最新英语语言学超强总结
新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结
一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication andit makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。
以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学：英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。
其中，英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。
2. 英语语法学：英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则，包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。
3. 英语词汇学：英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况，包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。
4. 英语语用学：英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境，包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。
5. 英语语音语调学：英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统，包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。
6. 英语文体学：英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯，包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。
7. 英语词汇记忆学：英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇，包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。
8. 英语跨文化交际学：英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用，包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。
以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结，不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。
(完整版)英语语言学超强总结
语言学总结一、语言和语言学1、语言的差异性特色：Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality指语言由两层结构组成创立性creativity指语言能够被创立移位性displacement指语言能够代表时间和空间上不能及的物体、时间、见解2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、流传、接受过程，观察人类语言中的声音音位学phonology研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics不但关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics计算机语言学 computational linguistics5语言学中的重要差异规定式和描述式：规定式：prescriptive 说明事情应该是怎么样的描述式： descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特准时期语言历时： diachronic研究语言发展规律语言和语言：语言：langue 指语言系统的整体语言： parole 指详尽实质运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky 提出 )能力： competence 用语言的人的语言知识储备运用： performance 真实的语言使用者在实质中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学声学语言学听觉语音学articulatory phonetics 研究语言的产生acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA （国际音标）是由daniel Jones 琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对峙体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3音位变体allophones4互补分布 complementary distribution5自由变体 free variation6差异特色 distinctive features7超音段特色 suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音 stress 语调 tone 声调 intonation四形态学1词的组成语素 morpheme 自由语素 free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化 lexical change proper新创词语 invention 混拼词 blending 缩写词 abbreviation首字母缩写词 acronym逆构词汇 back-formation 例： editor— edit类推构词 analogiacal creation 例： work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词 borrowing五句法学1范围 category 数 number性 gender 格 case 时 tense 体 aspect一致关系 concord支配关系 govenrment2结构主义学派 the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation 词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 拥有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents : 句子不但是线性结构liner structure 还是层级结构hierarchical structure(句子或短语被称为结构体，而组成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分解析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，获取下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能够再分4向心结构和离心结构 endocentric and exocentric constructions向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为 man离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。
英语语言学知识点
英语语言学知识点英语语言学是英语语言文学专业培养计划中的一门基础必修课，接下来店铺为你整理了英语语言学知识点，一起来看看吧。
英语语言学知识点：定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited sourceof expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCo mpetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结归纳
英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位:2.Allophone音位变体:3.Minimal pair最小对立体:第三课1.Morphology形态学:which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes第四课1.Syntax语法句法:classes,4.Surface to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstractmeaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．language?The important characteristicssystematic, arbitrary and vocalFirst of all,language in a wrong way.3．1) Arbitrariness:2)Productivity:provides and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality:4)5)第二课1.语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromSuffix: -ist2. Think of three morpheme be1)prefix: un-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The1.2.3.4.5.6.Hyponymyare called its hyponyms. For example,第六课答：way to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development andand 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics.traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in thattakes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, tothe truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type答：Make your conversational(1) The maxim of quantity①②(2) The maxim of quality①②(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.①②③④(】。
英语语言学 总结
英语语言学总结简介英语语言学是对英语语言进行科学研究的学科领域。
它涉及语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个方面，对于了解英语的起源、演变以及语言结构和功能都具有重要意义。
本文将对英语语言学进行一些总结和概述，介绍其中一些重要的概念和理论。
