Unit 1 工商管理英语翻译--概论

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工商管理专业英语

工商管理专业英语

一、名词解释1. The plan of action is, at one and the same time, the result envisaged, the line of action to be followed, the stages to go through, and methods to use.2. Human needs are states of felt deprivation. Humans have manly complex needs. These include basic physical needs for food, clothing, warmth, and safety; social needs for belonging and affection; and individual needs for knowledge and self-expression.3. Customer value is the difference between the values the customer gains from owning and using a product and the costs of obtaining the product.4. Place, another key marketing-mix tool, includes the various activities the company undertakes to make the product accessible and available to target customers.5. Group technology is a concept that currently is attracting a lot of attention from the manufacturing community.6. Issuing bank is obligated to honor drawings under the L/C regardless of the buyer’s ability or willingness to pay.7. Letter of credit is an instrument issued by a bank on behalf of the importer (buyer) promising to pay the exporter (beneficiary)upon presentation of shipping documents in compliance with the terms stipulated therein.8. Leader ship is a personal relationship in which one person directs, coordinates, and supervises others in the performance of a common task.9. Advising bank. The correspondent bank in the beneficiary’s country to which the issuing bank sends the L/C is commonly referred to as the “advising”.10. Marketing mix is one of the key concepts in modern marketing theory. Marketing mix is the set of marketing tools that the firm uses to pursue its marketing objectives in the target market.11. Total quality management means a comprehensive approach to quality by everyone in an organization to provide customers with reliable products and services.二、简答1. What are the features of a good plan of action? P30一个好的行动计划有什么特点:(1)统一性,即一个既能面向整体又能顾及各个部分的行动计划。

工商管理专业英语UNIT1

工商管理专业英语UNIT1
• 你能简单介绍一下自己吗?
• Interviewee: I am a graduate of a technical university and have been employed as a technician with Company # for approximately 10 years.
• 从你的简历,我可以看出你在 方面有丰富的经验。我想 知道为什么你认为你适合这份工作。
• Interviewee: Well I’m impressed with what the company has done in the past and I think by hiring me the company’s future can only be brighter. I find that my personal goals and ideas about business operations mesh1 perfectly with this company’s goals and mission statement.
• 在低成本的生产目标与拓宽生产线的营销目标之间由来已 久的冲突是一个管理学问题内在联系的好例子。每个目标 之间都存在冲突。
• 8、The objectives of individual parts must be (compromised) to meet the objectives of the entire firm .
• 甚至在今天, 我们所了解的管理学也都出自 于那些管理人员的自传和论文集。
• 3、According to the text ,the three well-established approaches to management thought are the (classical) approach ,which focuses on the task of managing work and organizations ;the (behavioral) approach ,which focuses on the task of managing people;and the (management science)approach,which focus on the task of production and operations.

工商管理英语中译英英译中整理

工商管理英语中译英英译中整理

Unit 1社团(社会,共同体,社区)community;首席执行官chief executive officer;(政府或国际机构的)部,处agency;常务董事(相当于总经理)managing director;流行价格prevailing price;监督员(基层经理)supervisor;市场份额market share;计算机程序员computer programmer;管理能力managerial competency;保险业务员insurance agent;资源配置allocation of resources;新闻广播员newscaster;任务小组task force;销售合作人sales associate;收入,税收revenue;a global giant 巨大的全球公司;talented people 人才;profit-oriented/for-profit business 以利润为导向;accountmanager 财务经理;plant manager 工厂经理;task force manager 业务经理;chief knowledge officer 首席培训官;chief executive officer 首席执行官;managing director 常务董事;a board of directors 董事会;stockholder 股东;stakeholder 利益相关人;accounts 客户;Unit 2管理;管理人员management;工作框架work setting;电话营销中心telemarketing center;顾客投诉customer complaint;业绩评价标准evaluation criteria for performance;具体运作计划specific operational plans;分派权利与责任delegate authority and responsibility;协调进度与资源coordinate schedule and resources;商务合作人business associate;财务崩溃financial debacle;刺激业务增长spur the growth of the business;监督现场工作supervise on-site work;dealership 经销店;high turnover 高人员流动;executive vice-president 执行副总裁;community affairs 社交事务;government negotiations 政府谈判;on-site work 现场工作;Unit 4个人决策individual decisionmaking;换取关系tradeoff;效率与公平efficiency and equity;稀缺资源scarce resources;成本与效益costs and benefits;增量调整incremental adjustments;边际成本marginal costs;边际收益marginal benefits;机会成本opportunity cost;竞争对手与贸易伙伴competitors and partners;天下没有免费的午餐there is no such thing as a free lunch;生活中的换取关系life’s tradeoff;考虑边际量think at the marginal;对激励作出的反应中in response to the incentives;使每个国家状况更好make each country better off;相互作用interact with one another;material/spiritual standard of living 生活物质水平;board 伙食;Unit5市场经济market economies;市场失灵market failure;市场势力market power;经济繁荣economic prosperity;预算赤字budget deficit;金融市场financial market;人力物力资本human capital and physical capital;通货膨胀inflation;公平分配equitable distribution;个人所得税personal income tax;福利制度welfare system;医疗保健health care;develop market economy 发展市场经济;direct economic activity 指导经济活动;allocate resources efficiently 有效地配置资源;influence market price 影响市场价格;enhance economic efficiency 提高经济效率;boost living standard 提高生活水平;charge the price 要价/收费;regulate the price 规范价格;result in chaos 造成/导致混乱;work one’s magic 施展魔力;planned economies 计划经济;self-interest 个人利益/利己;the wealth of nations 《国富论》;externality 外部性;monopoly 垄断;economic well-being 经济福利;labor union 工会;minimum wage laws 最低工资法;price rise 物价上涨;deflation 通货紧缩;the quantity of money 货币量;Unit 6develop an action plan 制定行动计划;develop safety training session 开安全生产培训课;develop a line of thought 展开思路;develop the front-line employees 培养一线雇员;develop an interest in management 对管理产生兴趣;develop the national economy 发展国民经济;develop the company’s business 扩展公司业务;develop one’s idea 阐述观点;develop a new device 研制一个新装置;develop the region in the west of China 开发建设中国西部地区;目标管理management by objective;一次性计划a single-use plan;常备计划a stand plan;应变计划a contingency plan;企业目标corporate goals;计划时间范围planning time horizon;业绩评估系统performance appraisal system;应急预算emergency budget;灵活性与适应性flexibility and adaptability;安全认定系统system of safety recognition;基层部门监督者line supervisor;表彰信a letter of commendation;Unit 7deploy resources 有效地利用资源;hierarchical levels 层级;span of managers’ control 经理的管理职权范围;effective coordination 有效地协调;vertical control of the organization 组织机构的纵向管理;an automobile assembly line 汽车组装线;chain of command 指令链;delegate authority 分权;meet customers’ needs 满足消费者的需求;line department 业务部门;staff department 职能部门;issue orders 发布命令;rule books 规章手册;organization chart 企业章程;Unit 8position power 职位权力;legitimate power 法理权;reward power 奖赏权力;coercive power 惩罚权力;personal power 个性化权力;expert power 专业技能权力;referent power 秉性相关权力;charismatic leadership 个人勉力型领导;autocratic leader 独断/专断型领导;democratic leader 民主型领导;authoritarian management 授权型领导;centralize authority 集权;Unit 11课后练习无;forms of business enterprise 企业组织形式;sole proprietorships 独资商;partnership 合伙商;corporation 公司;risks and rewards 风险和收益;retail establishment 零售机构;personal income 个人收入;tax rate 税率;interest rate 利率;financial resources 财政资源;lend institutions 借贷机构;management-level employees 管理基层员工;professional consultants 专业顾问;unlimited liability 无限责任;profits and loses 盈利和亏损;general partners 任职合伙人;master limited partnership(MLP)全能的有限合伙商;stock exchange 股票交易所;partnership agreement 合伙商协议;obtain financing 融资;departure and addition 离去和增添;malpractice insurance 渎职保险;business risk insurance 企业风险保险;managing partner 常务合伙人;political maneuver 政治操控;shareholder 股东;public corporation 公营公司;quasi-public corporation 准公营公司;parent company 母公司;holding company 控股公司;subsidiary corporation 子公司;public utility 公用事业;basic public services 基础公共服务;open corporation 公开公司;closed corporation 封闭公司;incorporated business 组建公司;industry sector 产业部门;service business 服务业;goods-producing business 制造业;with access to inexpensive labor 拥有廉价劳动力;real estate broker 房地产经纪人;capital-intensive business 资金密集型产业;labor-intensive business 劳动力密集型产业;prune layers of bureaucracy 精简官僚机构层次;business cycle 商业周期,经济周期;cyclical business 周期性产业Unit 12世界经济a global economy;经济模式the economic model;工业化经济an industrialized economy;自给自足self-sufficient;银行业a banking industry;提高生活质量enhance the quality of life;经济活动的核心the hub/heart of economic activity;商务服务业business services;销售服务业trade services;基础设施服务业infrastructure services;社会服务业social/personal services;公共管理服务public services;public administration 公共管理服务;social/personal service 社会/个人服务;extractive sector 资源耗取部门;service sector 服务行业;economic growth 经济增长;health care 保健;economic evolution 经济演进;primary 第一产业;secondary 第二产业;tertiary 第三产业;quaternary 第四产业;real estate 房地产;maintenance and repair 保养和维修;service economy 服务经济;retail trade 零售;negative growth rates 负增长;recession-resistant 抗衰退的;manufactured goods 制成品;lay off 下岗;capital expenditures 资金支出;the driving force 驱动力;labor-saving 节省劳动力;an aging population 老年人口geriatric health care 老年健康护理Unit 14市场营销组合marketing mix;市场细分研究segmentation research;市场导向marketing orientation;目标市场target market;描述功能descriptive function;诊断功能diagnostic function;预测功能predictive function;生产导向活动production-oriented exercises;前控管理proactive management;后控管理reactive management;市场信息反馈过程marketing intelligence feedback process;市场营销系统marketing system;decision maker 决策者;improve the bottom line 改善企业营利;production schedule 生产期限;mechanistic exercise 机械活动;sales promotion 促销;Unit 15人力资源管理human resource management;竞争优势competitive advantage;员工投诉系统employee grievance systems;达到企业目标meet the organization’s objectives;全权负责have sole responsibility for;业绩评估体系performance appraisal system;招聘与筛选recruitment and selection;灵活工作时间制flexible scheduling;成本有效性cost effectiveness;成本领先战略cost leadership strategy;产品差别化product differentiation;岗位培训on-the-job training;纪律执行程序disciplinary procedure;激励计划incentive plan;career advancement 职业发展;productivity levels 生产率水平;。

