胡壮麟语言学第二版 08Chapter_8_pragmatics
胡壮麟语言学笔记
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
⑸Cultural transmission
Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.
Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.
8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics
The study of a given language at a given time.
9.语言langue
The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.
The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.
英语语言学课件(胡壮麟版)
9
1. A: Are you going to the seminar? B: It‟s on linguistics. 2. A: Would you like some coffee? B: Coffee would keep me awake. 3. A: 我带的钱不够，今天买不了。 B: 那就下次再买吧。
Chapter Eight Language in Use
1. Definition of Pragmatics
The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers‟ meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning.
2. Robert Gibbs named Obama Press Secretary U.S. President-elect Barack Obama has named his longtime spokesman Robert Gibbs as his White House press secretary
“Janet! Donkeys!” (David Copperfield)
5
Leech曾指出，“意义”在语义学中是二价 的(bivalent)，而在语用学中就成了三价的 (trivalent)。也就是说，语义研究的是“X 的意义是Y”(X means Y)。例如：Donkey means “ass”。而语用学研究的是“说话者 S通过话语X来表达Y的意思”(S means Y by X)。例如一个家庭主妇对仆人说： “Janet! donkeys!”的时候，单独从语义上 看并没有明确的意思；但是从语用学角度 看，女主人是想让Janet把驴子从草坪上赶 走。 Sentence meaning: What does X mean? Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?
Chapter 8 Pragmatics 语用学 语言学教程 胡壮麟.ppt
(c) The room was wanted for a meeting.
பைடு நூலகம்
(2) I can’t work under untidy circumstances.
are acts.
8.1.1 Performatives and constatives Austin (How to Do Things with Words,
1962) Consider these sentences: a) I name this ship Elizabeth. b) I bequeath my watch to my brother. c) I now pronounce you man and wife. d) I bet you sixpence it will rain
A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and
(ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.
B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.
Possible contexts:
(a) A request to someone to tidy up the circumstances.
(b) It was an excuse for not wanting to do something there.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章
Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。
）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。
格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。
他把这种机制称作合作原则。
2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。
②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。
质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。
①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。
语言学重点章节介绍
语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。
错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。
因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。
（完整）语言学知识点（语言学简明教程胡壮麟版）,推荐文档
（完整）语⾔学知识点（语⾔学简明教程胡壮麟版）,推荐⽂档ⅠDefinitionA卷①Phonetics 语⾔学(P17)Phonetics is the field of language study concerning the physical properties of sounds and speech sounds.②Minimal pairs 最⼩辨⽴对(P42)They are made up of similar sound sequence except for the difference of one sound in the corresponding position.③Open-class 开放类词(P66)They are indefinitely extendable. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class words.④Invariable words 可变化词(P67)Invariable words refer to those words such as conjunctions, prepositions, interjections, etc. . T hey do not have inflective endings.⑤Morpheme 语素(P68)In linguistics, the minimal unit of meaning is called morpheme.⑥Compounds 复合词(P69)Compounds consist wholly of free morphemes.⑦Derivation 派⽣(P72)Derivation is the process in which new words are created from already existing words through affixation.⑧Pragmatics 语⽤学(P150)Pragmatics is a study of the intended meaning of speakers in a particular context.⑨Blending 缩合(P187)Blending here means to form a new word by joining the initial part of a word and the initial or final part of another word together.⑩Dissimilation 异化(P189)This occurs when one of two similar or identical sounds in a word change in such a way that it becomes less similar to the other.B卷①Articulatory phonetics 发声语⾳学(P18)It studies the sound units from the angle of how each sound segment is articulated.②Diphthongs (P)There are vowels which may be described as a sequence of two sounds, or the glide from one vowel position to another.③Minimal pairs最⼩辨⽴对(P42)They are made up of similar sound sequence except for the difference of one sound in the corresponding position.④Closed-class 封闭类词(P66)Words in this class cannot normally be extended by the reation of additional members.⑤Stem 词⼲(P70)A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectionalaffix can be added.⑥Conversion 转化(P75)Conversion is actually the derivational process whereby a word is adapted or converted to a new word-class without the addition of an affix.⑦Text 语篇(P112)A text is a chunk of language spoken or written for communication in actual circumstances.⑧Theme 主位(P113)Theme is the point of departure in a sentence. The rest of the clause is called the Rheme（述位）.⑨Assimilation 同化(P189)Assimilation is a sound becomes more similar to its adjacent sound.⑩Idiolect 个⼈⽅⾔(P202)Idiolect refers to the characteristics of an individual’s speech.ⅡWrite the sources of the following Latin abbreviation and translate them into Chinese P85cf. ：confer 参看etc.：et cetera 等等et al.：et alii 以及其他等等vs. ：versus 对 e.g.：exemmpli gratia 例如id.：idem 同上a.m.：ante meridiem 午前p.m.：post meridiem 午后l.c.：loco citato 在上述引⽂中sec.：secundum 根据ⅢDisambiguate the following sentences by providing two unambiguous interpretations.P110 P157⑴We have greater interest in our environment than the younger generation.①We have greater interest in our environment than the younger generation do.②We have greater interest in our environment than in the younger generation.