singled out for any special study.★speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. i.e. regional dialects, sociolects, registers★Register: in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation. In a broader sense, the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. {A) Field of discourse---- topic: the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior.---- why/ what---vocabulary, phonological, grammatical features B) Tenor of discourse---- role: participants and in what relationship they stand to each other. ---- formality/ technicality of the language we use. C) Mode of discourse ---- means of communication.-----how ( speaking or writing).}★degree of formality: intimate; casual; consultative; formal; frozen★culture: A)In a broad sense: Culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. B) In a narrow sense: Culture may refer to a local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.★The relationship between language and culture:①language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world. It both expresses and embodies cultural reality. ②reflects and affects a culture’s way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence, which also facilitates the development of this language at the same time. ③language is a part of culture.★Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by their structure of their native language.------interdependence of language and thought….(there are two interpretations: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior. The weak one holds that the former influences the later.)★Greetings and terms of address:A) People in different countries choose the proper greetings to greet different people they meet on different occasions. B) The terms of address can be different in different countries. C) Chinese people will also extend kinship terms and indicate people’s influential st atus.★cultural overlap: The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being★cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion.★linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language.★language acquisition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (the behaviourist, the innatist{ LAD= Language Acquisition Device}, the interactionist view{motherese, child directed speech, caretaker talk}★under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation. E.g, baby uses animal to refer to cat, but denies the bird belongs to an animal.★over-extension:Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children. E.g, baby uses apple for all fruit.★Atypical Development:hearing impairment, mental retardation, autism, stuttering, aphasia, dyslexia, dysgraphia.★second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.★Connection between first language acquisition and second language acquisition: ①Theoretically----The new findings and advances in fist language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. ②Practically------The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. ③second language acquisition is different from first language acquisition and the second language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence. ★interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions. It is also called learner language.-- its main feature is fossilization.★overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable. E.g: Jane suggested me to give up smoking (×).★cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association. E.g. The apricot is too sour to eat it(×). ★Individual Differences:①Language aptitude ②motivation(instrumental motivation; integrative motivation; resultative motivation; intrinsic motivation pleasure from learning.)③learning strategie (cognitive strategies; metacognitive strategies; affect/ social strategies)④Age of Acquisition. ⑤Personality★Neurolinguistics: is the study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.★Aphasia refers to a number of acquired language disorder due to the cerebral lesions caused by vascular problems, a tumor, an accident and so on.★psycholinguistics is the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. It concerns the representation of language in the mind, the planning, production, perception and comprehension of speech, and language acquisition.front central backClose (high) i:I u:uSemi-close (middle)eз:。

英语语言学语言学知识点课件

英语语言学语言学知识点课件
• 定义:Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.
英语语言学语言学知识点
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• 5) Cultural Transmission(文化传递性):
英语语言学语言学知识点
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• 2)Duality(二层性):
• 定义:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.
语言学知识点
英语语言学语言学知识点
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•I 语言学导论 •II 语言学主要分支学科 •III 语言学的流派和理论
英语语言学语言学知识点
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I 语言学导论
1. design feature of language
(语言的定义特征)
2. Language Families (世界语言分类)
3. important distinctions in linguistics (语言学 研究中几对重要的概念)
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• 4. Important Distinctions in Linguistics • (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) • 1) descriptive & prescriptive • 2) synchronic & diachronic
• 3) langue & parole
• 4) competence & performance

英语语言学基础知识

英语语言学基础知识

英语语言学基础知识一、绪论语言学的定义语言的定义语言学的研究范畴语言的甄别特征几对基本概念(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writingWhat is linguistics? 什么是语言学? (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语 Linguistics is generally defined asthe scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, butlanguages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。

语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言,Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 而是人类所有语言的特性。

Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Competence and performance 能力与运用 Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Performance: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 What is language? 什么是语言? Descriptive:A linguistic study describes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性 Prescriptive: it aims lay dow n rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken data. Language is a rule-governed system Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language. Language is basically vocalSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性 Language is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name wou ld smell as sweet.”)in modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. Language is used for human communication Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Design features of language 语言的甄别特征 Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: American linguist Charles Hackett specified 12 design features:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution1) arbitrariness 武断性 4) displacement移位性 2) productivity 创造性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性3) duality 二重性二、音系学语言的声音媒介音系学和语音学什么是语音学语音、音位、音位变体发音器官音位对立、互补分部、最小对立音标……宽式和严式标音法几条音系规则英语语音的分类超切分特征构成了语言的声音媒介。

