部分语言学课后练习答案
(完整word版)语言学课后答案
1.What is the difference between an allophone and a phoneme?A phoneme is a unit of sound in a language that cannot be analysed into smaller linear units and that can distinguish one word from another. Phonemes are often presented surrounded by in transcription (e.g. /p/ and /b/ in English pat, bat). So /p/ and /b/ are two phonemes because they can distinguish between the words "pat" and "bat". /c/ is another, because it distinguishes the word "cat" from "pat" and "bat".Allophones are any of the variants making up a single phoneme .So, for example, you might pronounce the letter "T" differently in the two words "stand" and "tip".2.Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs? Ban ,fat, pit, bell, tape, heat, meal, more, pat, pen, chain, vote, bet, far, bun, goat ,heel, sane ,talePat----fatpat---pitheat—healtape---talebun---banfat---farbell---betmeal---heel3.What is meant by the phonotactics of a language?Phonotactics is the particular combination of letter sounds that are allowable within a given language. Each language, or even each dialect of a language, has its own set of rules that speakers stay within. Phonotactics is a branch of phonology, the study of the sound structures of languages, but also has applications in phonetics, the actual production of sound, in synthesized speech and language identification Phonotactics affects the structure and emphasis of syllables in a language. Nearly every French word, for instance, has an emphasis on the final syllable. In Greek, the emphasis depends on the length of the final vowel in the word, among other factors. When speaking his or her native language, a person is often able to put the emphasis on the correct syllable intuitively, even if reading an unfamiliar word.。
语言学概论 语言学课后习题答案
语言学概论语言学课后习题答案P7 3. Discuss the relation of arbitrariness and rules?Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not randomin their use. Although the link between form and meaningis arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way onceit has become established in the linguistic community. P12explain the primacy of human language over animal communication.Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor inhuman language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.P18 1. Identify the functions of the following sentences.a)I like your house very much. b)I now declare the meeting closed. c)Nice to meet you d)I met Mary in the library this morning.a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. InformativefunctionP24 list five Chinese onomatopoetic words 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪are the functions of onomatopoetic words?Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basisof language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.P28 is the real object of linguistics?The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages inthe world. We need to look into the common features ofall languages, the range of variations among languages,the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language,the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.P58 1. What is a phoneme? And what is an allophone? Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme isa block thatcannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.P62 1. What does the word 'distinctive' mean inthe term 'distinctive features'?Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, \P65 1. What does complementary distribution mean? When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to bein complementary distribution. That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s).P69 2. What is the importance of stress in English?Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yielda regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm arecommonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English. P75 3. How can you identify the meaning of a word? Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called \\or\connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning.We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning.As for its various associated meanings, however, wehave to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context as well as the context of situationand the context of culture.P82 1. Divide the following words into morphemesby placing a \each morpheme and the next.1) unbearable 2) watchful 3) personification 4) unexceptionally 5) uneducated 6) inspiring 7)soft-hearted 8) horsemanship1. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + except+tion + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate+-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing 7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship3. How many allomorphs does the plural form s have? The plural s has 3 phonologically-conditioned allomorphs... and 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in \\(2) -(r)en: as in \and (5) zero, as in \P93 2. What is the difference between lexeme and word?A lexeme refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units whereas a word refers to the smallest form of a language that can occur by itself.A lexeme may be or may not be identical with a word. For example, the definite article \the lexeme \P100 1. Is immediate constituent analysis effective to explain discontinuousconstituents?No. Immediate constituent analysis is solely concerned with the surface structures of language, which only shows the physical manifestation of the language, for example, linear order of a sentence. One approach to explain sentences with discontinuousconstituents is to represent them by two phrase markers, which will be structurally related. One phrase markeris derived from another. By transformational grammar, the discontinuous constituents can be accounted for effectively. Transformational rules are responsiblefor the generation of infinitely many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrase-structure rules.2. Diagram the constituent structure of each of the following.