工商管理英语,雷涯邻,U1A-U6A,重点句子翻译,考试汇总版,北信科工商

工商管理英语,雷涯邻,U1A-U6A,重点句子翻译,考试汇总版,北信科工商

翻译句子(原文部分)A business must anticipate when it will need cash and make sure it has access to cash at critical times. 74A trademark is a distinctive mark, motto, device, or emblem that its creator stamps, prints, or otherwise affixes to the goods it produces so that they may be identified on the market and their origin vouched for. 26According to the marketing company era view of business, the entire organization is structured to discover and respond to what customers want in the products and services the company creates and offers for sale. 67Advertising differs from personal selling in that the seller cannot gauge the reaction of the buyer to the advertising message. 72After the screening process is done and hiring decisions are made, it is necessary to place the employees. 53An a ppreciation of the organization’s strategy helps all of its members relate their work assignments more closely to the direction of the organization and influence that direction in a positive manner. 31But the logistics of delivering those appliances, maintaining the fleet of vehicles to make the deliveries (either as part of the company’s support staff or outsourced to third-party vendors), and tracking inventories to manage supply and demand are also part of the “place” decisions that fall under the 4Ps of marketing. 69By knowing what is supposed to be done within a particular job, an organization is able to better look for employees who possess the necessary knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics required for a job that it is seeking to fill. 48By the 1930s enough manufacturers had successfully increased production to the point that most industries in Western countries had greater capacity to produce than was supported by demand among their potential customers. 58By way of example, the government has declared that employment discrimination based on race, sex and national origins is illegal under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, subjecting companies to damage claims and other penalties for discriminatory employment conditions they aloe to exist.23Care must be taken to use all of these sources of funding carefully so that future opportunities are not overly compromised by poor decisions made in the past. 14Commoditization refer to the increasing difficulty firms have distinguishing their products and services from those of their rivals. 44Contract law seeks to assure that promises under private agreements are enforceable and that parties under a contract honor their respective obligations. 27Debates over the nature of the organization’s competitive advantage, its mission, and whether or not a strategic plan is really needed can be widespread. 32During the sales era, most companies taught sales people aggressive selling techniques that focused on overcoming potential resistance on the part of buyers. 59Each of the stakeholders have slightly different value interests in the business, but only when all of the stakeholders are satisfied is the business likely to be successful. 10Each of the sub-systems (sub-processes) can impact each other and the overall system at one and the same time. 5Firms can become proactive by choosing to operate in environments where opportunities and threats match the firms’ strengths and weaknesses. 40Following a discussion of this evolution, it will be possible to offer a modern definition of marketing as it is operationalized in American business practice. 57For example, an employee in a company’s research and development department may attend a trade show where a new product or production process idea that seems relevant to the company is discussed. 42For example, many companies have switched from product containers that are not biodegradable to ones that are made from recyclable paper that are biodegradable. 73For example, the success of Japanese car manufacturers, particularly Toyota and Honda, in capturing large shares of the US automobile market is due in large part to the constant effort of these companies to build cars with the features American consumers want. 62For instance asking a potential employee if they enjoy working with others might be a useful question to ask someone seeking a job as a customer service representative but not as useful for a programmer who might be expected to work for hours at a time with little human interaction-it might actually be a negative indicator for the computer programmer. 54For instance, if a party to enter in to the contract, that would form the basis of undue influence and would make the contract voidable at the option of the threatened part. 29Future cash inflows are discounted at an appropriate rate which for an average risk project is the firm’s cost of capit al. 79Hindu law is prominent primarily in India where it exists alongside secular law derived from the British Common Law. 22However, the comprehensive, systematic model proposed herein is presented as a starting point for understanding the strategic management process. 36However, the type of formal, systematic strategic planning proposed in this text is not without its critics. 35Human resource planning is where the human resource management strategy and the organization mission come together in determining the numbers and skill sets needed for employees based upon the future plans of the organization. 51If one firm deviates from the industry norm and implemented a new, successful strategy, other firms would rapidly mimic the higher-performing firm by purchasing the resources, competencies, or management talent that have made the leading firm so profitable. 39If the value of assets exceeds the value of liabilities and equity, the firm requires external financing to that extent. 75In fact, increasing the retention ratio from 50% to 80% eliminates the need for external funds ad AFN equals 0. 76In the marketing company era, overall business strategy is developed with extensive participation by the marketing department and the use of marketing research to help the company decide how to better serve customers. 61IO assumes that an organization’s performance and ultimate survival depend on its ability to adapt to industry forces over which it has little or no control. 38It emphasizes the principle of stare decisis, that is, the authority of prior decisions in resolving current cases. 19It is in the context of this more complicated view of how businesses operate in an increasinglycompetitive and global environment, that we can now offer a definition of marketing. 68It is rather that profit is defined differently and the resources to produce that profit are acquired somewhat differently. 16It occurs, for example, when Amazon. Com suggests top-selling books for customers at its web site based on previous product searches or purchases. 45It often requires modification as environmental or organizational conditions change, or as top management’s ability to interpret these changes improves. 34Many businesses find that the detail of the pro forma statements is worth the time it takes to construct them. 77Modern human resources management practice has a dual heritage developing out of Scientific Management and the notion of personnel work as improving the welfare of employees. 47Most companies have them all at some time in the company life cycle. 8Most of accounting is done by accountants who are employees of the business. 13Not all companies have every one of these stakeholders at any given time. 7NPV is simply the present value of expected future cash inflows minus the initial investment. 78 Objective evidence must be shown to demonstrate the existence of a contract in order for an aggrieved party to succeed in a claim for breach of contract. 28Of the types of organizational capital upon which an organization depends its focus is on the human capital as opposed to the financial capital or the physical capital. 46Only the major stakeholders will be introduced but not covered in detail. 9Punishment for violations is fast and sometimes harsh by western standards. 21Resource-based theory is applied directly to the internal analysis phase and the effort to identify an organization’s resources that could lead to sustained competitive advantage. 41Selling activities expanded to include more impersonal forms of communication and organization created marketing departments to coordinate all the selling activities of the firm.60Some organizations only consider external applicants (people not yet employees of the organization) for entry-level positions so in such a situation if seeking more senior employees in such a case the organization need only advertise internally (for individuals already employed by the organization who may be seeking career advancement). 52Staff functions in contrast are not traditionally directly involved in the production of products or services. 65Strategic management is a broader term that includes top management’s analysis of the environment in which the organization operates prior to formulating a strategy, as well as the plan for implementation and control of the strategy. 33Substantive law is concerned with the laws that define, describe, regulate and create the rights and responsibilities of the parties to a lawsuit. 24That is the very nature of business for that is the only way to sustain a livelihood. 3The business signs an indemnity contract with an insurance company agreeing to make regular cash payments called premiums in exchange for a promise by the insurer to reimburse the company if the property is damaged or destroyed by perils such as fire or flood. 80The central tenet of industrial organization theory is the nation that a firm must adapt to influences in its industry to survive and prosper, and thus its financial performance is primarily determined by the success of the industry in which it competes. 37The first may be thought of as research, the second may be thought of as teaching and the third asservice.56The lack of consumer knowledge, as well as the lack of time and expertise required to pursue it, results in higher selling prices for many of the retailers. 43The line functions are activities which create the product or service that the company sells at a profit. 64The means of transforming input into outputs is by means of business processes. 6The predominant characteristic of Common Law is its dependence on judicial decisions, developed over a period of time. 18The role of court decisions, is minimized, although this is changing as these systems are influenced by court decisions in Common Law countries. 20The sanctions against a defendant in civil cast are generally monetary whereas in criminal court the penalties include not only fines but imprisonment or even execution (in the case of a capital offense). 25The strategic challenges it faces are usually ambiguous and unstructured, requiring its managers to understand the relationships among the organization’s parts and chart a course for moving it forward. 30There are a number of definitions of English word business. 1These tools are referred to as a mix because how they are combined, in what order, proportion, and relative importance is usually customized by the seller with the intention of optimizing the overall effectiveness of the selling/marketing activity. 71They also must then go through refresher courses at predetermined intervals in order to ensure that they remain combat ready and that they do not forget what they were trained to do and how they are supposed to do what they are trained to do, 55They are circular in nature as opposed to the linear type of relationship that is assumed in the process concept. 4This process is further complicated by the need to accomplish this while enabling the business to meet its profit. 11Thus price-related decisions are concerned with not only supply and demand issues but also with how perceptions of price relate to how customers may distinguish a product from its competition.70To a large extent, this view of marketing as a staff function holds true in the marketing company era. 66Traditionally, businesses have considered line functions as those activities that directly relate to the production of the goods or services that are sold by the firm. 63We will attempt to identify and define the components of this definition. 2While each system provides unique information for the business, they are generally integrated to provide management with the information necessary to make reasoned decisions. 15While there is some overlap-both require that one be able to manage time effectively-typing is likely a more highly valued skill for the administrative assistant while lecturing/teaching/speaking in front of audiences would likely be more important for the professor. 50While these categories are, of course, an oversimplification, with much overlapping, a company doing business in a legal system different from its own must learn the perimeters of the foreign law. 17Without the systematic study of what SHOULD be done within a job, employees involved in thehiring process are more likely to introduce personal bias, prejudices, and other non-job relevant information possibly leading to a less than optimal hiring decision. 49Without t hese reports, it would not be possible to accurately inform the stakeholders on the overall health of the business. 12翻译句子(翻译部分)1.英语单词business有许多定义。