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★Haliday—child language. Macrofunctions: ideational, interpersonal, textual.★what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Chapter2 Phonology★three branches of phonetics:①Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. ②Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. ③Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.★Organs of Speech : Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔Oral cavity–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity–鼻腔★Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. (leaf /l/) ★Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.(dark /l/~)★Phonetics and Phonology区别: are concerned with the same aspect of language- the speech sounds. ①Phonetics: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; phonetic features they possess; how they can be classified, etc. ②Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.★rules in Phonology:①Sequential rules: Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. ②Assimilation rules: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.③Deletion rule: It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.★Suprasegmental超切分特征: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.(intonation: when pitch, stress and sound lenth are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. //tone: Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature.)Chapter3 Morphology★open class words: new words can be added to these classes regularly. Such as nouns, verbs,adjectives and adverbs. Such as Beatnik. Closed class words:conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the grammatical or functional words. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added.Chapter4 Syntax★determine a word’s category:①meaning. Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.(pretty lady, attribute the property “pretty”to the lady.) ②inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. ③distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, the girl and a card ④小结A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.★phrase包括: head, specifier, complement. ①The word round which phrase is formed is termed head. ②The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles: Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically make a phrase boundary. ③The words on the right side of the heads are complements. Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.★phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.★XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P. (XP-----> (specifier) X (complement))★coordination rule:Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure. (Four important properties:①There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. ②A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated. ③Coordinated categories must be of the same type. ④The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.) Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con X)★deep structure and surface structure: There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). //The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).Chapter 5 Semantics★The naming theory: (Greek scholar Plato) According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.★The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through themediation of concepts in the mind.★Contextualism: (J.R. Firth) people should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behaviour. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. {A) the situational context: Every utterance occurs in a particular situation, the main components of which include, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing, the various objects and events existent in the situation.-----The seal could not be found. B) the linguistic context: co-text, is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.-----black coffer& black hair.}★Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized. //Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality. //关系: ①Linguistic forms, having the same sense, may have different reference in different situations. ②Linguistic forms with the same reference may differ in sense.-----morning star= evening star. ③Linguistic forms may have sense, but have no reference in the real world.------dragon, ghost.★Hyponymy:It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.★X entails Y: entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead. (X :John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.)★componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult]. semantic features:The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. //Advantages: by specifying the semantic features of certain word, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.★Predication Analysis:①The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. E.g: The dog bit the man. & The man bit the dog.②There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. Grammaticality: grammatical (well-formedness); Semantically meaningful: selectional restrictions. (selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.)……(consist of predicate and argument)Chapter 6 pragmatics★Context(John Firth): The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. ★Speech act theory(John Austin)★Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts: 1 representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. 2 directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something. 3commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. 4 expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state. 5 declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something. ///Conclusion: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force.★cooperative Principle(CP): Proposed by Paul Grice, the principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.★Historical linguistics: a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.★semantic broadening: when the meaning of a word becomes broader, it may include all the meanings it used to mean, and then more. Such as holiday, which originally meant holy day, but it means any day which we don’t have to work.★semantic narrowing: semantic change has narrowed the meaning of some words. such as deer(any animal—a particular kind of animal)★semantic shif t: a lexical item may undergo a shift in meaning is the third kind of semantic change.★sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.★Inter-relationship between language and society:A) language is used not only to communicate meaning, but also establish and maintain social relationships. B) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently, due to their social backgrounds. C) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. E.g. there is only one word in English for snow, and there are several in Eskimo.D) Language is related to the structure if the society in which it is used, therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.E.g. the use of postvocalic [r] in England and in New Y ork city.★speech community: the social group that is singled out for any special study.★speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. i.e. regional dialects, sociolects, registers★Register: in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation. In a broader sense, the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. {A) Field of discourse---- topic: the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior.---- why/ what---vocabulary, phonological, grammatical features B) Tenor of discourse---- role: participants and in what relationship they stand to each other. ---- formality/ technicality of the language we use. C) Mode of discourse ---- means of communication.-----how ( speaking or writing).}★degree of formality: intimate; casual; consultative; formal; frozen★culture: A)In a broad sense: Culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. B) In a narrow sense: Culture may refer to a local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.★The relationship between language and culture:①language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world. It both expresses and embodies cultural reality. ②reflects and affects a culture’s way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence, which also facilitates the development of this language at the same time. ③language is a part of culture.★Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by their structure of their native language.------interdependence of language and thought….(there are two interpretations: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior. The weak one holds that the former influences the later.)★Greetings and terms of address:A) People in different countries choose the proper greetings to greet different people they meet on different occasions. B) The terms of address can be different in different countries. C) Chinese people will also extend kinship terms and indicate people’s influential st atus.★cultural overlap: The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being★cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion.★linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language.★language acquisition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (the behaviourist, the innatist{ LAD= Language Acquisition Device}, the interactionist view{motherese, child directed speech, caretaker talk}★under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation. E.g, baby uses animal to refer to cat, but denies the bird belongs to an animal.★over-extension:Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children. E.g, baby uses apple for all fruit.★Atypical Development:hearing impairment, mental retardation, autism, stuttering, aphasia, dyslexia, dysgraphia.★second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.★Connection between first language acquisition and second language acquisition: ①Theoretically----The new findings and advances in fist language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. ②Practically------The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. ③second language acquisition is different from first language acquisition and the second language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence. ★interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions. It is also called learner language.-- its main feature is fossilization.★overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable. E.g: Jane suggested me to give up smoking (×).★cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association. E.g. The apricot is too sour to eat it(×). ★Individual Differences:①Language aptitude ②motivation(instrumental motivation; integrative motivation; resultative motivation; intrinsic motivation pleasure from learning.)③learning strategie (cognitive strategies; metacognitive strategies; affect/ social strategies)④Age of Acquisition. ⑤Personality★Neurolinguistics: is the study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.★Aphasia refers to a number of acquired language disorder due to the cerebral lesions caused by vascular problems, a tumor, an accident and so on.★psycholinguistics is the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. It concerns the representation of language in the mind, the planning, production, perception and comprehension of speech, and language acquisition.front central backClose (high) i:I u:uSemi-close (middle)eз:。

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