⑵There were more wealthy farmers than you young industrialists.①There were farmers more wealthy than you young industrialists.②There were more wealthy farmers than there were you young industrialists.⑶They need more highly trained teachers.①They need teachers who are more highly trained.②They need more teachers who are highly trained.⑷The long drill was boring.①The long drill was making a hole.②The drill that lasted for a long time was boring.⑸It takes a good ruler to make a straight line.①Only a good leader can make a proper policy.②Only with a good rule can we draw a straight line.⑹The Congressman is a dirty street fighter.①The Congressman is fighting to make the streets cleaner.②The Congressman is like a dishonest guy who fights in the street.⑺The piglet is too hot to eat.①The piglet is so hot that it is unable to eat anything.②The piglet is served so hot that we cannot eat it.⑻Old men and women will be served first.①Old men will be served first and so will be women.②Old men and old women will be served first.⑼They are moving machines.①The workers are moving machines.②These are the machines that can move.⑽John loves Bill more than Emma.①John loves Bill more than Emma does.②John loves Bill more than he loves Emma.⑾They laughed at the colorful ball.①They laughed in the colorful dancing party.②They showed open scorn for the colorful ball.⑿He said he would file it on Monday.①He said he would file the document on Monday.②He said he would smooth it with a file on Monday.ⅣSemantic triangle(语义三⾓)P135Reference (e.g. thought, concept, mental image)指称意义（即，想法、概念和⼤脑中的意象）指代代表Symbol (e.g. word) referent (e.g. object in the word) 符号（即，词）stands for 指称物（即，世界上的事物）代表In the triangle, we have three components: ①the symbol as the word, the referent as the object in the world and the reference as the thought or concept or mental image.②What is symbolized by the word is not the object in the real world but the concepts and mental images the speaker have at the moment of utterance or can recall from memory. ③The dotted line at the bottom of the triangle indicates that there is no one-to one relationship between word and referent.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题——第八章：语言的使用
Chapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context oflanguage use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.14. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.15. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.24. __________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.28. A(n) _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. A(n) ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Explain the following remarks with examples or make some comments.“Both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with meaning, but the difference between them can be traced to two different uses of the verb mean: (a) What does X mean? (b) What did you mean by X?”（东北师范大学，2006）36. Do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue? Support your argument with Cooperative Principle. （南开大学，2004）A: When is the bus coming?B: There has been an accident further up the road.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication? Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.Key:I.1~5 DBCBA 6~10 CBCADII.11~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTTIII.21. context 22. utterance23. abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary27. illocutionary 28. commissive29. expressive 30. quantityIV.31. Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.34. Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much as you can (given R).V.35.Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.36.Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant information, A can work out that “an accident further up the road”conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when the bus comes.”VI.37.It occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.The context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1)a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. The room was wanted for a meeting.(2)a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance.b. A regret that the customer had not taken the dress.c. That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题及典型题详解(语言的使用)【圣才出品】
第8章语言的使用8.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature格莱斯会话含义理论4. Politeness principle礼貌原则5. Post-Gricean developments后格莱斯时期的发展常考考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。
实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。
“话语意义”和“句子意义”的区别。
本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition2. Difference between pragmatics and semantics II. Speech Act Theory1. Performatives and Constatives(1) Definition(2) Felicity Conditions2. A Theory of the Illocutionary Act3. Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts(1) Representatives:(2) Directives(3) Commsives(4) Expressives(5) DeclarationsIII. Cooperative Principle (CP)1. Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims2. Violation of the MaximsIV. Conversational Implicature1. Definition2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature(1) Calculability.(2) Cancellability(3) Non-detachability(4) Non-conventionality.V. Politeness Principle (PP)VI. Post-Gricean Developments1. Relevance Theory2. The Q- and R-principles3. Levinson’s Q-, I-and M-principles▼4. A socio-cognitive approachI. Pragmatics (语用学)【考点：Pragmatics与Semantics的异同】1. Definition (定义)Pragmatics is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
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be true or false.