工商管理专业英语unit 1 the evolution of management

工商管理专业英语unit 1 the evolution of management

Key Terms and Concepts P4
Management Science Approach: Also known as Management Science School 管理学科学(研究)方法. A body of literature characterized by its use of mathematical and statistic techniques to build models for the solution of production and operations problems.The approach's primary means for acquiring knowledge is mathematical deduction.
Key Terms and Concepts P4
Contingency or Situational Approach (to Management): (管理学)权变(研究)方法 :An analysis of management that emphasizes the fact that what managers do in practice depends on upon a given set of circumstances or the "situation” and that there is no single "best way" to manage.
After learning of the course, students should grasp the professional English vocabulary and terminology as much as possible, and be familiar with the structure of style, features and rhetorical skills in professional English.(掌握词汇和 术语,熟悉文体结构、风格特征、修辞技巧)

《工商管理专业英语》翻译汇总

《工商管理专业英语》翻译汇总

1.现代管理学The modern era of management began early in the 20th century when classicaltheorists,economists,and industrial engineers offered a classical approach to increase the productivity of individuals and organizations.2.例如一种管理理论For example ,a management theory that emphasizes employee satisfactionmay be more helpful in dealing with a high employee turnover than with delays in production.3.甚至在今天Even today ,a great deal of what we know about management comes from theautobiographies and memoirs of men and women who are or have been practicing managers.4.尽管这些办法Although these approaches evolved in historical sequence ,later ideas havealways replaced early ones.5.在过去的30年During the last 30 years or so ,there have been attempts to integrate the threeapproaches to management—classical,behavioral,and management science.6.在这种情况下In this situation ,a compromise is necessary for the overall syetem to achieveits objective.7.例如严格的计划For example ,rigid plans,clearly defined jobs,antocratic leadership ,and tightcontrols have at times resulted in high productivity and satisfied workers.8.换言之In other words,the contingency approach seeks match different situations withdifferent management methods.9.当然富有远见Of cause ,having a vision is no guarantee of success.10.通常一份任务 A mission statement often focus on the market and customers that thecompany serves.11.这些管理人员These managers are the strategists who develop the plans that guide theorganization toward its goals.12.与其他人的沟通All the skills required to communicate with other people ,work effectivelywith them , motive them ,and lead them are interpersonal skills.13.为了把梦想变成In order to transform vision to reality ,managers must define specific goalsand objectives.14.最好的企业目标The best organizational ,measurable ,relevant ,challenging ,attainable ,andtime limited.15.折扣的发生A allowance occurs when a customer is not satisfied with a purchase for somereason.16.企业在计算These refunds and price reductions must be considered when the firm computersits net sales figure for the period.17.一系列这样的A series of these statement is a valuable tool for directing and controlling thebusiness.18.商人们谈及Businesspeople commonly use accounting terms when talking aboutcosts ,prices ,and profit.19.一份损益表The basic components of an operating statement are sales ,costs ,and profit orloss.20.零售商们正在寻求Retailers are searching for new marketing strategies to attract and holdcustomers.21.零售商们必须对Retailers must decide on three major product variables :productassortment ,services mix ,and store atmosphere.22.多数零售商不能Too many retailers fail to define their target markets and positions clearly.23.零售商的价格A retailer’s price policy is a crucial positioning factor and must be decided inrelation to its target market , its product and service assortment ,and its competition24.零售商使用Retailers use the normal promotion tools—advertising ,personal selling ,salespromotion ,and public relations—to reach consumers.25.零售商必须确定The retailers must determine both the product assortment’s width and itsdepth.26.制定正确价格The first step in setting the right price is to establish pricing goals.27.对于产品和服务The basic ,long-term pricing framework for a good or service should be alogical extension of the pricing objectives.28.因此,在销售Thus ,changing a pricing strategy can require dramatic alternations in themarketing mix.29.低价格可以获取The low price designed to capture a large share of a substantial market ,resulting in lower production costs.30.当生产由于技术Managers may follow a skimming strategy when production cannot beexpanded rapidly because of technological difficulties ,shortages ,or constraints imposed by the skill and time required to produce a product.31.低价格可以吸引Low price can draw additional buyers to enter the market.32.广告的基本功能The most basic function of advertising is to identify products anddifferentiate them from others.33.为了提高销售额To increase their sales or profit,companies develop marketing strategy byusing various marketing elements.34.广告的另一个功能Another function of advertising to induce consumers to try new productsand to suggest reuse.35.广告涉及到通过Advertising involves presenting the message,usually through the massmedia,to a large group of people know as target audience.36.通过同时向许多人By informing many people at once about available products andservices,advertising greatly reduces the costs and higher profits,can ease the task of personal selling.37.广告的定义有许多The definitions of advertising are many and varied.38.广告是产品和服务Advertising is a very important tool that enables competitors to enter themarket place.39.市场营销组合是由The marketing mix includes a set of elements known as four Ps and theyare under the heading of product,price,place and promotion.1.The three ( T )2.In solving ( F )3.In order words ( T )4.The systems ( T )5.Managers around ( T )6.It seeks ( F )7.Between the ( F )8.Management is ( T )9.To meet ( F ) 10.In order to ( T )11.As the ( T ) 12.A starting ( F ) 13.Technical skills ( F ) 14.And using ( F ) 15.An operating ( F ) ually, however ( T ) 17.An allowance ( F ) 18.All this ( T ) 19.Today, national ( T ) 20.They see ( F ) 21.Most retailers ( T ) 22.For all ( T ) rge retailers ( F )24.Small retailers ( T ) 25.A good ( T ) 26.A profit ( F ) 27.Theoretically ( T ) 28. A successful ( F ) 29.As a product ( T ) 30.A company’s ( T ) 31.Advertising is ( T ) 32.Advertising can ( F ) 33.The first ( T ) 34.The freedom ( T ) 35.Advertising itself ( T ) 36.All advertising ( F ) 37.All forms of ( T ) 38.advertising has ( F )1. 古典方法Classical approach to Management2. 管理学行为方法Behavioral approach to Management3. 管理学科学方法Management science approach4. (管理学)权变情境方法Contingency or situational approach to Management 1. 远见,洞察力Vision 2. 任务表述Mission statement 3. 长期目标Goal1. 短期目标Objective2. 管理结构Management pyramid3.高层管理者Top managers 1. 战略目标Strategic goals 2. 中层管理着Middle managers 3.战术目标Tactical objectives 1.一线管理者First-line managers 2. 损益表Operating Statement1. 销售总额Gross sales 2 价格折扣Allowance 3 净利润Net profit 1. 目标市场Target market2.市场定位Market positioning 1. 中间商品牌Private brand or middleman brand 2.价格策略Price strategy1. 撇指定价Price skimming2. 渗透定价Penetration pricing 1. 基础价格Base price 2 促销活动Promotion campaign3.目标受众Target audience 1. 促销组合Promotional mix 2.品牌忠诚Brand loyalty1.The managers described their ( generalize ) 管理者描述他们自己的管理经验,还尝试去概括他们认为可以被运用到相似情形中的那些准则。