(a) a very old wooden house down the lane (b) His old friend arrived yesterday.P103 2. Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a tree diagramof constituent structure for each of the following sentences: (a) A smart boy fooled the class.(b) The pavilion on the hill collapsed in the wind.(c) Everybody knew that the president would win the election.P110 1. Draw the tree diagrams for the following sentences:(1) She found a book on Madison Street. (2) Jack advised Henry to see the dentist. (3) Jack promised Henry to see the doctor.P115 Exercises:What is the relationship between surface structure and deep structure?Surface structure can be derived from deep structure. A surface structure may be represented by more than one phrase marker, which in sense is the same to a single phrase marker. This one single phrase marker is said to be the deep structure. In the operation from deep structure to surface structure, phrase structure rules and modifications are needed to add, delete, or permute constituents. The relations between deep and surface structures are to be revealed throughtransformational rules. In this process, the order or hierarchic relationship of the constituents is to be changed. The actual pronunciation is based on the surface structureP120 1. The formation of many sentences involves the operation of syntacticmovement. Show the deep structures for each of following sentences. (a) The boss of the bus company was severely criticized by the public. (b) The woman threw the rake away in the yard. (c) Will the new school master hire her?(a) The relevant parts for the passive transformational rule of the above sentence are the subject NP (here the public), the object NP (here the boss, which will change positions with the public), the V (criticize) and AUX, and then a be + en auxiliary will be inserted. The deep structure should be its corresponding active variant, which is The public criticized the boss of the bus company severely.(b) In the derivation of The woman threw the rake away in the yard., the underlying structure, The woman threw away the rake in the yard. is also the deepstructure. It is generated by the phrase-structure rules, including the rule which states that a V (verb) consists of a Vprt (verbsthat can combine with verbal particles) and a Prt (verbal particles). In the surface structure, a new phrase marker is produced in which the particle is moved to the right of the NP.(c) The question rule formulates that in order to form a yes-no question from the declarative sentence, move the first auxiliary verb of the main sentence (in this case, will) immediately before the first NP of that sentence (here, the new school master). So, the deep structure of the question should be its declarative variant, which is The new school master will hire her.2. Please display the transformational rules involved in the following sentences.(a) What can the computer program do for us?A wh interrogative sentence is derived by a movement rule from a deep structure similar to that of the declarative counterpart. So, the sentence like What can the computer program do for us? would derive froma deep structure in the form of The computer program can do \this sentence, the object is fronted. First, the interrogative transformation which switches round the auxiliary verb can and the subject the computer program - known as 'I' (inflexion) movement, and in the second step, a 'wh' transformation - known as 'wh' movement - that moves the noun phrase what- \content\to the front of the sentence, see the following diagram.(b) The window was broken by Jack.This sentence is traditionally called the \sentence, and its variant is \This pair is broadly speaking the same in meaning. The formulations of the passive rules must capture the fact that the active sentence and the passive sentence have their NP's (here the window and Jack) in reverse order, and that botha be + en auxiliary and the preposition by occur in the passive sentences and not in the active ones. AUX refers to past tense in this sentence.(c) They gave the door a gentle push.A corresponding sentence to the sentence is They gave a gentle push to the door. Both of which have the same basic meaning, and differ in the order of NP's inthe VP. In the corresponding sentence we find NP1 + to + NP2, in the above given sentence. Yet, in the sentence They gave the door a gentle push., we have reversed NP's. Transformational rules capture these facts by viewing the sentence, They gave the door a gentle push. as derived from the sentence, They gave a gentle push to the door., by deleting to and reverses the order of (, permutes) the two NP's. A phrase marker is changed into a new one.P133 Exercise 2:2. What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning? Sentence meaning refers to the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence. It is the context-independent meaning. Utterance meaning refers to the meaning of an utterance in the context. In other words, it is the meaning dependent on the context. In some cases, the sentence meaning coincides with the utterance meaning. But in many situations, the utterance meaning differs from the sentence meaning.P140 Exercise 1&3：1、Please explain why there are not true synonyms. True synonyms are rare. The so-called \their origin,in the shade of meaning, in the affective or stylistic meaning, or in collocation and distribution.3、What category of antonym does each of the following pair of words belong to?a. black, whiteb. buy, sellc. big, smalld. parent, childe. upstairs, downstairsf. polite, rudea)black, white: complementary antonyms; b)buy, sell: relational antonyms;c）big, small: gradable antonyms;d)parent,child:relational antonyms; f)polite,rude: complementary antonyms.P142 Exercise 2:2. What is the semantic relation between the wordsin the following pairs. 