Chapter 1 英语专业语言学概念
自考英语本科 《现代语言学》 复习大纲
C h a p t e r1I n t r o d u c t i o n绪论what is linguistics?定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
英语语言学知识整理1
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
新编简明英语语言学 第一章
What is linguistics?
---It is a scientific study because it is based on the systemetic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
> Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.
---Hall, 1968
语言是“人类利用约定俗成的任意性视听符号借以相互交流和影响的习惯体 系”。
---霍尔 ， 1968
What is language?
From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.
synchronic and diachronic
>The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.
对历史上某一时间点的语言状况 所作的研究是共时研究
>The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
英语语言学讲义Chapter1
2006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章Chapter one本章共 5 页Introduction to linguistics1. What is linguistics? ( definition of linguistics) Linguistics: is generally defined as the scientific study of (human) language. 1. The word language preceded by zero article in English implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English , Chinese , French and Japanese, but languages in general. 2. The word study does not mean “learn” but “investigate”. 3. The word scientific refers to the way in which language is studied. 2. Why study linguistics ? 1. Linguistics takes an analytical approach to the study of language, and focus on developing skills in data analysis, problem solving, and logical thinking that can be applied to many fields. 2. It is a interdisciplinary subject. 3. Linguistics is a science that is still in its infancy but undergoing rapid development, and it is “a pilot science” 3. What and how linguists study language? 1. nature of language (focus on language itself) 2. nature of acquisition (focus on learners) 3. nature of teaching (focus on teachers) The process of linguistic study can be summarized as follows: .First, certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them; .Next, based on these generalizations, hypotheses are tested by further observations; .And finally a linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.4.Scope of linguistics 1. General linguistics: The study of language as a whole, it deal with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 2. Micro-linguistics includes 6 parameters, namely, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. It studies language itself. 3. Marco-linguistics conclude other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, and artificial intelligence. It studies language in use--- practical usage.12006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页5Micro- linguistics 1. Phonetics: The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds. 2. Phonology: The description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. 3 Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words. 4. Syntax: The study of those rules that govern the combination of words to from permissible sentences. 5. Semantics: The study of meaning in abstraction. 6. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use. Micro- linguistics61. Sociolinguistics: It studies the relations between language and society. 2. Psycholinguistics: The study of language and mind.– the mental structures and processes. 3. Stylistics: The study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. ( Written language) 4. Text linguistics: The study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used. 5. Computational linguistics: 6. Cognitive linguistics: 7. Applied linguistics:Most linguistics, however, would agree on a tentative definition like this: 7 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition is widely accepted because it includes some of the important characteristics of human language. The design features of language The following 7 design features of human language have been identified by C.F.Hockett(1958): 1.productivity, 2. arbitrariness, 3. duality, 4. displacement, 5.interchangeability, 6.specialization, 7.cultural transmission. The characteristics of language 1. Language as system ---The key word in the definition is "system". Language is systematic. Otherwise we would not be able to learn or use it consistently. Each language system contains two subsystems: a system of sound and a system of meaning. 2. Language as arbitrary ---There is no natural relationship between the sound and what it means in a certain22006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页language. we cannot predicate exactly what specific features we will find in a particular language if we are not familiar with it. 3. Language as vocal ---By "vocal" we mean that the primary medium of all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing system might be.The Elements of Language8Origin of language 1. The evolution of man’s social life paved the way for the evolution of language. Society is both the creator and the container of language.. 2. And various theories are proposed to account for or speculate about its origin, such as the bow-wow theory, the pooh-pooh theory, and the yo-he-ho theory, etc.The functions of language 1. Phatic( ) By phatic we mean that language can be used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells, and comments on weather serve this function. 2. Informative( ): Language severs an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts or to reason things out. Informative function is met through declarative sentences. Such informative statements are either true or false. 3. Expressive( ) : Language severs an expressive function when it is used to reveal the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Ejaculations like: "Good heavens!"寒暄信息表达The functions of language 4. Directive ( ): Language serves a directive function when it is used to get the hearer do something. Most imperative sentences have this function. "Get out!" "Close the window, please.", "Walk slowly" are a few examples.指令5. Interrogative(疑问) :Language severs an informative function when it is used to get information from32006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页others. All questions that expect answers have this function, such as: "When will the meeting begin?" 6. Evocative( ) :The evocative function is the use of language to arouse certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry or please. 7. Performative ( ): Language is used to do things or to perform acts. Some Major Concepts in Linguistics Descriptive and prescriptive grammars Synchronic and diachronic linguistics Langue and parole Competence and performance Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation Functionalism and formalism情感施为9 Some Major Concepts in Linguistics 1. Most modern linguistics is descriptive. It attempts to describe what people actually say. As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language. The functions of language 2. When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. SL focuses on the state of language at any point in history while DL focuses on the differences in two or more than 2 states of language over decades or centuries.3LangueParoleThe functions of language42006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页4. Competence and performance American linguist Noam Chomsky distinguishes competence and performance so as to idealize language data and to define the scope of linguistic study. Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations. Performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is ,the actual use of this knowledge.The functions of language 5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations Saussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Syntagmatic relations refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements,which form linear sequences. Paradigmatic relations means the vertical relationship between forms,which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.→6. Functionalism and formalism Generally speaking, schools of linguistics can be divided into 2 major camps: functionalism and formalism. Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.5。
语言学第一章笔记和习题
Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言。
The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentMonthly examExaminationReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。
胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。
胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。
Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLanguage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.The pooh-pooh theoryLanguage arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.To sum up:The divine-origin theory: language is a gift of god to mankind.The invention theory: imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together.The evolutionary theory: the result of physical and psychological development.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention.V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intendedmeaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words. Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Productivity/Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ‗new‘. In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cannot create a ‗new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.g. human vocal tractFunctions of language (3+6+7+3)1. Three main functionsthe descriptive function: the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.the expressive function: it supplies information about the user‘s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. the social function：also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people2. The Russian-born structural linguists Roman Jakobson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function. That is, in conjunction of the six primary factors of any speech event, he established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication in his famous article: Linguistics and PoeticsAddresser—Emotive (intonation showing anger)Addressee—Conative (imperatives and vocatives)Context—Referential (conveys a message or information)Message—Poetic (indulge in language for its own sake)Contact—Phatic communion (to establish communion with others)Code—Metalinguistic (to clear up intentions, words and meanings)3. In the early 1970s the British linguist M.A.K. Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions, namely, instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic, and imaginative. This system contains three macrofunctions—the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual function.three meta-functions proposed by M. A. K. Halliday(1) The ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information. It constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations(2) The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community. It enacts social relationships(3) The textual functionTo form a text. It creates relevance to context.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actualrealization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentrates primarily on what speakers do with language which led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In Halliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the public ation of F. de Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psych ological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B。
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter一、引言英语语言学是一门研究英语语言的学科，通过对英语语言中的语音、语法、词汇、语义以及社会文化背景等方面进行深入分析，以探寻语言的本质规律和使用方式。
本章将介绍戴炜栋英语语言学概论中的第一章，旨在为读者提供对英语语言学的整体概念和研究对象的基本了解。
二、语言学的定义及分支领域1. 语言学的定义语言学是研究语言的科学，关注语言的结构、发展、演变以及语言与思维的关系，旨在了解语言的规律和作用。
2. 语言学的分支领域- 语音学：研究语音的产生、传播和感知。
- 语法学：研究语言的句法结构和词法规则。
- 语义学：研究语言的意义和概念的表达方式。
- 语用学：研究语言的使用方式和交际功能。
- 语言变化学：研究语言的历史演变和变异现象。
- 社会语言学：研究语言与社会文化背景的关系。
三、基本语言单位1. 音素音素是语言中的最小发声单位，可以通过音标或符号进行表示。
2. 音节音节是由一个或多个音素组成的音序单位，每个音节至少包含一个核心音素。
3. 词汇词汇是语言的基本单位，是由一个或多个音节组成的，具有独立意义的单位。
4. 句子句子是语言中表达完整意义的单位，由一个或多个词汇组成，具有主谓宾结构。
四、语音学的基本概念1. 发音器官发音器官是人类用于发出语音的器官，包括呼吸器官（肺部、气管）、声带、腔道（口腔、鼻腔）等。
2. 语音语调语音语调是指人们在语音交流中所表达的语言节奏、音调和语气等。
不同语言的语音语调差异较大，是语言交流中的重要组成部分。
3. 音素分类音素可分为元音和辅音两大类，元音是声音发出时不产生任何阻塞的音，而辅音是声音发出时经过喉头或口腔等部位的阻塞或摩擦的音。
五、语法学的基本概念1. 词类和词汇词类是对词汇进行分类的方法，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等。
每个词类都有相应的语法特征和功能。
2. 语法关系语法关系是指词汇之间在句子中的语义或句法关联关系，包括主谓关系、动宾关系、定状补关系等。
语言学名词解释Chapter1-3
35. Lexical words: refer to substance, actions and quality 36.Closed-class words: words that cannot be extended by the creation of additional members. 37.Open-class words: words can be extended. 38.Morpheme ：the smallest meaning-bearing（有意义的）unit 39.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves 40.Bound morphemes: morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with 41.Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories 42.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes , added to existing forms to create new words. 43.stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. 44.Root: the base form of a word 45.affix: naturally bound 46.Allomorph: A morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. 47.Inflection 屈折词: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes 48.Derivation 派生词: the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots or words. pounding 复合词: a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit. 50.Blending 混合词: a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words. 51.Abbreviation 缩 写 词 : a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form. 52. Acronym 首字母缩略词: a word created by combining the initial letters of a number of words. 53.Back-formation: a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word. 54.Borrowing: the taking over of words from other languages 55.Coinage (invention): the invention of a new word 56.Meaning shift: a process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning. 57.