工商管理专业外文翻译--企业公民的阶段

工商管理专业外文翻译--企业公民的阶段

外文原文Stages of Corporate CitizenshipBusiness leaders throughout the world are making corporate citizenship a key priority for their companies.1 Some are updating policies and revising programs; others are forming citizenship steering committees, measuring their environmental and social performance, and issuing public reports. Select firms are striving to align staff functions responsible for citizenship and move responsibility—and accountability—into lines of business. Vanguard companies are trying to create a broader market for citizenship and offer products and services that aim explicitly to both make money and make a better world.Amid the flurry of activity, many executives wonder what’s going on and worry whether or not their myriad citizenship initiatives make sense. Is their company prepared to take appropriate and effective actions on transparency, governance, community economic development, work-family balance, environmental sustainability, human rights protection, and ethical investor relationships?Is there any connection between, say, efforts in risk management, corporate branding, stakeholder engagement, supplier certification, cause related marketing, and employee diversity? Should there be? Studies conducted by the Center for Corporate Citizenship at Boston College suggest that the balance between confusion and coherence depends very much on what stage a company is in its development of corporate citizenship.Comparative neophytes, for instance, often lack understanding of these many aspects of corporate citizenship and have neither the expertise nor the machinery to respond to so many diverse interests and demands. Their chief challenges are to put citizenship firmly on the corporate agenda, get better informed about stakeholders’ concerns, and take some sensible initial steps.At the other extreme are companies that have already made a full-blown foray into citizenship. Their CEO is typically leading the firm’s position on social and environmental issues, and their Board is fully informed about company practices. Should these firms want to move forward, they might next try to connect citizenship to corporate branding and everyday employees through a “live the brand” campaign like those at IBM and Novo Nordisk or establish citizenship objectives for line managers, as DuPont and UBS have done.When it comes to making sense of corporate citizenship, much depends on what acompany has accomplished to date and how far it wants (and has to) go. The Center’s surveys of a random sample of American businesses find that roughly ten percent of company leaders don’t understand what corporate citizenship is all about. On the other end of the spectrum, not quite as many firms have integrated programs and are setting new standards of performance. In the vast majority in between, there is a wide range of companies in transition whose knowledge, attitudes, structures, and practices represent different degrees of understanding of and sophistication about corporate citizenship.Knowing at what stage a company is, and what challenges it faces in advancing citizenship, can clear up an executive’s confusion about where things stand, frame strategic choices about where to go, aid in setting benchmarks and goals, and perhaps speed movement forward.Stages of DevelopmentWhat does it mean that a company is at a “stage” of corporate citizenship?The general idea—found in the study of children, groups, and systems of all types, including business organizations—is that there are distinct patterns of activity at different points of development. Typically, these activities become more complex and sophisticated as development progresses and therefore capacities to respond to environmental challenges increase in kind. Piaget’s developmental theory, for example, has children progress through stages that entail more complex thinking and finer judgments about how to negotiate the social world outside of themselves. Similarly, groups mature along a developmental path as they confront emotional and task challenges that require more socially sensitive interaction and sophisticated problem solving.Greiner, in his groundbreaking study of organizational growth, found that companies also develop more complex ways of doing things at different stages of growth. They must, over time, find more direction after their creative start-up phase, develop an infrastructure and systems to take on more responsibilities, and then “work through” the challenges of over-control and red-tape through coordination and later collaboration across work units and levels.Development of CitizenshipThere are a number of models of “stages” of corporate citizenship. On a macro scale, for example, scholars have tracked changing conceptions of the role of business in society as advanced by business leaders, governments, academics, and multi-sectorassociations. They document how increasingly elaborate and inclusive definitions of social responsibility, environmental protection, and corporate ethics and governance have developed over recent decades that enlarge the role of business in society. Others have looked into the spread of these ideas into industry and society in the form of social and professional movements.At the level of the firm, Post and Altman have shown how environmental policies progressively broaden and deepen as companies encounter more demanding expectations and build their capability to meet them. In turn, Zadek’s case study of Nike’s response to challenges in its supply chain highlights stages in the development of attitudes about social responsibilities in companies and in corporate responsiveness to social issues. Both of these studies emphasize the role of organizational learning as conceptions of company responsibilities become more complex at successive stages of development, action requirements are more demanding, and the organizational structures, processes, and systems used to manage citizenship are more elaborate and comprehensive.What such firm-level frameworks have not fully addressed are the generative logic and mechanisms that drive the development of citizenship within organizations. Here we consider the development of citizenship as a stage-by-stage process where a combination of internal capabilities applied to environmental challenges propels development forward in a m ore or less “normal” or normative logic.Greiner’s model of organizational growth illustrates this normative trajectory. In his terms, the development of an organization is punctuated by a series of predictable crises that trigger responses that move the organization forward. What are the triggering mechanisms? They are tensions between current practices and the problems they produce that demand a new response from a firm. For instance, creativity, the entrepreneurial fire in companies in their first stage, also generates confusion and a loss of focus that can stall growth. This poses a “crisis of leadership” that is resolved—and a stage of orderly growth results—once the firm gains direction, often under new leadership and with more formal structures. A later tension between delegation and its consequences, sub-optimization and inter-group conflict, triggers a “crisis of control” and moves toward coordination. In development language, companies in effect “master” these challenges by devising progressively more effective and elaborate responses to them.The model presented here is also normative in that it posits a series of stages in thedevelopment of corporate citizenship. The triggers for movement are challenges that call for a fresh response. These challenges center initially on a firm’s credibility as a corporate citizen, then its capacities to meet expectations, the coherence of its many subsequent efforts, and, finally, its commitment to institutionalize citizenship in its business strategies and culture.Movement along a single development path is not fixed nor is attaining a penultimate “end state” a logical conclusion. This means that the arc of citizenship within any particular firm is shaped by the socio-economic, environmental, and institutional forces impinging on the enterprise. This effect is well documented by Vogel’s analysis of the “market for virtue” where he finds considerable variability in the business case for citizenship across firms and industries and thus limits to its marketp lace rewards. Notwithstanding, a company’s response to these market forces also varies based on the attitudes and outlooks of its leaders, the design and management of its citizenship agenda, and firmspecific learning. Thus, there are “companies with a conscience” that have a more expansive citizenship profile and firms that create a market for their good works.Dimensions of CitizenshipTo track the developmental path of citizenship in companies, we focus on seven dimensions of citizenship that vary at each stage:Citizenship Concept: How is citizenship defined? How comprehensive is it? Definitions of corporate citizenship are many and varied. The Center’s concept of citizenship considers the total actions of a corporation (commercial and philanthropic). Bettignies makes the point that terms such as citizenship and sustainability incorporate notions of ethics, philanthropy, stakeholder management, and social and environmental responsibilities into an integrative framework that guides corporate action.Strategic Intent: What is the purpose of citizenship in a company? What it is trying to achieve through citizenship? Smith observes that few companies embrace a strictly moral commitment to citizenship; instead most consider specific reputational risks and benefits in the market and society and thereby establish a business case for their efforts. Rochlin and Googins, in turn,see increasing interest in an “inside-out” framing where a value proposition for citizenship guides actions and investments. Leadership: Do top leaders support citizenship? Do they lead the effort? Visible, active, top level leadership appears on every survey as the number one factor drivingcitizenship in a corporation. How well informed are top leaders are about citizenship, how much leadership do they exercise, and to what extent do they “walk the talk”? Structure: How are responsibilities for citizenship managed? A three-year indepth study of eight companies in the Center’s Executive Forum on Corporate Citizenship found that many progressed from managing citizenship from functional “islands” to cross-functional committees and that a few had begun to achieve more formal integration through a combination of structures, processes, and systems.Issues Management: How does a company deal with citizenship issues that arise? Scholars have mapped the evolution of the public affairs office in corporations and stages in the management of public issues. How responsive a company is in terms of citizenship policies, programs, and performance?Stakeholder Relationships: How does a company engage its stakeholders? A wide range of trends—from increased social activism by shareholders to an increase in the number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) around the world—has driven major changes in the ways companies communicate with and engage their stakeholders.Transparency: How “open” is a company about its financial, social, and environmental performance? The web sites of upwards of 80% of Fortune 500 companies address social and environmental issues and roughly half of the companies today issue a public report on their activities.Citizenship at Each StageThe model in Figure 1 presents the stages in the development of corporate citizenship along these seven dimensions. We illustrate each stage with selected examples of corporate practice. (Note, however, that we are not implying that these companies currently operate at that stage; rather, at the times noted, they were illustrative of citizenship at that development stage.) A close inspection of these companies reveals instances where they had a leading-edge practice in some dimensions but were less developed in others. This should come as no surprise. For example, the pace of a child’s physical, mental, and emotional development is seldom uniform. One facet typically develops faster than another. In the same way, the development of group and organizational capabilities is uneven. Firm-specific forces in society, industry dynamics, and other environmental influences feature in how citizenship develops within a firm.Stage 1. ElementaryAt this base stage, citizenship activity in a company is episodic and its programs are undeveloped. The reasons are straightforward: scant awareness of what corporate citizenship is all about, uninterested or indifferent top management, and limited or one-way interactions with external stakeholders, particularly in the social and environmental sectors. The mindset in these companies, and associated policies and practices, often centers on simple compliance with laws and industry standards.Responsibilities for handling matters of compliance in these firms are usually assigned to the functional heads of human resources, the legal department, investor relations, public relations, and community affairs. The job of these functional managers is to make sure that the company obeys the law and to keep problems that might arise from harming the firm’s reputation. In many cases, they take a defensive stance toward outside pressures—e.g., Nike’s dealings with labor activists in the early 1990s.Some corporate leaders, for example, have espoused economist Milton Friedman’s notion that their company’s obligations to society are solely to“make a profit, pay taxes, and provide jobs.”20 Others, particularly those heading smaller and mid-size businesses, comply willingly with employment and health, safety, and environmental regulations but have neither the resources nor the wherewithal to do much more for their employees, communities, or society.Former General Electric CEO Jack Welch is an exemplar of this principled big-business view. “A CEO’s primary social responsibility is to assure the financial success of the company,” he says. “Only a healthy, winning company has the resources and capability to do the right thing.”21GE’s financial success over the past two decades is unquestioned. However, the company’s reputation suffered toward the end of Welch’s tenure when it was revealed that that one of its business units had discharged tons of the toxic chemical PCB into the Hudson River. When challenged, Welch was defensive and pointed out that GE had fully complied with then existing environmental protection laws.This illustrates one of the triggers that move a company forward into a new stage of citizenship. Welch’s sta nce was plainly out of touch with changing expectations of corporate responsibilities and the contradiction between GE’s success at wealth creation and loss of reputation was palpable. Welch’s successor,Jeffrey Immelt, reversed this course, accepted at least partial financial responsibility for the clean up, and thereafter reprioritized citizenship on the company’s agenda.中文译文企业公民的阶段全世界的商界领袖都认为企业公民是他们公司的一个优先环节。