1) hand, foot 2) rose, narcissus 3) tree, willow 4) bottle, cork 1) hand, foot: These two words are hyponyms (or \part of the human body.2) rose, narcissus: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy; they are both thesubordinates of the word flower.3) tree, willow: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: tree is the hypernym (or \In other words, a willow is a kind of tree.4) bottle, cork: These two words are in the semantic relation of myronymy. \is part of a bottle.P146 Exercise 3:3. What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy?When a lexeme has a multiplicity of meanings, it is polysemic. Polysemy is the result from the change of meaning and therefore semantic relations of one kind or another can be identified between the various meanings of the lexeme. In contrast, although homonyms share the same phonological form, they have no common semantic features and in many cases have different written forms. They are normally of different etymological origin and are treated in dictionaries as different entries.P150 Exercise 1&2：1. Try to identify the presuppositions that lie behind each of the following utterances:a) John has stopped smoking. b) She regretted having told him the secret. c) The boy opened the door himself. d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid.a) John has stopped smoking. → John had been smoking.b) She regretted having told him the secret. →She had told him the secret. c) The boy opened the door himself. → The door had been closed.d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid. → The paper was dipped into the liquid 2. What does each of the following utterances entail?a) He lost his bike yesterday. b) They went to the Great Wall.c) Mary's computer is terrific. d) We met two of our friends at the party.a) He lost his bike yesterday. → His bike is missing now.b) They went to the Great Wall. → They are not here at present. c) Mary's computer is terrific. →Mary's computer is good.d) We met two of our friends at the party. → Two of our friends were at the party.P154 Exercise 2:2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?Componential analysis has a number of advantages over traditional approaches to lexical meanings. Firstly, it throws new light on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metaphor. Secondly, componential analysis can better explain the validity of syntagmatic combination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach. Thirdly, componential analysis gives a better account for the formation of the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The componential analysis has three disadvantages. Firstly, it is often difficult to determine what semantic features are essential to define a word, and how many are sufficient for the specification. Secondly, when faced with two equally plausible features, it is often difficult to determine which one we should specify. Thirdly, componential analysis seems to be difficult to be apply to function words, such as the, of, and, and ah, forthey seem to have no semantic features.P156 Exercise 1:1. Please identify the types of predicate in eachof the verbs in the following sentences.a) He gave me the book. b) It was snowing hard.c) The computer is working properly. d) Someone invented the story. a) This sentence has a three-place predicate gave, which governs three arguments, the subject He, the indirect object me and the direct object (the) book.b) This sentence has a no-place predicate (was) snowing, which governs no argument. Note that the subject It here is an empty word and so does not play the role of an argument in the sentence.c) This sentence has a one-place predicate (is) working, which governs one argument (the) computer.d) This sentence has a two-place predicate invented, which governs two arguments, the subject Someone and the object (the) story.P159 Exercise 2:2. Please comment on the role of tautology in the following:看看人家，冰箱是冰箱，彩电是彩电。
语言学课后答案4.doc
1.syntax: the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.co-occurrence: It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For instance, what can precede a noun {dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will be predicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. In short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevant elements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.construction: it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. It can be further divided into the external and internal properties. Take sentence The boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determine the external syntax as an independent clause, while NP ("the boy"), VP ("kicked") and NP ("the ball") will be assigned respectively to the different elements in this clause.constituent: Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple, S (A), the boy (B), ate the apple(C), each part is a constituent. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the bo。
(完整word版)语言学课后练习参考答案
胡壮麟语言学复习及答案Chapter I Introductionl.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8 .F 9.T 10.F11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.T 18.F19.F 20.FI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.T2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.F3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.F4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. F7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. T8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.F9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. T10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. F11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. F17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.T18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some pointin time. F19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language. F20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24.arbitrary25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive30. scientific (or systematic)21. Chomsky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.D31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48.Morphology 49.Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness 53 Productivity 54.Displacement 55.Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T8.F 9.T 10.F11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.T 18.F19.F 20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It meansthat there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are.The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk aboutanything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The twoelements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.Chapter 2：Phonology l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. T2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. F3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.F4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. F5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.T6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. T7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. F8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. F9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. T10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.F11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. F 12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. T13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.F14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. F15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.F16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. F17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. T18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. F19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are languagespecific. T20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentence21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22．A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24． Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with thediacritics is called n_________ transcription.30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31．P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity. 33．T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. <![endif]>34．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.D35． Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38． The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. similar 39．Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40．The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme 44．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD.allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone48. international phonetic alphabet49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is nota sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages 51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking。
语言学第四章课后答案
语言学第四章课后答案1、“桌子”，“书包”都属于名词，这体现了语法的什么性质（）。
[单选题] *A.抽象性(正确答案)B.递归性C.系统性D.稳定性答案解析：“桌子”、“书包”等词语，虽然意思不同，但根据某种共同特点——大都能受数量词的修饰，就可以建立“名词”这个类：这就是词的用法对语法单位类别的抽象。
这体现了语法的抽象性。
2、语法规则的“系统性”是指（）。
[单选题] *A.对语言的结构和成分进行类的概括B.相同规则可在一个结构里重复使用C.语法规则之间可以相互推导和解释(正确答案)D.语法规则的发展变化过程十分缓慢答案解析：所谓“系统”，指的是语法规则具有推导性和解释性。
3、“三思而后行”在今天读来依旧朗朗上口，体现了语法的什么性质（）。
[单选题] *A.抽象性B.递归性C.系统性D.稳定性(正确答案)答案解析：“三思而后行”这句话产生在古代，现在依旧适用，体现语法的稳定性。
4、下列不属于共时语法的是（）。
[单选题] *A.现代汉语语法B.先秦汉语语法C.汉语语法的演化(正确答案)D.近代汉语语法答案解析：共时语法指的是从某一时期存在的语法现象横向地静态地研究语法。
因此A、B、D选项都属于共时语法。
汉语语法的演化属于历时语法的体现。
5、以下关于“教学语法和信息语法”的内容说法有误的一项是（）。
[单选题] *A.这是根据语法研究的用途区分的语法B.教学语法研究的结果面对的是人，或者说这种语法系统要充分考虑人的特点C.信息语法也叫“计算机语法”D.语法规则体系，方便计算机处理信息。
其特点是精确可靠，定义和规则具有可推导性和可开发性(正确答案)答案解析：教学语法和信息语法是根据语法研究的用途区分的语法。
教学语法研究的结果面对的是人，或者说这种语法系统要充分考虑人的特点；信息语法也叫“计算机语法”，其研究结果服务的是机器，即建立一套可以自动识别和操作的语法规则体系，方便计算机处理信息。
其特点是精确可靠，定义和规则具有可推导性和可验证性。
语言学课后答案第2章
1.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics andperceptual/auditory phonetics.articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘.International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the InternationalPhonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996. consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.manner of articulation: ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.Cardinal Vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived. coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sou nd shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymouslywith ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; t he converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.distinctive features: a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable. intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.8.In Old English, there are no voiced fricative phonemes. All voiced variants, which appear only between voiced sounds, are allophones of their voiceless counterparts.The rule can be stated as follows:fricatives → [+voice] / [+voice]_____[+voi ce][–voice] in other places2.1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel3.1) [f]2) [ʒ]3) [j]4) [h]5) [t]6) [e]7) [ʉ]8) [ɶ]9) [ɔ]10) [u]4.1) On a clear day you can see for miles.2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.5. 1)Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth. The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in the oral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered to allow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the ―Adam‘s Apple‖. The larynx contains the vocal folds, als o known as ―vocal cords‖ or ―vocal bands‖. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam‘s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.5. 2)This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [ɪ] in women, and ti as [ʃ] in nation.5. 3)In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction ofair. The former is known as the Manner of Articulation and the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this spacewould involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue can achieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowest position the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or open-mid, and mid-low or close-mid).5. 4)Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.5. 5)Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel [æ], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun. Similarly, when [æ] isfollowed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of [æ] so that it is ready for the following nasal.When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process ‗coarticulation‘. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticulation‘, as is the case of map.Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example,ex. 1a. cap [kæp] can [kæn]b. tap [tæp] tan [tæn]ex. 2a. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛn̪θ]b. ninety [naɪnti] ninth [naɪn̪θ]ex. 2a. since [sɪns] sink [sɪŋk]b. mince [sɪns] mink [mɪŋk]In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is ―nasalized‖ because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2, the nasal /n/ is ―dentalized‖ before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [ŋ] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:ex. 4a. pan[ŋ]cakeb. he can[ŋ] go nowStudies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound: ex. 5a. five past [faɪvpɑːst] >[faɪfpɑːst]b. has to [hæztə] >[hæstə]c. as can be shown [əzkənbɪʃəʊn]> [əskənbɪʃəʊn]d. edge to edge [ɛʤtəɛʤ] >[ɛʧtəɛʤ]The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.5. 6)The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word isformed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable structure it is [te+lə].6.In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([-voice]) consonants and all the sounds that end the words in column B are voiced ([+voice]) consonants.2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [ʌɪ] appears only before voiceless consonants and [aɪ] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) (a) [lʌɪf] (b) lives [laɪvz]5) (a) [traɪl] (b) [bʌɪk] (c) [lʌɪs] (d) [flaɪ] (e) [maɪn]6) /aɪ/ [ʌɪ] / _____[–voice][aɪ] in other places7.As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as [ɪŋ] before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:(1) [ɪn]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable[ɪn] or [ɪŋ]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent[ɪm]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile[ɪl]: illiterate, illegal, illogical[ɪr]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregularIt is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [ɪm] before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [ɪl] before the lateral [l], [ɪr] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [ɪŋ] in rapid speech and [ɪn] in careful speech. In all other cases [ɪn] is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /ɪn/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):(2) /ɪn/ → {[ɪn], [ɪŋ]} / _____[velar][ɪm] / _____[labial][ɪl] / _____ [l][ɪr] / _____[r][ɪn] in other placesThis rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization [ɪŋ] is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as [ɪŋkɒnfərəns] in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar.We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [ɪn]correct (or[ɪŋ]correct), [ɪm]moveable, [ɪl]legible, [ɪr]rational, and [ɪn]adequate, which further support the rules above.(Based on Plag, 2003: 200-1)。
语言学课后答案3
1.morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexically or grammatically. Take for example, the word tourists contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning –ist (meaning ―person who does something), and a minimal unit of grammatical function –s (indicating plural). Meanwhile, from the above example, we can further classify morphemes into different types on different dimensions: (a) free morphemes, which can stand by themselves as single words, e.g. tour in tourist, and bound morphemes, which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, e.g. –ist, -s. (b) lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. Both of these two types of morphemes fall into the ―free‖ category. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs tha t carry the ―content‖ of message we convey, e.g. house, long and follow. The second category consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. but, above, the and it. (c) derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. These two types of morphemes fall into the ―bound‖ category. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree. As a useful way to remember the different categories of morphemes, the following chart can be used:It should be pointed out, morphemes may also be divided into roots and affixes, the root being that part of a word structure which is left when all the affixes have been removed. Root morphemes may be bound or free, and are potentially unlimited in number in a language; Affixes are bound morphemes and limited in number. For instance, in try, tries, trying, tried, the root is try, and –s, -ing, -ed are affixes. compound:refers to the words that consist of more than on lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compounds, there are Noun compounds (e.g. daybreak), Verb compounds (e.g. brainwash), Adjective compounds (e.g. dutyfree) and Preposition compounds (e.g. throughout). Meanwhile compounds can be further divided into endocentric compound and exocentric compound in terms of its structural organization. The head of a nominal or adjectival endocentric compound is d is derived from a Verb, and it is usually the case that the first member is a participant of the process verb. Consider the following two examples: self-control and virus-sensitive. The exocentric nominal compounds are formed by V+N, V+A, and V+P, whereas the exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A. Here are some examples:Nouns scarecrow playboy cutthroat Adjectives takehome lackluster breakneckinflection: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.affix:the collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme. Affixes in a language are limited in number, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position around the root or stem of a word. Prefixes are these affixes that have be added to the beginning of a word (e.g. un- in unhappy); suffixes are those added to the end of a word (e.g.