Performative verbs: name, bet, etc.
I do.
I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.
I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.
XXX，你是否愿意娶xxx为妻，按照圣经的教训与他 同住，在神面前和她结为一体，爱她、安慰她、尊重 她、保护他，像你爱自己一样。不论她生病或是健康、 富有或贫穷，始终忠於她，直到离开世界？ Groom: I do.
Features of performatives
The first person singular
The study of language in use, the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The study of meaning in context.
Sentence meaning: What does X mean? Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?
Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning. Sentence
meaning is abstract and de-contextualized and utterance meaning is concrete and context-dependent. Ex. 1. Dog! 2. My bag is heavy.
It’s cold here.
Contextual Meaning: meaning in context
The meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is , who the hearer is, when and where it is used.
2. Speech Act Theory
John Austin
How to Do Things with Words (1962)
speech acts: actions performed via utterances
Constatives vs. performatives Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is, eg:
Utterance Meaning vs. Sentence Meaning
Utterance vs. Sentence
Sentence: abstract units of the language system. Utterance: units of language in use.
Chapter Eight Language in Use (Pragmatics)
1. Introduction: Definition of Pragmatics
Pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics. It developed in the 1960s and 1970s. Morris first proposed the word “pragmatics” in his “Foundations of the Theory of Signs”. He said that the study of semiotics includes three parts: syntax (sign---sign); semantics (sign---word); pragmatics (sign---its user). 1977 Journal of Pragmatics published in Holland signified the start of pragmatics.
I go to the park every Sunday.
I teach English.
Performatives: utterances which are used to
perform acts, do not describe or report
anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is
• Context-----context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer. • The notion of context is essential to the pragmatics study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and hearer. • The shared knowledge is of two types: (1)The knowledge of the language they use • (2)The knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.
Y3 你带的钱不够，就下次再买。
A意欲传递的意义 B所获得的意义
Y4 我不想借钱给你。
B通过T2意欲传递的意义 交际结果
1
2
Y1
Y1
Y1
Y1
Y3
Y4
—M(无误解)
DMI
3
4 5 6 7 8
Y1
Y1 Y2 Y2 Y2 Y2
Y2
Y2 Y2 Y2 Y1 Y1
Y3
Y4 Y3 Y4 Y3 Y4
M
M DMI —M M M
It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.
Semantic meaning: the more constant,
I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.
I promise to finish it in time. I apologize. I decare the meeting open. I warn you that the bull will charge.
Felicity conditions: A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure. (ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate. B. The procedure must be executed correctly and completely. C. Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.
Conclusion:
The distinction between constatives & performatives cannot be maintained.
All sentences can be used to do things.
Illocutionary Act Theory
Minister: addressing the groom) (Groom’s Name), do you take (Bride’s Name) for your lawful wedded wife, to live together after God’s ordinance, in the holy estate of matrimony? Will you love, honor, comfort, and cherish her from this day forward, forsaking all others, keeping only unto her for as long as you both shall live?
Problems with felicity conditions
No strict procedure for promising.
I promise.
I give my word for it.