工商管理英文论文翻译

工商管理英文论文翻译

外文资料翻译AbstractThis paper introduces the concept of knowledge networks toexplain why some business units are able to benefit from knowledgeresiding in other parts of the c ompany while others arenot. The core premise of this concept is that a proper u nderstandingof effective interunit knowledge sharing in a multiunitfirm requires aj oint consideration of relatedness in knowledgecontent among business units and t he network of lateral interunitrelations that enables task units to access related k nowledge.Results from a study of 120 new product developmentprojects in 41 bu siness units of a large multiunit electronicscompany showed that project teams o btained more existingknowledge from other units and completed their projects fas terto the extent that they had short interunit network paths to unitsthat possessed related knowledge. In contrast, neither networkconnections nor extent of related k nowledge alone explainedthe amount of knowledge obtained and project completi on time.The results also showed a contingent effect of having directinterunit relations i n knowledge networks: While establisheddirect relations mitigated problems of tra nsferring noncodifiedknowledge, they were harmful when the knowledge to be tra nsferredwas codified, because they were less needed but stillinvolved maintenance costs. These findings suggest that researchon knowledge transfers and synergies i n multiunit firmsshould pursue new perspectives that combine the concepts ofnetwork connections and relatedness in knowledge content.Why are some business u nitsable to benefit from knowledgeresiding in other parts of the company while othersare not? Both strategic management and organization theoryscholars have ex tensively researched this question,but differences in focus between the various ap proacheshave left us with an incomplete understanding of whatcauses knowledge sharing to occur and be beneficialacross business units in multiunit firms. In one line ofresearch, scholars have focused on similarity in knowledgecontent among b usiness units, arguing that a firmand its business units perform better tothe exten t thatunits possess related competencies that can be used bymultiple units (e.g., Rumelt 1974, Markides and Williamson1994, Farjoun 1998). While this knowledg e content viewhas demonstrated the importance of relatedness in skillbase, it doe s not shed much light on the integrative mechanismsthat would allow one busine ss unit to obtainknowledge from another (Ramanujam and Varadarajan1989, Hill 1994). When sharing mechanisms are consideredin this research, it is often assu med that the corporatecenter is able to identify and realize synergies arisingfrom similarity in knowledge content among businessunits, but this assumption is typic ally not tested empiricallyand excludes a consideration of lateral interunit relation s(Chandler 1994, Markides and Williamson 1994,Farjoun 1998).In other lines of research, in contrast, scholars havedemonstrated the importanc e of havinglateral linkagesamong organization subunits for effective knowledgesha ring to occ ur. Researchhas shown that a subunit’sinformation processing capacity is enhanced by lateralinterunit integration mechanisms (e.g., Galbraith 1973,1994; Egelhoff 1993; Gupta and Govindarajan 2000),product innovation knowledge flow s more efficientlythrough established relationships spanning subunitboundaries (Tu shman 1977, Ghoshal and Bartlett 1988,Nobel and Birkinshaw 1998,Hansen 199 9), and bestpractices are transferred more easily when a positive existingrelations hip exists between the two parties to atransfer (Szulanski 1996). These lines of r esearch on linkageshave, however, not incorporated opportunities forknowledge sh aring based on commonality in knowledgecontent among subunits, but has taken this aspect asgiven.Yet the existence of both related knowledge in thefirm—i.e., expertise in the f irm’s business units that canbe useful for tasks per formed in a focal business un itand a set of established linkages among business unitsseems necessary for inter unit knowledge sharing to occurand be effective. In this paper, I consider both d imensionsand develop theconcept of task-specific knowledge networks,which comp rise not only those business units thathave related knowledge for a focal task un it, but also theestablished direct and indirect interunit relations connectingthis sub set of business units.I define establishedinterunit relations as regularly occurring informal contactsbet ween groups of people from different businessunits in a firm, and I assume thatt ask units will be abletouse these relations to search for and access knowledgeresi ding in other business units.I make two main arguments. First, with respect to indirect relations (i.e., conne ctions throughintermediaries),I argue that task teams in focal business units with shortpath lengths in a knowledge network (i.e., few intermediariesare needed to c onnect with other units) are likelyto obtain more knowledge from other business units andperform better than those with long path lengths becauseof search benef its accruing to business units with shortpath lengths. Long path lengths, in contra st, lead to informationdistortion in the knowledge network, makingsearch for usef ul knowledge more difficult. Second, I arguethat a focal unit’s direct established relations in aknowledge network are a two-edged sword: While theyprovide im mediate access to other business units that possessrelated knowledge, they are als o costly to maintain.They are, therefore, most effective when they help teamssolve difficult transfer problems, as when the knowledgeto be transferred is noncodified (Szulanski 1996, Hansen1999). Whenthere is no transfer problem, they are likelyto be harmful fort ask-unit effectiveness because of theirmaintenance costs.This knowledge network model seeks to advance ourunderstanding of knowled ge sharing in multiunit companiesin several ways. First, by integrating the conce ptsof related knowledge and lateral network connections thatenable knowledge sharing, the model seeks to extend extantresearch that has addressed only one of th ese aspects.Second, while extant research on knowledge transferstends to focus o n direct relations (i.e., the dyadic linkbetween a recipient and a source unit of k nowledge), Ialso consider the larger organization context of indirectrelations, which are conduits for information about opportunitiesfor knowledge sh aring (cf. Ghoshal and Bartlett1990). This approach enables a richer understandin g ofsearch processes forknowledge use in multiunit firms.Third, while scholars of ten consider the positive effectsof network relations on knowledge sharing, I also considermaintenance costs of n etworks byincorporating thistime commitment in analyzing the impact of interunit networkrelations on knowledge-sharing effectiveness inmultiunit firms.Knowledge Networks in Multiunit FirmsThe joint consideration of related knowledge and lateralinterunit relations of a knowledge network is illustratedin Figure 1 for a new product development team, whichis the unit of analysis in this paper. Diagram 1a illustratesa network of re lations among all business units in a firm,but does not partition these units into those that have relatedknowledge for the focal new product developmentteam, A (i.e., a pure network consideration). Diagram 1b,in contrast, partitions the busines s units in the firm intothose that have related knowledge for the focal productde velopment team (A) and those that have not, but thereis no consideration of then etwork among the units (i.e.,a pure related knowledge consideration). Diagram 1 illustratesa project-specific knowledge network: Businessunits are partitioned into t hose that have related knowledgefor the focal product development team (A), an d thecomplete set of network ofrelations among them are included,including both direct and indirect relations (i.e.,intermediarylinks connecting the focal unit with othersin the knowledge network). Both the indirect and directrelations affect the extent to which a focal product developmentteam is able to obtain knowledge fr om otherbusiness units and use it to perform better.Effects of Indirect Relations in Knowledge NetworksA product development team’s direct and indirect interunitrelations in its know ledge network affect the effectivenessof its search for useful knowledge by being importantconduits for information about opportunities the existence, whereabouts, a nd relevance of substantiveknowledge residing in other business units. While busi nessunits in the network may not be able to pass onproduct-specific knowledge directly, as such knowledgeoften requires direct interaction with the source to be extracted,a focal team that hears about opportunitiesthrough the network can cont act the source directly toobtain the knowledge. Sucknowledge,as defined here,incl udes product-specific technical know-how, knowledgeabout technologies and mark ets, as well as knowledgeembodied in existing solutions, such as already develop edhardware and software.Although direct relations in the knowledge networkprovide immediate access a nd hence areespecially usefulfor a focal team inquiring about opportunities, indire ctrelations are beneficialas well, because information aboutopportunities is likely t o be passed on by intermediaryunits and eventually reach the focal team, provide d thatbusiness units in the knowledge networkare reachable.1The idea that interm ediaries pass on messages and thatthey help forge connections has been well sup ported incommunications and social network research. Studies investigatingthe “s mall-world” phenomenon demonstratedthat the path length (i.e., the minimum nu mber of intermediaries)needed to connect two strangers from differentstates in the United Stateswas remarkably