语言学概论Chapter1WhatisLanguage
语言学概论研究生课程使用教材：语言学入门（英语版）An Introduction to Linguistics by Stuart C. Poole 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press麦克米伦出版社Macmillan Publishers Ltd参考资料：[1] Halliday, M. A. K. (1994[1985]) An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2nd edn. London:Edward Arnold.[2] Labov, William 1966. The Social Stratification of English in York City. Washington, DC:Center for Applied Linguistics.[3] Ladefoged, Peter. 1993. A Course in Phonetics . 3rd ed. Fort Worth,TX: Harcourt Brace.[4] Lakoff, George & M. J. Johnson 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of ChicagoPress.[5] Leech, G. 1969. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. Longman.[6] Leech, G. and M. Short. 1981. Style in Fiction. Longman.[7] Radford, Andrew et all. 1999. Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.[8] Roach, Peter. 1991. English Phonetics and Phonology. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press.[9] Yule, George. 1996. The Study of Language, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.[10] 胡壮麟. 2001.《语言学教程》北京：北京大学出版社.第一章What Is Language?本章的教学目的、要求与内容：掌握语言的意义和定义、语言的功能和结构特征。
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Syntax is concerned with the rules that determine the correct structure.
◆The ◆ The
duck ran up to Mary and licked her. duck ran up to Mary and it licked
符号学是系统地研究语言符号与非语言符号的学科
Semiotocs is usually divided into three branches
Syntactics: Relations among signs in formal structures.
Semantics: Relation between signs and the things to which they refer.
---Levinson 1983
Pragmatics is the study of the relations between language and context that are basic to an account of language understanding.
---Levinson 1983
Linguistic context is internalized context including cotextual context which allows learners to refer back and forth through unfolding text itself.
a. Phonological context refers to intonation, stress, pause which is used to determine different meanings.
*The bottle of ketchup ran up to Mary and licked her.
◆ The
duck ran up to Mary and it licked her. p & q
If p is true, q is true, then p&q is true.
If either p or q is false, then p&q is false.
c. Cultural context refers to the cultural background. It includes beliefs, customs, ideas, value system, religious and history and etc.
Regularity
When it comes to using language, people tend to behave in a fairly regular ways . Some of that regularity derives from the fact that people are members of social groups and follow general patterns of behavior expected within the group.
Non-linguistic context is also named extra-linguistic context which constrains and regulates the application of the shared “ground-rules” 整套规则for communication. a. Situational context refers to the background knowledge, actual speech setting, and types of discourse.
---Stalnaker, 1972
Pragmatics is the study of language use and lingustic communication.
---Akmajian, 1979
Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations.
Pragmatics: Relation between signs and their effects on those who use them.
具体化过程 抽象化过程
Definitions of pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captured in a semantic theory.
A pragmatic principle
Interpret order of mention as a reflection of order of occurrence.
According to formal semantics(形式语义学), p&q=q&p.
◆He
speaks French and she speaks Chinese.= married and had a child.
her.
◆ The
bottle of ketchup ran up to Mary and licked her.
*Ran up to Mary and licked the duck her.
Semantics is also concerned with the truthconditions真值条件 of propositions命题 expressed in sentences.
◆ The ◆Open
the window, would you?
semantics + pragmatics
meaning
two important concepts
context
linguistic context and nonlingustic context
linguistic context
b. Social context is any kind of relation among human and any contact. It concerns the historical background and the background characteristic of times.
பைடு நூலகம்Chapter 1
Definitions and background
Charles Morris and semiotics(1938)
Semiotics, also called semiotic studies or semiology, is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs and symbols. Semiotics is frequently seen as having important anthropological dimensions. Umberto Eco proposes that every cultural phenomenon can be studied as communication. However, some semioticians focus on the logical dimensions of the science. In general, semiotic theories take signs or sign systems as their object of study: the communication of information in living organisms is covered in biosemiotics or zoosemiosis.
Pragmatics is a theory which seeks to characterize how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication.
---Kempson 1975
Pragmatics is the study of linguistic acts and the contexts in which they are performed.
Pragmatics---wastebasket Pragmatics deals with the stuff that wasn’t easily handled within the formal system of analysis. Pragmatics deals with the biotic aspects of semiosis, that is, with all the psychological, biological, and sociological phenomena which occur in the functioning of signs.
b. Lexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemous word. It contributes to the co-locative meaning of a word or phrase. c. Grammatical context refers to either syntactic or lexical, and in some instances rhetorical context.
---Leech, 1983