–ish in foolish); infixes, as a third type of affix, is not normally found in English but fairly common in some other languages. As the term suggests, it is an affix that is incorporated inside another word. It is possible to see the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Absogoddamlutely!And Unfuckingbelievable! In fact, all affixes are bound morphemes. derivation: is the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words. It is accomplished by means of a large number of affixes of English language, and shows the relationship between roots and affixes. For example:mis+represent →misrepresent, joy+ ful → joyful, sad + ness → sadness. In contrast to inflection, derivation can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged, e.g. dis + card → discard (changed) and dis + obey → disobey (unchanged). It is worth mentioning that word forms that come from derivation are relatively large and potentially open. Take the prefix pre- for example. One can easily list hundreds of words from any dictionary, such as preamble, pre-arrange, precaution, precede, precedent, precept, precinct, precognition, precondition, precursor, among many othersroot: refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, the left part is the root nation. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. And roots can be further classified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme.First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive, and conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit, and submit; -tain in retain, contain, and maintain; -cur in incur, recur, and occur, etc. Third, a few English roots may have both free and bound variants. For instance, sleep(/sliːp/) and child (/tʃaild/) are free root morphemes, whereas slep- in the past tense form of sleep, i.e. slept and child- in the plural form of child, namely children, cannot exist by themselves, and are hence bound.allomorph:A morpheme, like a phoneme, is a linguistic abstraction, which must be realized as certain phonetic forms or variants in different phonetic environments. Each of the phonetic forms or variants is a morph. A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two or more morphs. The different morphs that represent or which are derived from one morpheme is called the allomorphs of that morpheme. In practice, some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as ―dog‖ ―bark‖ etc. In other instances there may be considerable variation, that is to say, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. For example, the plural sememe in English can be represented by the voiceless /s/, the voiced /z/, the vowel-consonant structure /ɪz/, the diphthong /aɪ/ found in the irregular form of /maɪs/, the nasal sound /n/ in /ˡɒksn/, the long vowel /i/ in /tiːθ/ and the zero form /iː/ of /ʃiːp/ and others. Each would be said to be an allomorph of the plural morpheme.stem: is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, friend-in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.bound morpheme: refers to those which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. For example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis-and -ed are two boundmorphemes. There are two types of morphemes which fall into the ―bound‖ category: derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree.free morpheme: refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves. In English cats,cat is free since cat is a word in its own right. Free morphemes therefore necessarily constitute mono-morphemic words. So all mono-morphemic words are free morphemes. Poly-morphemic words/compound words may consist wholly of free morphemes, and English aircraft, godfather and housewife. As for its subtypes, free morphemes can be further divided into lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. The former is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the ―content‖ of message we convey, e.g. house, long and follow. The latter consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. but, above, the and it. lexeme: in order to reduce the ambiguity of the term word, lexeme is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which appears in different grammatical contexts. For exampl e, ―write‖ is the lexeme of the following set of words: write, writes, wrote, writing, written.grammatical word:refers to those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together different content parts. So they are also known as Function Words.lexical word:refers to those which have mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, andadverbs. Lexical words carry the main content of a language. So lexical words are also known as Content Words.lexicon:refers to the whole vocabulary of a language as against grammar of a language.closed-class:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member.open-class:is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.blending:is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, telephone + exchange → telex; transfer + resister → transistor.loanword: The borrowing of a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter. For instance, English borrowed au pair, encore, coup d'etat and others from French, al fresco(in the open air) from Italian, tea from Chinese, sputnik from Russian and moccasin(a type of shoe) from an American Indian language.loanblend: is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. For example, the first parts of the words coconut and China-town came from Spanish and Chinese respectively, but the second parts are of the English origin. loanshift: is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. For example, the Italian ponte means ―bridge‖ in the literal sense, when it refers to a type of card game, the meaning was borrowed from English.acronym:is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. For example, WTO stands for World Trade Organization. This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields, e.g. Aids—acquired immune deficiency syndrome, COBOL—common business oriented language. loss: the loss of sound refers to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. Take