short and consistedof about five to seven intermedia ries (Milgram1967, Kochen 1989, Watts 1999). Early work on innovationresearch showed that new product developmentteams benefited from having a gatekeeper o r boundaryspanner, that is, a person who scans and interprets theteam’s environm ent and then passes on information to therest of the tea (Allen 1977, Katz and Tushman 1979).In social network research, Granovetter (1973) showedthat intermediary persons who are weakly tied to a focalperson are uniquely plac ed to pass on information aboutnew job opportunities because they are more likely thanstrongly tied connections to possess nonredundant information.The common thread in these lines of work is thatindirect relations are pervasi ve conduits for information.Intermediaries help forge connections and pass on me ssagesthat bridge two otherwise disconnected actors.However, indirect interunit relations may not be perfectconduits of informationa bout opportunities. As informationgets passed on across people from different uni ts,there is likely to be some degree of imperfect transmissionof the message abo ut opportunities for knowledgeuse. In particular, when information about opportun itieshas to be passed on through many intermediaries (i.e.,through long paths, cf. Freeman 1979), it is likely to becomedistorted (Bartlett 1932, March and Simon 1958).People who exchange such information are prone to misunderstandingeach other, forgetting details, failing tomention all that they know to others, filtering, or deliberatelywithholding aspects of what they know (Collinsand Guetzkow 1964 Huberand Daft 1987, Gilovich1991). The distortion may be unintentional or delib erate(O’Reilly 1978). Huber (1982) relates a drama tic example,originally provided by Miller (1972), of a mistakemade during the Vietnam War. The chain of mess ageswas as follows: The order from headquarters to the brigadewas “on no occas ion must hamlets be burned down,”the brigade radioed the battalion “do not bur n down anyhamlets unless you are absolutely convinced that the VietCong are in them;” the battalion radioed the infantry companyat the scene “if you think there are any Viet Congin the hamlet, burn it down;” the company commanderordered his troops “burn down that hamlet.” Thus, themore intermediaries needed, the hig her the chances ofsuch distortion, and hence the less precise is the informationth at is passed on (Miller 1972, Huber 1982).The implication of receiving imprecise information inthis context is that a proj ect team cannot easily focus ona few opportunities that are especially relevant, b ut mustinstead check anumber of imprecise leads to verifywhether they are releva nt for the team, resulting in a moreelaborate interunit search process that takes ti me. For example,a project manager in my study told me that he hadbeen told b y a third party in the company about a groupof engineer in another unit who were supposed to havesome useful technical know-how, but when he was ableto r each them after trying for a while, it turned out thatthe know-how was not relev ant for the project. Such fruitlesssearches not only take time, but also cause dela ys inthe project to the extent that the needed knowledge inputholds up the comp letion of other parts of he project.Because of the problem of information distorti on whenrelying on intermediary units, a focal team is likely tobenefit from short path lengths in the knowledge network(i.e., few intermediaries required to connec t a team in afocal unit with other units). Short path lengths enable theteam to k now about precisely described opportunities involvingrelated knowledge and allow it to discard informationabout irrelevant opportunities. The team can thenfocus on opportunities with a high degree of realizationpotential and can quickly contact p eople in these unitsand begin working with them to extract and incorporatetheir knowledge into the focal project. Thus, less time isspent evaluating and pursuing opportunities, reducing effortsdevoted to problemistic search, including search effo rtsthat establish that no useful opportunities exist(Cyert and March 1992). Teams with short path lengthsare thus more likely than teams with long path lengths to hear about more opportunities that overall yield more usefulknowledge, to the ext ent that opportunities are notredundant to one another. All else equal, this benefi tshould reduce a focal team’s time to complete t he project.The arguments can be summarized in two hypotheses.HYPOTHESIS 1. The shorter a team’s path lengths inthe knowledge network, the more knowledge obtainedfrom other business units by the team. HYPOTHESIS 2. The shorter a team’s path lengths inthe knowledge network, the shorter th project completiontime.Effects of Direct Relations in Knowledge NetworksThe shortest possible path length is to have an establisheddirect relation to all other business units in a knowledgenetwork. Such a network position does not re quire anyintermediary units and should remove the informationdistortion caused by using intermediaries. However, unlikeindirect relations, which are maintained by intermediarybusiness units, direct interunit relations need to bemaintained by peo ple in the focal business unit, possiblyincluding focal team members, and require their own setof activities that take time. In the company I studied, forexample, product developers spent time outside of theirprojects traveling to other business units on a regular basisto discuss technology developments, market opportunities,a nd their respective product development programs.Such interunit network mainten ancecan be adistraction from completing specific project tasks: Timespent on mai ntaining direct contacts is time not spent oncompleting project-related tasks. Although direct interunit relations involve maintenancecosts, they also provide a benefit incertain situations:Established direct relations between a focal team and anotherbusiness unit may be helpful when the team identifiesknowledge that requ ires effort to be moved from thesource unit and incorporated into the project. Fo r example,in a number of projects in my sample, team memberswere frequently able to obtain software code from engineersin other business units, but sometime s the engineerswho wrote the code needed to explain it and help the teamto inc orporate the code into the new project. Receivingsuch help was often much easie r when the team and theengineers providing the code knew each other beforehan d.This likely positive aspect of direct relations needsto be compared with their maintenance costs.Direct relations are especially helpful when a team isexperienci ng transfer difficulties—i.e., spending significanttime extracting, moving, and inco rporating knowledgefrom other subunits—because the knowledge is noncodified,w hich is defined as knowledge that is difficultto adequately articulate in writing (Zander and Kogut1995, Hansen 1999). Relying on establisheddirect relationsmay ease the difficulties of transferring noncodifiedknowledge, because the team and people in the directlytied unit have most likely worked with each other beforean d have thus established some heuristics for workingtogether, reducing the time itt akes to explainthe knowledgeand understand one another (Uzzi 1997, Hansen199 9). When a focal team experiences significant transferdifficulties because of noncodified knowledge, having establisheddirect relations to related business units is li kelyto reduce the amount of time spent transferring knowledge,which may offset the costs of maintaining such relationsand shortening project completion time. In particular,having a number of direct relations in a knowledgenetwork increases th e likelihood that a team will be ableto use one of them in transferring noncodifi ed knowledge.Thus, while indirect relations are beneficial to the extentthat they serve as inte rmediaries that provide a focal unitwith nonredundant information, direct relations are beneficialto transferring noncodified knowledge, implyingthat the benefit of ha ving intermediaries supplying nonredundantinformation is relative (cf. Burt 1992).I n contrast, this transfer benefit of direct relations isless important when a focal t eam can easily extract andincorporate the knowledge that was identified in anoth ersubunit, as when that knowledge is highly codified. Inthese situations, direct int erunit relations are not usefulfor transfer, but they still carry maintenance costsw hichtake time away from the completion of the project to theextent that team me mbers d not have slack resources thatcan be devoted to maintaining these relatio nships. Themore suchrelations that are maintained by a focal unit,the higher the maintenance costs, and the more time istaken away from completing a project. T he arguments canbe summarized as follows:HYPOTHESIS 3A. The higher a team’s number of directrelations in the know ledge network, the shorter the projectcompletion time when the knowledge to be transferredis noncodified.HYPOTHESIS 3B. The higher a team’s number of directrelations in the knowl edge network, the longer the projectcompletion time when the knowledge to be tr ansferred iscodified.Data and MethodsSettingI tested the knowledge network model in a large, multidivisionaland multinatio nal electronics company (hereaftercalled “the Company”). I negotiated access to t hecompany through three senior corporate R&D managersand initially visited 14 divisions where I conducted openendedinterviews with 50 project engineers and managersto better understand the context, and todevelop surveyinstruments. The c ompany, which has annual sales ofmore than $5 billion, is involved in developin g, manufacturing,and selling a range of industrial and consumerelectronics produc ts and systems, and is structured into41 fairly autonomous operating divisions tha t