语言学第七章知识点总结
新编语言学Ch7~12完美笔记
Linguistics 语言学Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis7.1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis1. Discourse: language above the sentence or above the clause.2. Discourse analysis 以前也叫text linguistics and discourse analysis3. Discourse analysis (discourse linguistic/discourse studies/text analysis/DA):the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraph, conversations and interviews.4. Primary task: explore the linguistic features which characterize discourses5. Goals: examine how the reader or user of a discourse recognizes that the words/phrases/sentences in a discourse must be co-interpreted----that parts of a discourse are dependent on others.6. One of the most important features of discourse is that they have cohesion.Definitions:1. Discourse (话语):a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language which has been produced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews7.2 Information Structure7.2.1 Given and new information1. Given information (已知信息):the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee (often coded in condensed form)2. New information (新信息):the information that the addresser believes it not known to the addressee7.2.2 Topic and comment1. The topic represents what the utterance is about; the comment is what is said aboutit2. Topics are less central to the grammar of English than to the grammar of certain languages.3. Marking the topic is considerably more important in certain other languages. Languages such as Japanese and Korean have function words whose sole purpose is to mark a noun phrase as the topic. In Chinese, no special function words attach to topic noun phrases, but they are marked by word order. In these three languages, noun phrases marked in one way or another as the topic occur very frequently. Thus, despite the difficulty in defining it, the notion of topic is important and needs to be distinguished from other categories of information structure.Definition:1. Topic (话题): the main center of attention in a sentence2. Comment (述题): what is said about it.7.2.3 Contrast1. In the following example, Mary could be marked contrastively if the sentence were part of a conversation about how the interlocutors dislike going to Maine during the winter.Mary likes going to Maine during the winter.2. In English contrastive noun phrase can be marked in various ways, the most common of which is by pronouncing the contrastive noun phrase with strong stress.7.3 Cohesion and Coherence7.3.1 Cohesion1. Cohesive devices include reference, substitution, ellipsis conjunction and lexical cohesionDefinition:1. Cohesion (衔接): the grammatical and/or lexical relationship between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.e.g. You can lead a horse to water but you can’t make him drink.7.3.1.1 Reference1. Reference words: pronounces (e.g. it, they, he, she, them, etc.)demonstratives (this, that, these, those)the article the, and items like such as2. Reference consists of two types:(1) endophoric reference (endophora): where the interpretive source lies in theco-text①anaphoric reference (anaphora): where the referent lies in the prior text.②cataphoric reference (cataphora): where the referent lies in the text to come(2) exophoric reference (exophora): where the interpretive source lies in thecontext.E.g. (1) Respect a man, he will do the more (anaphoric)(2) When I met her, Mary looked ill. (cataphoric)(3) (Mary is standing there) I like her. (exophoric)7.3.1.2 SubstitutionDefinitionSubstitution (替代):The process or result of replacing one word by anther at a particular position in a structure7.3.1.3 EllipsisDefinitionEllipsis (省略)(substitution by zero):The leaving out of words or phrases from sentences where they are unnecessary because they have already been referred to or mentioned. For example, when the subject of the verb in two coordinate clauses is the same, it may be omitted in the second clause to avoid.7.3.1.5 Lexical cohension1. Example:(1) RepetitionThere was a cat on the table. The cat was smiling.(2) SynonymHe got a lot of presents from his friends and family. All the gifts were wrapped in colored paper.(3) SuperordinateYesterday, a pigeon carried the first message from Pinhurst to Silbury. The bird covered the distance in three minutes.7.3.2 Coherence1. Cohenrence: the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discoursee.g. A: Could you give me a lift home?B: Sorry, I’m visiting my sister.There is no grammatical or lexical link (meaning link).