the sound /x/ in O.E. (old English) again for example. Apart from having changed into /f/ or /k/ in some words as mentioned above, this velar fricative was simply lost between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare. Sounds lost may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels. For example, temperature /'tempərətʃə/ /'temprətʃə/. backformation: refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. For example, the word television appeared before televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language.assimilation:refers to the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called ―contact‖ or ―contiguous‖ assimilation. The assimi lation processes at work could be explained by the ―theory of least effort‖; that is, in speaking we tend to use as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often the places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often. For instance, in expressions such as immobile, irrevocable, impolite, illegal, the negative prefixes im-, il-, or ir- should be in- etymologically. Sometimes assimilation may occur between two sounds that are not too far separated. For instance, discussing shortly(/s/ becomes /ʃ/) and confound it(/ə/ becomes /aʊ/). This is called ―non-contiguous‖ or ―distant‖ assimilation. dissimilation:refers to the influence of one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different. For example,grammar (O.E.) → glamor (M.E.)peregrinus (Latin) → pilgrimmarbre (French) → marbleIn all these examples, one of the phonemes, /r/, dissimilates to /l/ in the course of time, which has changed the morpheme in question.folk etymology: refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous. For example, the word sparrowgrass in English was derived from asparagus and the Spanish cucaracha was changed into English cockroach.2.a. irremovableb. informalc. impracticabled. insensiblee. intangiblef. illogicalg. irregularh. disproportionatei. ineffectivej. inelastick. inductivel. irrational m. dissyllabic n. abnormal o. unworkable p. unwritten q. unusual r. unthinkable s. inhuman t. irrelevant u. uneditable v. immobile w. illegalx. indiscreet3.As a matter of fact, morpheme is both a grammatical concept and a semantic one.For instance, we can recognize that English word-forms such as talks, talker,talked and talking must consist of one element talk, and a number of otherelements such as –s, -er, -ed, -ing. All these elements are described asmorphemes. The definition of morphemes is a “minimal unit ofmeaning orgrammatical function”. We would say that the word reopened in the sentence Thepolice reopened the investigation consists of three morphemes. One minimal unitof meaning is open, another minimal unit of meaning is re- (meaning again), anda minimal unit of grammatical function is –ed (indicating past tense). Therefore, we are in a position to conclude that those which can stand bythemselves as single words, e.g. open, are semantic concepts, and those whichcannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form,e.g. re-, -ist,-ed,-s, are grammatical concepts.As we know, each one of the meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language isdescribed as a phoneme. An essential property of a phoneme is that it functionscontrastively. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is achange of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. The relation between morpheme and phoneme is also of twofold feature, viz.one-to-one, one-to-more. As with the former type, one-to-one, re- is the kindof morpheme that always consists of two phonemes /riː/; as for the latter type,one-to-more relation, a typical example would be the plural morpheme thatfollows a noun or a verb. {s} after a noun can be pronounced in three ways, viz./s/, /z/,and /ɪz/, as in locks, bags, and watches; {z} after a verb can also bepronounced in three ways, viz. /s/, /z/, and /ɪz/, as in stops, drags, andcatches.Seen from a integrative perspective, a morpheme and a phoneme, indeed, can forman organic whole, as the number of the sound of each morpheme cannot beunlimited.4.The function words in this passage include: she, was, a, and, when, she, for,she, was, past, of, her, were, in, but, this, and, as, she, a, that, from, of, would, to, her, a, of, that, had, over, she, would, the, it, on, her, and, it, and the. Altogether there are 85 words in this passage, and the function wordsare 40. Then the percentage of function words in this passage is 40/85¡Ö47% .5. Here are the answers for reference:(a) The ¡°words¡± in Bloomfield¡¯s sense, namely, the minimum free forms asconceptual units in general thinking are those smallest units that can stand bythemselves and constitute, by themselves, complete utterances. Those that canfunction as complete utterances by themselves like hi, possibly, darling, andeven the legs of the table, the man I saw yesterday etc. are ¡°words¡±.(b) Yes, for example, those words that cannot stand only by themselves andconstitute utterances by themselves in the usual sense like the articles a andthe in English fail to satisfy Bloomfield¡¯s criterion, though he himself doesnot acknowledge this.(c) In addition to the criterion of a minimum free form, stability and relativeuninterruptibility are also involved in defining the word. Besides, the threesenses of ¡°word¡±, namely, a physically definable unit, the common factorunderlying a set of forms and a grammatical unit can be conducive to identifyingthe word.6.(a) bash(b) smash(c) glimmer(d) flimmer(e) clash(f) flare(g) brunch(h) motel(i) transistor (j) medicare (k) workaholic (l) spam (m) telethon (n) aerobicise (o) chunnel (p) chortle (q) bit(r) modem (s) guestimate (t) threepeat bat and mashsmack and mashgleam and shimmerflame and glimmerclap and crashflame and glarebreakfast and lunchmotor and hoteltransfer and resistormedical and carework and alcoholicspiced and hamtelephone and marathonaerobics and exercisechannel and tunnelchuckle and snortbinary and digitmodulator and demodulatorguess and estimatethree and repeat8.