are responsiblefor product development, manufacturing, and sales.By focusing on these divisions, I was able to compareunits that occupy the sa me formal position in the Company,thereby controlling for a potential source of variationin formal structure. They all had the same formalstatus as a business uni t with profit-and-loss responsibility,all had a general manager, and none of the di visionsreported to another division. In additio to interunit relations,there were a f ew other integrative mechanismsacross divisions, notably divisionwide conferences andelectronic knowledge management systems, but initial interviewsrevealed that these did not vary much among thedivisions.Selecting Product Development ProjectsI used two surveys: a network survey administered to theR&D managers in th e 41 divisions and a survey for theproject managers of the product development projects includedin this study. In selecting projects, I first createda list of all projects that the di visions had undertaken duringthe three-year period prior to the time of data colle ction.I then excluded very small projects (i.e., those withless than two project engineers) and projects that had notyet moved from the investigation to the developmentphase and were therefore ha rd to track I also excludedidiosyncratic projects that had no meaningful start and end (e.g., special ongoing customer projects). Includingonly successfully complete d projects may lead to an overrepresentationof successful projects, biasing the res ults.I therefore included both canceled projects and projectsstill in progress. After having removed too-small, premature,and idiosyncratic projects, I ended up with a listof 147 projects. The project managers of 120 of thesereturned their survey, yielding a response rate of 85%. Ofthe 120 projects, 22 were still in progress at the time ofdata collection, four had been canceled, and 54 reporteda significant t ransfer event involving another division.Specifying Project-Specific Knowledge NetworksIdentifying Related Subunits. Together with the threecorporate R&D managers, I developed a list of 22 technicalcompetencies that constituted related knowledgea reas(see Appendix 1 for the list of technical competencies).2 I asked the R&D managers in the divisions toindicate up to four specific competencies of their divisionson this list and to add any if they thought the listwas incomplete. The three corporate R&D managers r eviewedthe responses to verify whether it made sense togroup those divisions tha t had reported the same competence.The project managers of the 120 projects we rethen asked to indicate what technical competencies thespecific project required and were presented with thesame list that was presented to the divisional R&D managers.Thus, for a given project, a number of divisionshad a competence that matche d the requirements listedby the project manager (see Appendix 1 for the distribut ionof projects per competence). For example, a projectmanager indicated that his project required technicalcompetencies in three areas: distributed measurement,communication system monitoring, and optics. Twelve different divisions had at least one of these technical competenciesand thus constituted theknowledge network fo rthis particular project.Specifying Interunit Relations. A group of engineers ina di vision typically maintained an informal regular contactwith a group of engineers inanother division, and aproject team would use such contacts to access other di visions.These relationships were common knowledge inthat most product develope rs seemed to know about theirexistence and how to use them, and I was told in preliminaryinterviews that a main responsibility of a division’sman agers was to p rovide these contacts for his or herproject teams,should the need arise. I therefor e assumedthat at least one member of a project team woul knowabout the divisi onal-level contacts and that the teammembers could access these contacts if they wanted to.Because of the importance of these interdivisional contactsin the compa ny, I chose to focus on these types ofcontacts.Following previous research, I use d a key informant toobtain information on interdivisional relations (Knokeand Ku klinski 1982, Marsden 1990). I considered the divisionalR&D managers to be the most appropriate informantsbecause they were “in the thick of things” in theR& D department in their division. The R&D manager ineach of the 41 divisions re ceived a questionnaire asking,“Over the past two years, are there any divisions fr omwhom your division regularly sought technical and/ormarket-related input?”3 T he question was followed by alist of the 41 divisions included in the study, allo wingrespondents to indicate whether they had a tie to any onthe list, leading to a complete network where everybodywas asked whether a tie existed with everyb ody else(Marsden 1990). Because I asked everybody to indicatewhether a tie exis ted with each of the other 40 divisions,I avoided a potential bias resulting from having to asksomeone to ascertain whether ties exist among others(Krackhardt an d Kilduff 1999).To validate the responses, I employed the crossvalidationmethod used by Krac khardt (1990by askingthe R&D managers who comes to them for input. Anactual tie exists when both divisions agree that one comesto the other for input. I then sent an e-mail to all of theR&D managers, asking them about the ones about whichthere was no joint agreement. On the basis of their responses,I included som e of these suspect ties and excludedothers.Merging Network and Project Data. I constructedproject-specific knowledge net works by including all relationsamong divisions possessing related knowledge fora given project. For example, for the aforementioned projectfor which there were12 related divisions, I includedall relations among these 12 divisions, and this ne tworkconstituted the project-specific knowledge network. Toconstruct these project -specific networks, I merged theproject data with the divisional network data by ass igninga division’s network relations to its projects. Thus, interdivisionalties bec ame the equivalent of interdivisionalproject ties. It is important to record thevalu es on thenetwork variables prior to the start of a project becausemy theoretical a rguments assume that a project team usesestablished preexisting interunit ties to s earch for andtransfer knowledge. Following the approach of Burt(1992) and Podo lny and Baron (1997), I handled this issueby measuring the interdivisional netwo rk relationsover several years by only assigning network ties thatexisted prior to the start of the project. This proceduregenerated time-varying network data from informationthat the respondents could recall.The potential bias in this approach is that it may excludesome relations that e xisted prior to a project’s startbut that ceased to exist by the time the R&D ma nagerscompleted the survey. This problem can be partially controlledfor. This pot ential bias should be more of a problemfor projects in divisions in which relatio ns come andgo than in divisions with long-lasting relations. If a division’srelatio ns are long lasting, then it is less likelythat there were some relations that cease d to exist betweenthe time just prior to the project’s start and the timeof surveying. To control for this potential bias, I entereda control variable for th e average age of direct relationsto related subunits (Age relations).Dependent VariablesProject Completion Time. To assess project task performance,I measured project completion time as thenumber of months from the start of concept developmen tto the time of marketintroduction for a given project (ortime to the end of the study period or cancellation forongoing and canceled projects, respectively). I def inedstarting time as the month when a dedicated personstarted working part or f ull time on the project, whichtypically coincided with the time an account was o penedfor the project. I defined the end date as the date on whichthe product was released to shipment, which is a formalmilestone date in this co mpany because it signifies thatthe product is ready to be manufactured and shipp ed ona regular basis. These definitions turned out to be veryclear and provided f ew problems in specifying the startand completion times, which were 14.8 months on averagefor completed projects. Scholars have proposed two alternative measures ofcompletion time. First, com pletion timecan be measuredas the extent to which the project is finished on sch edule(e.g., Ancona andCaldwell 1992). The assumption in thisschedule measure is that inherent project differences areaccounted for in the original schedule, but als o that everybodysets equally ambitious schedules, which was mostlikely not true in this company, where individual projectmanagers set their own targets. A second approach is togroup projects according to some similarity measure andthen take a project’s deviation from the mean completiontime of the group (Eisenhardtan d Tabrizi 1995). Theproblem with this approach is that the mean deviationrelies on a clearsimilarity measure that was not easy toattain in this setting. Given that these two alternativemethods seemed problematic, I chose to use the numberof m onths as the dependent variableand then add projectspecificvariables to control for inherent differences betweenthe projects.Amount Acquired Knowledge. During field interviewsI was told that the most c ommon knowledge that projectteams received from other divisions took the form of technicalsolutions embodied in already developed softwarecode and hardware components. T here were two types of“ware” being used in the projects—standar input to theproducts being made (e.g., components that were used innearly all os cilloscopes being manufactured), and warethat helped solve ad hoc problems that。