(是指没有意义上的连接，不包括词汇上的连接)7.4 Discourse Markers1. Discourse Markers (DM):expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.7.5 Conversational AnalysisDefinition:Conversational Analysis (CA) (会话分析)The analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are and how conversation is used in ordinary life.7.5.1 Adjacency pairs1. Adjacency pairs (相邻语对): a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that “go together” in a conversation, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.2. Properties of Adjacency pairs(1) Adjacency pairs consist of two utterances, a first part and a second part(2) The two parts are spoken by different speakers.(3) The first and second parts belong to specific types, for examples, question and answer, or greeting and greeting(4) The form and content of the second part depends on the type of the first part.(5) Given that a speaker has produced a first part, the second part is relevant and expectable as the next utterance.Definition:Insertion sequence (插入语列)It often happens that a question-answer (Q-A) sequence will be delayed while another question-answer sequence intervenes.( can be infinite，但人类记忆有限，所以不行)Form: Q1---Q2---A2---A17.5.2 Preference structure7.5.3 Presequences1. Presequences (前序列): the opening sequences that are used to set up some specificpotential actions2. Greetings: Some situations do not require a greeting, as with a stanger approaching in the street to ask for the time: “Excuse me, sir, do you know what time it is?”. The expression ”Excuse me,sir” serves as a presequence appropriate to the context.3. The following is a pre-invitationA: What are you doing this Sunday?B: Nothing special. Why?A: Why don’t you come out with us then?Here the pre-invitation is treated as transparent by B who suspects by “why” that something is forthcoming.4. The example below is a pre-request:A: Are you going out tomorrow?B: No, not really.A: Are you using your car then?B: No. Do you want to borrow it?A: Yes, if you’re not using it.7.6 Critical Discourse Analysis1. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA):the analysis of language use directed at, and committed to, discovering its concealed ideological bias.Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics8.1 IntroductionDefinition:Sociolinguistics (社会语言学):the study of language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language8.2 Language Varieties8.2.1 Standard languageDefinition:Standard variety (Standard language/Standard dialects):the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation, and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language8.2.2 Dialects1. Dialect: A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class2. Dialectology: the study of dialects3. Types: (1) Regional/geographical dialects.(2) Temporal dialects(3) Social dialects or sociolects①speech community: a group of people using a given language or dialect(4) Idiolects8.2.3 Registers1. Register is determined by 3 factors: field, mode, tenor of discourse(1) the field of discourse: refers to what is happening, including what is being talked about, e.g. the fields of linguistics, religion, and advertising(2) the mode of discourse: refers to the medium of language activity which determines the role played by the language in a situation. e.g. speech vs. writing (3) the tenor of discourse: refers to the relations among the participants in a language activity, especially the level of formality they adopt. e.g. colloquial or formal English 2. Example: a lecture on linguistcs in a school of foreign languages can be analyzed as follows:Field: linguistics Mode: oral (academic lecturing)Tenor: participants (teacher-students)Definition:Register (语域): a language variety associated with a particular situation of use8.2.4 Pidgins and creoles1. Creoles have large numbers of native speakers. A French-based creole is spoken by the majority of the population in Haiti, and English-based creoles are used in Jamaica and Sierra Leone.Definition:1. Pidgin (皮钦语): a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone, but is learned in contact situations2. Pidginization: the process by which a pidgin develops3. Creole (克里奥尔语): a language that begins as a pidgin and eventually becomes the first language of a speech community through its being learned by children4. Creolization: the process by which a pidgin becomes a creole8.2.5 Language planning1. Status planning: changes the function of a language or a variety of a language and the right of those who use it.2. Corpus planning: develop a variety of language or a language, usually to standardize it.Definition:Language planning (语言规划): planning, usually by a government or government agency, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to be language and other language problems.8.3 Choosing a Code8.3.1 Diglossia1. Diglossia (双语): a situation that with a handful of languages, two very different varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions8.3.2 Bilingualism and multilingualism1. Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation Definition:1. Horizontal bilingualism (横向性双语现象):the situation of the languages spoken in a bilingual society have equal status in the official cultural, and family life of the society.2. Diagonal bilingualism (倾斜性双语现象)the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation8.3.3 Code-switching1. Code-switching: bilinguals often switch between their two languages or language varieties in the middle of a conversation.8.4 Linguistic Taboos and Euphemisms1. Taboo word: a word that we are reluctant to useDefinition:1. Taboo: words or activities that are considered inappropriate for “polite society”2. Euphemism: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects.8.5 Language and Gender1. Men and women speak differently; men and women are spoken about differently2. Language reflects sexism in society. Language itself is not sexist, but it can encode sexist attitudes.Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics9.1 Introduction1. Psycholinguistics: the study of the language-processing mechanismsDefinition:1. Psycholinguistics (心理语言学):the study of language and mind, the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition comprehension and production of language,2. Developmental pscholinguistics (发展心理语言学)the examination of how infants and children acquire the ability to comprehend and speak their mother tongue9.2 Language Acquisition1. Children’s use of language is rule-governed. For example, children frequently say tooths and mouses instead of teeth and mice, and holded and finded, instead of held and found. These are examples of overgeneralization or overextensionDefinition:1. Language acquisition (语言习得):the learning and development of a person’s language.2. Overgeneralization (过度概括):children’s treatment of irregular verbs and nouns as if they were regular. This shows that the child has acquired the regular rules but has not yet learned that there are exceptions.3. Undergeneralization: a child uses a word in a more limited way than adults do. (e.g. refusing to call a taxi a car)4. Universal grammar (UG): the innateness or properties that pertain to the grammars of all human language.9.3 Language ProductionDefinition:Language production (语言产生): the process involved in creating and expressing meaning through language.9.3.1 Conceptualization1. Psycholinguists agree that some form of mentalese existMentalese: a representation system which is different from language.9.3.2 FormulationDefinition:1. Slips of the tongue (口误): mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases2. Spoonerism (斯本内现象): a slip of the tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed. For example: Le t’s have chish and fips instead of Let’s have fish and chips.9.3.3 Articulation9.3.4 Self-regulation9.4 Language Comprehension1. Language Comprehension: comprehension seems to be nothing more than recognition of a sequential string of linguistic symbols, although at a very rapid pace2. People do not process linguistic information in a neat, linear fashiond3. Listeners and readers use a great deal of information other than the actual language being produced to help them find the meaning of the linguistic symbols they hear or see9.4.1 Sound comprehension9.4.2 Word comprehension1. Bathtub effect: we knew the word, but could not access the whole word. For many time we could only get part of the words vaguely, such as the beginning or the ending of the words.Definition1. Parallel distributed processing (PDP) (平行分布处理):a model of cognition that attempts to account for complex behaviors such as the processing and production of speech by positing the existence of completely separate but concurrent and parallel cognitive systems operating at the same time.9.4.3 Sentence comprehension1. Garden path sentence (花园路径句): a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentenceFor example: The horse reaced past the barn fella.S?The horse raced past the barn fellb.SNPVP The horse raced past the barn fell9.4.4 Text comprehension9.5 Language and Thought9.5.1 Language determines thought1. Proposer: E. Sapir and B. Lee Whorf2. Theory: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis or Whorfian HypothesisThe theory has two parts: the first is called linguistic determinism, which says that linguistic structure determines cognitive structure; the second part is called linguistic relativity, which says that the resulting cognitive systems are different in speakers of different languages.3. Evidence: Eskimo have separate words for different types of snow. A child who grows up speaking such a language will develop more cognitive categories for snow than will an English-speaking child. When the former looks out at a snowy environment, he will, in some sense, see it differently from a child who has but one word snow.4. Modern view: the Whorfian Hypothesis----language determines