语音学语音学是研究语音的学科，它主要关注语音的产生、传播和听觉等方面。
在英语语言学中，语音学起着重要的作用，它帮助我们了解英语中不同音素（phoneme）的发音规律和特征。
在语音学中，音位（phoneme）是指语音的最小功能单位，而音素（phone）则是对特定发音的描述。
通过了解音位和音素的差异，我们可以更好地理解英语中的发音规则和口音变化。
语法学语法学研究语言的句法结构和规则，包括句子成分、词法、语序等。
英语语法学主要关注英语句子的结构和语法规则。
通过学习英语语法，我们可以了解英语句子构成的基本规则和语言运用中的一些常见现象。
常见的语法概念包括主谓宾结构、时态、语态等。
语义学语义学研究语言的意义和词义，包括词汇的意义、句子的意义以及语言的歧义等。
在英语语义学中，我们探讨英语词汇的意义差异、词义的转化和词汇搭配等。
通过学习英语语义学，我们可以更准确地理解英语中的词汇和句子的意义，并避免产生理解上的困惑。
语用学语用学研究语言的交际功能和使用情境，包括言语行为、话语的指称和暗示、对话结构等。
在英语语用学中，我们研究英语中的礼貌用语、委婉语、修辞手法等。
通过学习英语语用学，我们可以更好地理解英语中的社交规则和交际方式，提高我们的语言运用能力。
英语语言学的意义英语语言学的研究对于我们了解和使用英语具有重要的意义。
它帮助我们理解英语的起源、发展和演变，揭示了英语语言结构和功能的本质。
通过学习英语语言学，我们可以更好地掌握英语的发音、词汇、语法和语用等方面的知识，提高我们的英语语言能力。
此外，英语语言学还对翻译、教学、翻译和语言政策等领域有着重要的影响。
结论通过对英语语言学的总结，我们对英语语言的研究有了更深刻的认识。
英语语言学知识整理1
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结
一、定义1.语言学 LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学 General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4. 识别特征 Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of humanlanguage that distinguishit from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴a rbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication andit makes it possible for language to have an unlimited sourceof expressions⑵P roductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶D ualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets ofstructures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸C ultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to betaught and learned the details of any language system. this showedthat language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5. 语言能力 CompetenceCompetenceis the ideal user ’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6. 语言运用 performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
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语言学总结一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics5语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3 音位变体allophones4 互补分布complementary distribution5 自由变体free variation6 区别特征distinctive features7 超音段特征suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词borrowing五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分分析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions 向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。
例：on the shelf5生成学派the generative approach深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage6功能学派the functional approach主位与述位 theme and rheme主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known，述位：与说话者内容有关的内容what the speaker states about7交际力communicative and dynamism简称CD指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度六、语义学1 利奇的意义七分法Leech and his 7 types of meaning概念意义conceptual meaning 字面意义内涵意义connotative meaning 实际交往过程中所指的事物社会意义情感意义 affective meaning反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义搭配意义 collocative meaning主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义2指称论 referential theory指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论3语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出Symbol或form指语言要素（如词和语素），the linguistic elements能指thought指概念concept所指reference指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience涵义sense语言形式的意义4主要涵义关系○同义关系synonymy地域同义词dialectal synonymy风格同义词 stylistic synonyms感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬○反义关系antonymy等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例dead-alive反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship between 2 entities.例 husband-wife; teacher-student○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。
例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合补充：同音同形异义关系homonymy一词多义 polysemy七、语用学1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作○施为句和叙事句performative and constative施为句：实施某种行为。
叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。
○行事行为理论a theory of the illocutionary act言内行为：locutionnary act表述字面意思言外行为：illoutionary act 因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为言后行为：perlocutionnary act 话语在听者身上产生的效果2会话含义理论 the theory of conversational implicature格赖斯提出Herbert Paul Grice○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则○四个准则four categories of maxims数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则3后格赖斯时期的发展○关联理论：relevance theory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为every act of ostensive(直接表明的) communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance○数量关系和关系原则the Q-and R-principles由霍恩Laurence Horn 提出八现代语言学理论和流派1 索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”2 布拉格学派Prague School贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念4伦敦学派 the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。
韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性韩礼德和系统功能语法：由系统语法和功能语法构成。
把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象5美国结构主义American Structuralism共时语言学分支，由博厄斯提出F.Bos.○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis语言相对论-语言决定论○布隆菲尔德Bloomfield《语言论》－20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方法论典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。
描述语言学的代表人物6 转换生成语法transformational–generative grammar乔姆斯基提出Chomsky.认为语言是某种天赋，语言习得机制Language Acquisition device。