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企业是组织,它们与系统相似,但侧重点不同。尽管只有一个人的企业的运作在理论上是 企业是组织 可能的,但这不是标准的企业。实际上,所有的企业都有某种组织结构来履行他们的职责。 如果我们将客户纳入企业的组织,那么对于一个企业几乎不可能只有一个组织成员。我们 之所以避开这个话题,是因为个人也可以拥有原材料、生产能力、并提供最终产品供个人 使用,因此也可以作为一个企业存在。基于我们的目的,我们将假设这是不可能的。 组织成员之间的关系在正式的组织中得以建立。每一种关系得建立都需要通过一个或更多 的过程来实现:如劳动力的分配、部门化和授权。结构良好的组织将清晰地定义职能、信 息流渠道和控制手段。所有这些资源(包括人力、材料、金融和信息)联合起来形成了一 个统一的结构。除了雇员和其他不少正式成员,还有不少其他和企业利益相关的人,这些 人被称为股东。 股东 所有企业都拥有多种多样个人和团体的股东。每个股东在企业的利益也略有不同。他们 为确保企业的成功所做的贡献也有所不同。每个企业都需要认识到股东在企业的利益。这 些认识将使他们能够设法满足这些利益以便使企业继续维持。
所有者 具有组织、管理企业的责任并需要承担创立和运作企业的风险。这种角色定位使他们成 为敦促公司成功的重要因素。由于绝大多数美国企业是个人管理的小企业,所有者在公司 的最终成功上起着主要作用。在这些情况下,所有者不仅要承担风险,而且还要应付企业 的日常管理。并非所有的公司在任何特定的时间内都能获得每一个股东的支持。大多数公 司仅在公司发展周期内的某段时间获得所有股东的支持。我们将只介绍大股东但不会详细 地论及。 债权人 主要提供运营资本。通常是以提供现金或贷款的形式创建和管理企业。各企业都会采用 许多机制从债权人或投资者那里获取运营资本。 员工 在企业里被赋予了某种程度的利益,是因为企业雇佣了他们来管理企业的运营。他们也 希望通过自身的努力得到某种报酬。作为回报,企业关心员工的幸福。 供应商 提供生产所需的材料。在大多数情况下,供应商自身也是企业。因此他们寻求靠他们的 劳动付出获得收益。 客户 是一个企业的最终股东。他们购买满足他们需求的产品。每一个股东在企业里的利益有 所不同,但是只有当所有的股东都满意时这个企业才可能取得成功。此外,企业和每一个 股东集团之间的关系是循环式的。
Para.17: A dissatisfied customer is one who has not received adequate value in the transaction which produces a definite potential to have the business’s long term profits negatively impacted. 此句中“who has not received adequate value in the transaction which produces a definite potential to have the business’s long term profits negatively impacted”为定语从句。在定语从句中“which produces a definite potential to have the business’s long term profits negatively impacted”修饰 “transaction”,作其定语。
营销不应仅仅以销售为核心。如果企业要生存,那么就需要与客户培养一种持续发展的 关系。在现今的市场中许多公司正在使用各种软件工具来管理这种关系。这些软件工具通 常被称为CRM或客户关系管理工具。这些工具使得公司得以很好地处理与客户的关系, 从而确保与客户关系的持续发展。它们也使公司的管理层在制定企业未来战略规划时得到 宝贵的信息。 会计 提供估量企业经营状态是否良好的信息。在大多数情况下,它从记帐开始。然而,仅仅 记录所发生的事并不够。还必须出具报表。有些报表是基于管理目的,但是大多数报表是 为了信息和决策两个功能的。没有这些报表,就不可能准确地使股东了解企业的总体经营 状况。大部分的会计工作都是由企业雇佣的会计师来做。 另有一些会计师提供一些证明公司的记录是准确的服务。这就是审计。通常他们必须满 足更加严格的教育和实践要求。为了保证在这个过程中的客观性,他们不直接受雇于这家 公司。一般地,企业之外的股东可以得到他们工作中的信息。他们报告上的图章并不证明 企业的业绩的真实性,但的确表明财务报表的良好状况。这个信息将转达给管理机构和公 司的投资者。 会计师也担负内部审计师的职责。他们协助管理层就企业的经营做出明智的决策。II来自 参考译文工商管理概论
工商管理的特性 英语单词business有许多定义。每个定义相互关联,但又各自不同。 与我们 的讨论有关的定义主要有两个。第一个定义是指作为一种生存手段而从事的任何 活动。第二个定义将工商管理视为人们生活中的重要的活动。对于美国而言,工 商管理既是一种谋生手段,同时又是人们生活的一个中心。个人和团体既为了经 济盈利又为了个人身份的确定和认可而从事工商活动。工商管理的双重中心意味 着其在为个人或人群提供生计的同时又给每个人带来一种身份感。这两个概念相 互交织,几乎不可能将它们区分开来。然而,基于我们的目的,我们将关注作为 谋生手段的工商,把工商看成是将一个或更多人的资产拿来,以商品和服务的形 式使其他的人可以得到这些资产以此获得利润的过程。我们将尽力确定并解释这 一定义的不同组成要素。 工商管理是一个过程 工商管理是一系列行为、变化,或引起一个结果的功能。许多人试图将这个过 程分为很多过程,其目的是为了更好地理解和管理这些过程(子过程),这样他 们就能够影响并控制结果。现在,我们只需要了解它是一个由各个过程构成的过 程,我们既可以单独地理解它们,又可以将它们当作一个整体来理解。
Unit 1
工商管理概论
Part A
工商管理概论
Part B 为什么说工商管理是重要的
I. Language Focus
Para.1: This double focus of business carries an understanding that business provides for the sustenance of an individual or group of individuals while at the same time providing each with a sense of identity.
工商管理中的五个关键职能
考察企业的一个方法是考察它所涉及的职能。要想在自由的企业系统中取得成功所有企 业必须关注这些职能。每项活动都与生产和维持利润率的组织能力有关。 管理是为了达到公司的目的和目标适当利用人力资源和资本资源的过程。管理人员如何 管理 利用这些资源将在很大程度上决定这一努力所带来的营利能力。传统上,企业将管理以科 层制方式进行组织。科层制管理的结构就像一个军队的组织。他们拥有许多名字和头衔, 但是可以概括地分为高级经理人员、中层经理和生产线管理人员。许多组织在一个级别内 具有多重级别。因为用图形描绘公司的组织结构图通常非常高,我们通常称之为直线型管 理。许多公司努力减少管理层次,由此得到更为扁平的组织结构图。在这个过程中他们将 决策点向生产工人移近。 市场营销是介于企业和客户之间的层面。客户是一个公司所有促销的中心。然而,企业 市场营销 的各个层面都有营销。从产品的概念到产品售后支持,营销都应涉及整个过程。只有在营 销全程参与时企业才可能在营销活动中取得成功。营销的职责是确保适当的产品在适当的 时间和适当的地点、以是适当的价格到达合适的客户手中。这是一个企业营销功能的重大 职责。营销做得好,公司不仅能生存下去,而且在市场上也繁荣发展。在保证企业实现利 润的同时需要做到这点,这使得这个过程变得更加复杂。营销的运作是以客户满意为中心。 所有的市场活动都要确保客户的需求得到充分地满足。这使企业必须正确地分析客户、竞 争对手及公司的资源。在这些环节上出现的任何脱节都可能造成客户的不满。客户之所以 不满是因为在交易中没有得到足够的价值,这对企业的长期利润必定会产生负面的影响。
在我们看来,工商活动是一个给为了维持生计而参与其中的那些人返还利润的过程。工 商活动主要是为了获得利润而生产商品和服务。利润的本质会因所从事的工商的性质不同 而不同。尽管工商对利润的定义略有不同,但是他们为了继续从事工商都必须获得利润。 这就是工商的实质,因为这是维持生计的唯一途径。根据这个的观点,工商必须维持一定 的利润来养活企业和那些依赖工商维持生计的个人。 每个良好的过程都有控制,包括内部控制和外部控制。对于企业来说,内部控制通过管理 得到实现,而外部控制通常通过各个管理机构得以实现。要使过程得到有效运作,也需要 从子过程乃至控制结构提供的反馈。这个反馈越有效,控制就会越好,这就为企业的成功 运作做好了准备。 企业也是系统。每个系统有投入、过程、产出和结果。管理良好的系统也包含反馈和控 企业也是系统 制机制。所有的系统是更大系统的一部分。它们也影响其它的系统。这个概念有助于解释 企业并不是孤立的实体,而是影响其它企业并受到其它企业的影响。作为一个系统,与人 们假设的线性关系相比,它们实际上是循环的。每个子系统(子过程)能彼此影响并同时 影响整个系统。所有的组成要素之间的相互关系使人们难以将一个企业分成几个子组成要 素并通过分析这个企业的子组成要素来理解企业的实质。尽管分析这些组成要素是有益的, 但是必须明白只有在分析了一个企业的各个组成要素才能充分了解这个企业。在本书中, 你将了解一个企业的不同组成要素。尽管这个分析是必需的,但是你必须记住一个企业不 仅仅是那些组成要素的聚合。你可能拥有所有恰当的组成要素,但却未必就能得到一个有 效的企业。
此句中“that business provides for the sustenance of an individual or group of individuals while at the same time providing each with a sense of identity” 是 同位语从句。在同位语从句中“while at the same time providing each with a sense of identity”为状语从句,而在状语从句中省略了“it is”。其完整的句子应 为“while it is at the same time providing each with a sense of identity”。 Para.5: As a system, they are circular in nature as opposed to the linear type of relationship that is assumed in the process concept. 此句中“that is assumed in the process concept”为定语从句。“as opposed to”: 与…相对;与…成对比。
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