though----cannot be supported. However, it is equally clear that a weak version of the hypothesis----language influence thought----is reasonable and supportable9.5.2 Thought determines language1. Proposer: B. Berlin and P. Kay2. Evidence: The result of their experiment which was concerned with how speakers of different languages divide up the color spectrum showed that there appear to be some basic constraints that limit the way in which this aspect of our experience is coded in the language.Chapter 10 Cognitive Linguistics10.1 IntroductionDefinition:Cognitive linguistics (认知语言学): a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to this approach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.10.2 Categorization and CategoriesCategorization: the mental process of classificationDefinition:Category: the products of categorization10.2.1 The classical theory1. Assumptions of the classical theory:(1) the first assumption: Categories are defined by a limited set of necessary and sufficient conditions/features. In other words, a thing can not both be and not be, it cannot both have a feature and not have it, it cannot both belong to a category and notbelong to it.E.g. in the BIRD category, if a creature has two wings , two legs, a beak, feathers and lays eggs, then it is a bird; on the other hand, if a creature has all these features, this is also sufficient for classifying it as a bird.(2) the second assumption: A feature is either in the definition of a category, or it is not; an entity has this feature, or it does notE.g. the BIRD category has the feature [+two legs], but[-four legs](3) the third assumption: Categories have clear boundariesE.g. BIRD and BEAST have clear boundaries(4) the fourth assumption: all members of a category have equal statusE.g. we cannot say that the sparrow is a better member than the ostrich in the BIRD category2. Problem: some members have fuzzy boundariesE.g: do ostriches and penguins belong to the BIRD category?10.2.2 The prototype thery.1. Prototypes (典型): what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category. E.g. for some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegitable2. Members of a category therefore differ in their prototypicality3. Proposer: E. Rosch4. Advantages: (1) It can explain how people deal with damaged examplesE.g. people would still categorize a one-winged robin who couldn’tfly as a bird, or a three-legged lion as a lion.(2) The prototype theory can work for actions as well as objectsE.g. people can judge that murder is a better example of killingthan execute or suicide(3) It is useful for explaining how people deal with atypical examplesof a categoryE.g. unbirdly birds such as penguins and pelicans can still beregarded as birds10.2.3 Levels of categorization1. Superordinate levels2. Basic-level categories* three respects: (1) Perception: overall perceived shape; single mental image; lastidentification(2) Communication: shortest, most commonly used andcontextually neutral words, first learned bychildren and first to enter the lexicon(3) Knowledge organization: most attributes of category membersare stored at this level.* Basic-level categories take primacy over categories at other levels. This is mostly because it is at this level that we perceive the evident differences between objectsand organisms of the world3. Subordinate levels10.3 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy10.3.1 Conceptual metaphor1. Example: LOVE IS A JOURNEYLook how far we’ve comeWe’ll just have to go our separate waysWe can’t turn back nowOur marriage is on the rocksWe’ve gotten off the trackThis relationship is founderingDefinition1. Metaphor: understanding one conceptual/cognitive domain in terms of anotherconceptual domain2. Source domain (始发域): the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain3. Target domain (目标域): the conceptual domain that is understand this way Diagram: Conceptual Domain (A) Conceptual Domain (B)Target domain Source domainHe is a tiger10.3.2 Conceptual metonymy1. We have a general metonymic principle:THE BODILY SYMPTOMS OF AN EMOTION STAND FOR THE EMOTION E.g. drop in temperature for FEAR “I was chilled to the bone”erect posture for PRIDE “He swelled with pride”drooping posture for SADNESS “My heart sank”jumping up and down for JOY “He was jumping for joy2. The main difference between them is that metaphor involves a mapping across different conceptual or cognitive domains while metonymy is a mapping within one conceptual domain3. Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental access to another cognitive category, the target, within the same10.4 IconicityDefinitionIconicity (象似性): a feature of language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the word, including the perspective of imposed on the world by the speaker10.4.1 Iconicity of orderDefinitionIconicity of order: the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of element in a linguistic constructione.g. I came, I saw, I conquered10.4.2 Iconicity of distance1. Iconicity of distance accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance10.4.3 Iconicity of complexity1. the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees of adjective show a gradual increase in the number of phonemes, such as long, longer and longest in English2. Iconicity of complexity accounts for our tendency to associate more form with more meaning and, conversely, less form with less meaning10.5 Grammaticalization1. Grammaticalization: the process whereby an independent word is shifted to the status of a grammatical element2. Full words, with their own lexical content, thus become form words; and this categorical change tends to be accompanied by a reduction in phonological form anda “bleaching” of meaning3. Example: the transition of the lexical verb “go” into an auxiliary used to express the future tensea. Susan’s going to London next month.b. She’s going to London to work at our officec. Sh e’s going to work at our officed. You’re going to like here. You’re gonna like herf. You gonna like her. (non-standard)Chapter 11 Language Acquisition11.1 First Language Acquisition11.1.1 The behaviorist approach1. Best-known advocator: B.F.Skinner11.1.2 The innateness approach1. Under the influence of Noam Chomsky’s linguistic theories and cognitive psychology, the behaviorist hypothesis of first language acquisition has been challenged2. The innateness hypothesis says that the ability to acquire a human language is part of the biologically innate equipment of the human being, and that an infant is born with this ability just as it is born with two arms, two legs, and a beating heart. It also claims that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to physiological maturation, that it is strongest in the very small child, and that some degree of decay in its function begins around the time of puberty.11.1.3 Stages of acquiring the first language1. Pre-language stages (3~10m)2. The one-word or holophrastic stage (single-unit or single-form) (12~18m)3. The two-word stage (18~20m)4. Telegraphic speech (2~3y)(1) the child begins producing a large number of utterances which could be categorized as multiple-word utterances, but these utterances usually leave out certain word that adults omit in telegrams, such as articles, auxiliary, verbs and prepositions (2) e.g. Andrew want ball; cat drink, this shoe all wet11.2 Second Language Acquisition1. The differences between second language and foreign language(1) Second language plays an institutional and social role in the community, that is, it functions as a recognized way of communication among members who speak some other language as their mother tongueExamples: English as a second language is learned in the United States, the United Kingdom, and countries in Africa such as Zambia and Nigeria by those whose first language is not English.(2) Foreign language learning takes place in situations where the language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learned in the classroom.Examples: English learned in Japan and FranceDefinition:Second Language Acquisition (L2 acquisition/SLA) (第二语习得):the acquisition of another language or languages after first language acquisition is under way or completed11.2.1 Contrastive analysis1. Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result. That is:(1) The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language(2) These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis(3) Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects ofmother tongue interference.Definition:Contrastive analysis (CA) (对比分析):systematically comparing the first language and the target language11.2.2 Error analysis1. Error analysis (EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learnersDefinition:1. Intralingual errors: result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, rather than from language transfer.e.g. “He is comes”→correct: He is coming or He comes2. Interlingual errors: caused by the learner’s native languagee.g. He comes from China, Beijing →correct: He comes from Beijing, China11.2.3 Interlanguage1. There is some in-between system while acquiring L2 which certainly contains aspects of both L1 and L2, but which is an inherently variable system with rules of its own. This system is called an interlanguage2. The process of fossilization in L2 pronunciation is one obvious cause of a foreign accentDefinitionFossilization (僵化现象): (in second or foreign language learning) a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes the target language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning.11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition11.3.1 Language aptitude1. According to Carroll, the components of language aptitude are:(1) Phonemic coding ability (音位编码能力)(2) Grammatical sensitivity (语法的感性)(3) Inductive language learning ability (语言学习归纳能力)(4) Rote learning ability (机械学习能力)Definition:Language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation and interest, etc.11.3.2 Cognitive style: field dependence and field independence1. Field dependence: measured by asking learners to look at complex patterns and identify a number of simple geometric figures that are hidden within them(1) Characteristic:①they accept the L2 information exactly as it is presented to them by the teacher.