(a) asset: assets(b) burgle: burglar(c) enthuse: enthusiasm(d) greed: greedy(e) hush: husht(f) automate: automation(g) donate: donation(h) escalate: escalator(i) homesick: homesickness (j) peddle: peddler(k) diagnose: diagnosis(l) tuit: intuition(m) amusing: amuse(n) loaf: loafer(o) self-destruct: self-destruction (p) attrit: attrition(q) hairdress: hairdresser(r) emote: emotion(s) drawse: drowsy(t) frivol: frivolous9.(a) air(b) barbecue(c) bungalow(d) cola (e) gusto(f) babel(g) buffalo(h) cocoa(i) costume(j) ill(k) mule(l) decreed(m) revolution(n) benevolent(o) lie(p) topic(q) subject(r) theme(s) wind(t) datumMiddle EnglishAmerican SpanishHindi and UrduAfrican originSpanishHebrew (The Bible)ItalianSpanishFrenchMiddle EnglishMiddle EnglishMiddle EnglishMiddle EnglishMiddle EnglishMiddle EnglishLatinMiddle EnglishMiddle EnglishMiddle EnglishLatin10.LW: monk; loan-wordLB: booby trap; coconutLS: YankeeLT: firewater; free verse; war paint11.No. Words with both of these affixes –ly are not allocated in English. Seebelow:*friendlily (friend-friendly-friendlily*) *oilily (oil-oily-oilily*) *chillily (chill-chilly-chillily*)12.hat house kitchen region13.-ing, He is walking home, of progressive aspect-ed, He walked home, of simple past tense-s, He walks home, of simple present tense。
《语言学概论》课后练习题(附答案)
语言学概论一、单项选择题1. 由单纯字符组合而成的字符，被叫做（）。
A. 声符B. 单纯字符C. 复合字符D. 意符【正确答案】 C2. 语言是个层级体系，底层是语音单位层，凡是跟底层语言单位联系的文字就叫（）。
A. 楔形文字B. 象形文字C. 表意文字D. 表音文字【正确答案】 D3. 语言是个层级体系，上层是音义结合的符号层，凡是跟上层语言单位联系的文字就叫（）。
A. 楔形文字B. 象形文字C. 表意文字D. 表音文字【正确答案】 C4. “楔形文字” 也叫（）。
A. 丁头字B. 大头字C. 丁形字D. 图文字【正确答案】 A5. 刻在雕像座、庙宇和金字塔墓室石头和祭器上的（），是一种象形程度很高的符号。
A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 模形体【正确答案】 A6. 跟碑铭体并行的有一种僧侶阶层平时使用的已经线条化的近乎草书的字体，称为（）。
A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 圣书字【正确答案】 B7. 公元前7世纪还出现了一种在僧侣体基础上加以简化供老百姓使用的字体，称为（）。
A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 圣书字【正确答案】 C8. 腓尼基文字被称做（）。
A. 元音音素文字B. 表意文字C. 辅音音素文字D. 意音文字【正确答案】 C9.希腊人在借用腓尼基文字来书写希腊语时增添了（）。
A. 元音字母B. 辅音字母C. 多音节语素D. 单音节语素【正确答案】 A10. 把两个或两个以上象形字或指事字拼合在一起且把它们的意义结合成一个新的意义的造字方法叫做（）。
A. 象形B. 形声C. 会意D. 指事【正确答案】 C11. 炼字的基本功是（）。
A. 精心挑选关键词语B. 恰当使用修饰词语C. 合理使用修辞手法D. 注意词语的巧妙配合【正确答案】 A12. 一般来说，（）的特点是信息量大、逻辑严谨、细致准确。
A. 长句B. 短句C. 陈述句D. 反问句【正确答案】 A13. 我国古典诗文中常用的修辞方式是（）。
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II.Give the description of the following sound segments in English.1. [Ɵ] voiceless dental fricative2. [ʃ]: voiceless postalveolar fricative3. [ŋ]: velar nasal4. [d]: voiced alveolar stop5. [p]: voiceless bilabial stop6. [k]: voiceless velar stop7. [l]: alveolar lateral8. [i]: high front lax unrounded vowel9. [u:]: high back tense rounded vowel10. [ɔ]: low back lax rounded vowelIII. Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below.1.voiceless labiodental fricative: [f]2.voiced postalveolar fricative: [Ʒ]3.palatal approximant: [j]4.voiceless glottal fricative: [h]5.voiceless alveolar stop: [t]6.high-mid front unrounded vowel: [i]7.high central rounded vowel: [] 符号里没找到，就是在语音[U]上划一横8.low front rounded vowel: [Œ]9.low-mid back rounded vowel: [ɔ]10. high back rounded tense vowel: [u:]V. Discuss the following questions.4) To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology is the study of sound systems that occur in a language and the patterns where they fall in. Minimal pairs, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it focuses on chaos. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. A phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language. It focuses on order.II. Complete the words with suitable negative prefixes.a.irremovable m. dissyllabicrmal n. abnormalc.impracticable o. unworkabled.insensible p. unwrittene.intangible q. unusualf.illogical r. unthinkableg.irregular s. inhumanh.disproportionate t. irrelevanti.ineffective u. uneditablej.inelastic v. immobilek.inductive w. illegall.irrational x. indiscreetIII. Morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme? Can a morpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, that is, it is involved both in grammatical and semantic aspects.A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. For example, the phoneme /s/ in ‘looks’, ‘tapes’, ‘Frank’s’, ‘race’ is the same one, yet they represent different morphemes or even is not a morpheme individually. The phoneme /s/ in ‘looks’: the third-person singular present tense morpheme; the phoneme/s/ in ‘tapes’: the plural morpheme; the phoneme /s/ in ‘Frank’s’: the possessive case morpheme; the phoneme /s/ in ‘race’: is not a morpheme, for it has neither lexical meaning or grammatical meaning.Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structure other than a single phoneme. In other words, a morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. an independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.Chapter 4III. Put brackets around the immediate constituents in each sentence.1.((I) ((rode) (back))) ((when) ((it) ((was) (dark)))).2.((The) (boy)) ((was) (crying)).3.(Shut) ((the) (door)).4.((Open) ((the) (door))) (quickly).5.((The) (((happy) (teacher)) ((in) ((that) (class))))) ((was) ((becoming) (away))).6.(He) (((bought) ((an) ((old) (car)))) ((with) ((his) ((first) ((pay) (cheque)))))).IV. For each of the underlined constructions or word groups, do the following. --- State whether it is headed or non-headed.--- If headed, state its headword.--- Name the type of constructions.(1) Ducks quack.non-headed; independent clause(2) The ladder in the shed is long enough.non-headed; prepositional phrase(3) I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair.headed; headword---damaged; adjectival phrase(4) Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries.headed; headword---singing; gerundial phrase(5) His handsome face appeared in the magazine.headed; headword---face; nominal phrase(6) A lady of great beauty came out.non-headed; prepositional phrase(7) He enjoys climbing high mountains.headed; headword---climbing; gerundial phrase(8) The man nodded patiently.non-headed; independent clause(9) A man roused by the insult drew his sword.headed; headword---roused; adjectival phrase。