②They do not try to analyze or think about it themselves③They are very reliant on what other people think of them and depend a great deal on positive feedback in their L2 learning④They tend to be seen as outgoing and interested in others and so would be expected to develop good interpersonal communication skills in the L22. Field independent:(1) Characteristic:①do not assume that the L2 information that they are given is necessarily correct②They tend to analyze it and think about it themselves to determine whether it is correct or not③They have a strong sense of personal identity④They often seem insensitive to and distant from other people.⑤They might, therefore, be expected to be less interested in developing communication skills in the L2(2) Examples:①they think about the input that they get.②In a formal learning context they are more likely to consciously think about and analyze the structure items that are presented to them, and consider how they fit into the grammar system as a whole③In a natural acquisition context they may more actively process the input they receive to build up hypotheses about how the language works.④They would develop a broader and deeper understanding of the structure of the language.Definition1. Cognitive style (认知风格): the particular way in which a learner tries to learn something. In second or foreign language learning, different learners may prefer different solutions to learning problems. For example, some people may want explanations for grammatical rules; others may not need any explanation2. Field dependence (场依存): a learning style in which a learner tends to look at the whole of a learning task which contains many items. The learner has difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a field of other items.3. Field independence (场独立): a learning style in which a learner is able to identify or focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in the back ground or context.11.3.3 Personality traits。
语言学教程[第七章语言文化社会]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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第七章语言文化社会复习笔记I．语言与文化1．语言与文化的相互关系语言是文化不可替代的载体。
文化通过语言的使用得到更好的诠释。
2．萨丕尔一沃尔夫假说萨丕尔假说认为，语言塑造了我们的思维模式，相应地，不同的语言表达决定了人们认识世界方式的不同。
从这个观点出发，可以得到两点知识：一方面，语言可以决定我们的思维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构性差异越大，反映出对于世界认识的越不同。
因此，这个假说也被称作“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。
3．语言教学中的文化总体而言，在语言课程中教授文化知识至少有以下三个目的：①有助于学生了解文化差异；②有助于语言学习者跳出自身文化的圈子，从目标文化的角度考虑问题；③有助于通过各种课堂练习，强调对语言与文化不可分离性的理解，促进外语学习。
II.语言与社会1．社会语言学社会语言学是研究语言与社会关系的学科，研究社会因素是如何影响语言的结构和使用。
社会语言学是研究语言与社会关系的领域，研究语言的使用与语言使用者所处的社会结构的关系。
2．语言变体语言随着社会的变化而变化。
地域、社会群体和个人之间的差异也能产生语言的变化。
这些变化的结果就是语言的变体。
每种语言都不只有一种变体，特别是在口语中。
因此，语言变体是与地域、社会阶层、教育背景和被使用语言所处环境的正式程度是密切相关的。
这些语言的变体包括标准语言、方言、语域、皮钦语、克里奥尔语等。
(1)标准语言标准语言是指在群体或者国家拥有很高地位的语言变体。
它也是当地受过教育的人口语和书面语的语言基础。
(2)方言方言是指在一个特定的区域或一个特定的社会阶层内所使用的能够识别的语言变体。
方言不一定不如语言完整、逻辑和更具语言特征。
它是语言的一个变体，由于其不同之处能够划分为一个单独的实体，但是还不足以划分成为一门语言。
有时候方言的地位也会得到提升成为一个国家的标准语言。
对方言的研究称作方言学，方言学可以细分为以下几类：①地域方言：在一个地域范围内的语言变体。
新编简明英语语言学Chapter7Languagechange语言变化分析解析
新编简明英语语⾔学Chapter7Languagechange语⾔变化分析解析Chapter 7 Language change语⾔变化知识点：1.*Definition: clipping; blend; acronym; back-formation2.Morphological and syntactic change3.*Vocabulary change4.Some recent trends in language change5.Causes of language change考核⽬标：识记：Definition: clipping; blend; acronym; back-formation领会：Morphological and syntactic change; Vocabulary change简单应⽤：Some recent trends in language change; Causes of language change⼀、定义1. Clipping略写词：A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.指⽐较长的词或短语的缩写2. Blending 混合法：A process of forming a new word by combining parts oftwo other words.3. Acronym⾸字母缩略词：words derived from the initials of several words通过组合每个词的⾸位字母构成新词4. Back-formation 逆向构词法：new words are formed by taking away thesuffix of an existing word. 新词可以通过“去掉”现存的词的后缀⽽被创造出来⼆、知识点7.2 Phonological changes元⾳变化One of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in theAround the death of Chaucer in 1400，元⾳开始了进⼀步的转变。
语言学教程Chapter7精要
upon its occurrence in a given context. 2. Language functions as a link in human
activity, a mode of action.
Loan words in Japanese, Chinese, English.
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Loan words
肥皂剧、卡通、布丁、苹果派、雀巢、耐克、 因特网、KTV、E-MAIL
Typhoon, gongfu, etc.
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netspeak
滴(的、地)
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“2006年中国主流报纸十大流行语”
和谐社会、社会主义新农村、青藏铁路、自 主创新、社会主义荣辱观（八荣八耻）、中 非合作论坛、长征精神、消费税、非物质文 化遗产、倒扁
文博会、文化创意产业、孔子、原生态、百 家讲坛、于丹、潜规则、易中天、草根文化、 恶搞
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people who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner.
Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.
what end”
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现代语言学知识点
Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication
Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication
Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words
Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences
Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.
语言学第七章知识点总结
语言学第七章知识点总结Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society.In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context.Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors.1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalitiesThe verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant2.The relevant objects3.The effects of the verbal actionSpeech CommunityIt refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well.Sapir-Whorf HypothesisOur language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world.nguage may determine our thinking patterns2.Similarity between languages is relative. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse of their conceptualization of the world will beThis hypothesis has a strong version and a weak version The strong version: It refers to the claim that the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak version: It is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorial.If a language has two basic color terms, it is identified as staying in the first stage of evolution.Modla-warm color mili-cold color3 objectives for us to teach culture in our language class* to get the students familiar with cultural differences* to get the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will* to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroompractices.Women Register-Robin Lakoff1.Women use more fancy color terms such as "mauve, beige"2.Women use less powerful curse words.3.Women use more intensifiers such as "terrible, awful"4.Women use more tag questions5.Women use more statement questions. "Dinners will be ready at 5 o'clock?"6.Women's linguistic behavior is more indirect and more polite*It is not language itself but women's place in society that makes people linguistically behave in that way Communicative CompetenceIt refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.。
语言学笔记大全
同样的意义内容，在不同的语言中有不同的语音形式，这是不同的社会习惯决定的，是不同的民族在创造这个词的时候选择了不同的语音形式，各个社会的成员约定俗成的，因为语音形式和意义的联系是任意的，非本质的，所以不同语言之间出现这样的差异就不奇怪了。
四、怎样理解语言符号的任意性和线条性特点？
任意性和线条性是语言符号的两个最基本的特点。语言符号的任意性是指语言符号的音义关系是由社会约定的，用什么样的“音”去表达什么样的“义”人们说不出什么道理，完全由社会约定，这种音义关系又叫约定性；语言符号的线条性是指符号的使用只能在时间的线条上绵延，一个符号跟着一个符号依次出现。如以“小王打碎了杯子”为例，每个字只能顺着时间的先后一个跟着一个说出来，绝不能在同一时点同时蹦出两个字来。依次出现的符号要遵守一定的规则，不能随意编排。这就是说，符号的线条性是由规则支配的，对社会成员具有强制性。如“我吃饭”不能说成“饭吃我”。但是，语言又是不断发展变化的，具有可变性特点。如一些新词的出现，一字词的新用法。这种变化，又从另一个方面说明了语言符号的任意性特点，也即语言符号的音义联系是社会约定的，而不是天然的、本质的联系。
4、用“棋、下、有、一、完、没、的、盘”这八个词组成句子，看能组合成多少句子？
这些词可以组合成下列句子：
一盘没有下完的棋、没有下完的一盘棋、没有一盘下完的棋、没下完的棋有一盘、下完的棋一盘没有、下完的棋没有一盘、有一盘没下完的棋、有没下完的一盘棋、棋没下完的有一盘、棋有一盘没下完……
5、语言实际上是一种社会现象，怎样理解这句话？
二、什么是语言符号？为什么说语言是一种符号系统？
语言学主要知识点
名词解释：《尔雅》是我国最早的一部解释词义的语言学专著，也是第一部按照词义系统和事物分类来编纂的词典。
产生于汉代，作者不详。
作为书名，“尔”是“近”的意思（后来写作“迩”），“雅”是“正”的意思，在这里专指“雅言”，即在语音、词汇和语法等方面都合乎规范的标准语。
《尔雅》的意思是接近、符合雅言，即以雅正之言解释古语词、方言词，使之近于规范。
体例为十九篇。
《方言》全称《輶轩使者绝代语释别国方言》，作者西汉扬雄，历经27年写成，主要是诠释“别国方言”和“绝代语释”。
释词体例大致与《尔雅》相似，虽然没有象《尔雅》那样明确地标明门类，但也基本上采用分类编次法。
是我国古代第一部方言学著作，是中国语言学史上一部里程碑式的著作,成为世界上第一部方言比较词汇集而开方言地理学之先河。
《释名》作者东汉刘熙。
共8卷，27篇，体例仿《尔雅》，以音训（用音同、音近的字来训释被训字）为训释方式，是我国第一部探究汉语语源的著作（探究得名原因），阐明了许多词的理据、同源词系统。
《说文解字》简称《说文》，作者东汉许慎，历时21年写成。
旧称字书，它是我国语言学史上第一部分析字形、说解字义、辨识声读的字典。
同时，它创立了汉民族风格的语言学——文献语言学，是文献语言学的奠基之作。
共收单字9353个，分别归为540部。
贡献：确定并阐明了六书理论；创立了文字原则的部首系统；对汉字形音义三方面分析；保存了汉代的古训古音，训释本义；保存了篆文、古文、籀文的古文字系统；540部首解字体例，采用言序、形序、四角号码的检字方式。
《广韵》全称《大宋重修广韵》，五卷，是我国北宋时代官修的一部韵书，宋真宗大中祥符元年（1008年），由陈彭年、丘雍等奉旨在前代韵书的基础上编修而成，是我国历史上完整保存至今并广为流传的最重要的一部韵书，是我国宋以前的韵的集大成者。
原是为增广《切韵》而作，除增字加注外，部目也略有增订。
《马氏文通》原名《文通》，马建忠著。
是我国第一部用现代语言学理论研究中国语法的著作，在我国语言学史上具有划时代的意义。
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语言学第七章知识点总结
Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society.
In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context.
Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors.
1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalities
The verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant
2.The relevant objects
3.The effects of the verbal action
Speech Community
It refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Our language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world.
nguage may determine our thinking patterns
2.Similarity between languages is relative. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse of their conceptualization of the world will be
This hypothesis has a strong version and a weak version The strong version: It refers to the claim that the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.
The weak version: It is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorial.
If a language has two basic color terms, it is identified as staying in the first stage of evolution.
Modla-warm color mili-cold color
3 objectives for us to teach culture in our language class
* to get the students familiar with cultural differences
* to get the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will
* to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom
practices.
Women Register-Robin Lakoff
1.Women use more fancy color terms such as "mauve, beige"
2.Women use less powerful curse words.
3.Women use more intensifiers such as "terrible, awful"
4.Women use more tag questions
5.Women use more statement questions. "Dinners will be ready at 5 o'clock?"
6.Women's linguistic behavior is more indirect and more polite
*It is not language itself but women's place in society that makes people linguistically behave in that way Communicative Competence
It refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.。