语言学 第五章
语言学第五章Semantics
语⾔学第五章SemanticsChapter Five SemanticsTeaching Focus1. What is semantics2. Meanings of “meaning”3. Sense and reference4. Sense relations5. Componential analysis --- a way to analyze lexical meaning6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaning1. What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language.Or specifically, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Different focus of the study in semantics:Logical semantics/philosophical semantics: Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or …propositions?) within a single language.Linguistic semantics: The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.2. Meanings of “Meaning”The word “meaning” has different meanings.It has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists.The naming theory: Plato & AristotleWords are just names or labels for things.Can you show the limitations of this theoryThe semantic triangle: C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923) → The Meaning of Meaning.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. ?thought/reference (concept)symbolizes refers tosymbol/form referent(word, phrase) stands for(object)Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaningConnotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaning associative meaningReflected and meaningCollocative meaningThematic meaning(1) Conceptual meaningIt makes the central part of meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaningThe communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features. ?Involving the …real world? experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.(3) Social meaningWhat a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.domicile: very formal, official steed: poeticresidence: formal horse: generalabode: poetic nag: slanghome: general gee-gee: baby language (4) Affective meaningReflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Youre a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!Im terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. orWill you belt up.(5) Reflected meaningArises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. When you hear …click the mouse twice, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaningThe associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaningWhat is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.They stopped at the end of the corridor.At the end of the corridor, they stopped.3. Sense and referenceSense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.Grammatical words like but, if ,and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things. Therefore it is suggested that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.4. Sense relationsSynonymygradableAntonymy complementaryconverseHyponymyPolysemy4.1 SynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Complete synonyms are rare. According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:i. Dialectal synonyms --- used in different regional dialectsBritish English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorflat apartmenttube undergroundii. Stylistic synonyms --- differing in stylekid, child, offspringkick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, deceaseiii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningcollaborator, accompliceiv. Collocational synonymsaccuse, chargev. Semantically different synonymssurprise, amaze, astound4.2 AntonymyThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.There are three types of antonyms.i. Gradable: Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very; Can have comparative forms; Can be asked with how. good, badyoung, oldhot, coldii. Complementary: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.alive, deadmale, femalepresent, absentiii. Converse or relational: exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the pair; one presupposes the other. husband, wifebuy, sellbefore, after4.3 HyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general word and a more specific word. It is a kind of inclusiveness. Superordinate: the more general wordHyponyms: the more specific wordsCo-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinateflower, rose, lilyanimal, cat, dogfurniture, bed, desk4.4 PolysemyPolysemy refers to the sense relation that the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called a polysemic word.table: a piece of furniture; orderly arrangement of facts, figures5. Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaningComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, calledsemantic features.HUMANman (ADULT, MALE)woman (ADULT, FEMALE)boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaningThe meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.Predication analysis: proposed by the British linguist G. LeechThe basic unit in this method is called prediction. It is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.An argument is logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. Tom smokes.Tom is smoking.Tom has been smoking. TOM (SMOKE)Does Tom smokingTom does not smoke. argument predicateKids like apples. → KID, APPLE (LIKE)It is hot. → (BE HOT)AssignmentsHow can words opposite in meaning be classified To which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong?north/south vacant/occupiedliterate/illiterate above/belowdoctor/patient wide/narrowpoor/rich father/daughterhonest/dishonest normal/abnormalExercisesI. Multiple choice.1. The naming theory seems applicable to ___ only.A. verbsB. adjectivesC. adverbsD. nouns2. Hyponyms of the superordinate “flower” do not include “___”.A. wardrobeB. tulipC. lilyD. rose3. Predication analysis is a way to analyze ___ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phraseD. sentenceII. Make judgments (true or false)1. In the diagram of the classic semantic triangle, the word “symbol” refers to the object in the world of experience.2. When the same one word has more than one meaning we call it a polysemic word.3. Complete synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare in English.。
语言学纲要第五章语义和语用
语言学纲要第五章语义和语用
《语言学纲要》是叶蜚声、徐通锵著，北京大学出版社2010 年出版的图书。
其中，第五章语义和语用的主要内容如下：
第五章首先介绍了词汇和词义，包括词和词汇、词的词汇意义、词义的概括性、词义的构成等内容；其次，介绍了词义的各种关系，包括一词多义、同义词、反义词等；再次，介绍了句义和句子的语义结构，包括句子的意义、句子的语义结构、句义和词义的关系等；最后，介绍了语用，包括语境、语境对词义的影响、句子的语用意义、话题和说明、焦点和预设等内容。
第五章主要探讨了语言中词汇和词义的关系，以及句义和句子的语义结构，同时也介绍了语境和语用对词义和句子意义的影响。
语言学概论第五章语义和语用
男人：男性的成年人。 女人：女性的成年人。
（1）用来对比的应该是指称同一种类 对象的词语
（2）语义特征分析应该先从指称事物 最小类别成员的一组词语开始，如有需 要，再进一步扩大对比分析的范围。
最小语义场的确定可参考有关对象 的分类，在许多情况下，最小语义场与 某一对象的最小类别相应。例如：
1、词语搭配受语法规则的制约 2、词语搭配受语义条件限制 3、词语搭配受每个语言的词义系统限
制 4、词语搭配考虑社会的使用习惯 5、词语搭配涉及词义的各种附加色彩
和修辞效果
李老师看到了王老师，王老师也看到了 李老师。
李老师看到了一头猪，这头猪也看到李 老师。
李老师看到了一块石头。
她姐姐是一个单身汉。（×） 她：［第三人称］［女性］ 单身汉： ［－女性］……
语调形式等来表达的意义。 1、词所指称的事物及其结成的关系
（1）词汇意义 （2）关系意义 语法关系意义
语义关系意义 （3）句式意义 2、说话人对这些事物及其关系的总态度。 （语气意义）
（二）语用意义
句义一方面取决于该句子的语言 意义，一方面又取决于语境等句子的外 部因素。
二、词语的搭配
正确的词语搭配是使句子有意义的基本 条件。
请把门关上！
预设：门是开着的。
说话者具有支使听话者的条件。
说话者知道听话者有能力做这件
事。
（2）预设的语用特征 1. 预设的合适性 预设的真实性是包含该预设的语
句合适（真实有效）的前提条件。 2.其次，预设具有已知性，是已知
信息。 3.预设具有可取消性。
我绝不会让我的妻子伤心。 预设：我有妻子。 如果我有妻子，我绝不会让我的妻子伤心。
[上圆下平、用发酵的面粉蒸成、无馅] [上圆下平、用发酵的面粉蒸成、有馅]
语言学概论(第五章)
树—松树、柳树、杨树、槐树 2.词义的上下位关系是可以有层次的 植物—树—杨树—白杨树 3.语言中词义的上下位关系大致等同于逻辑上的种属关系，上位义相
当于逻辑上的种概念，下位义相当于逻辑上的属概念。但又不完全 等同于逻辑的种属关系，因为不同语言中有哪些上下位词是不同的
1.单义词与多义词 “猫”、“羊”、“椅子” “月”：“月亮”、“像月亮形状的”、“时间单位”等
2.本义、派生义、中心义 手：人体上肢手腕以上的部分 本义与中心义相同
脚：本义是“小腿”，中心义是“人体下肢踝骨以下的部分” 3.词义派生的条件
окно 4.词义派生的途径 5.多义词与同音词的区别
整理ppt 7
有的对立，中间留下空白，可以插进别的成员 大—中—小 有的对立属于非此即彼的性质
正—反 一个词往往同时有好几个反义词
失败（胜利、成功）
整理ppt 9
二、词义的各种关系
❖ 词义的上下位关系
词义的上下位关Leabharlann ：词义反映的现象之间具有包含和被包含的关系 1.上位义更具有概括性，所反映的现实现象比下位义更多；下位义比
[ADULT] [ADULT] [NON-ADULT] [NON-ADULT]
[HUMAN] [HUMAN] [HUMAN] [HUMAN]
woman man boy girl
哥哥 弟弟 姐姐 妹妹
brother sister
[+FEMALE] [-FEMALE] [-FEMALE] [+FEMALE]
对于句子语义结构的研究，一般要涉及以下三方面： 1）位于“谓词-体词”语义关系中的名词性成分称之为“语义角色” 2）不同的语义角色可能需要具有不同的语义特征的名词来担任，比如
语言学概论第五章练习题
一、填空题1. 语言学是研究______的科学。
2. 语言学的基本任务包括______、______、______和______。
3. 语言学的研究对象是______。
4. 语言的______和______是语言的本质属性。
5. 语言的______是语言的基本单位。
二、选择题1. 下列哪项不属于语言学的分支学科？A. 语音学B. 语义学C. 逻辑学D. 语法学2. 下列哪项不是语言的社会属性？A. 交际性B. 时代性C. 地域性D. 个体性3. 下列哪项不是语言的符号属性？A. 表意性B. 结构性C. 任意性D. 可变性4. 下列哪项不是语言学的三大任务？A. 描述语言现象B. 解释语言现象C. 应用语言知识D. 创造新语言5. 下列哪项不是语言的社会功能？A. 交际功能B. 记录功能C. 传播功能D. 表达功能三、判断题1. 语言学的研究对象是人类社会的语言现象。
（）2. 语言的任意性是指语言符号与所代表的意义之间没有必然的联系。
（）3. 语言的民族性是指不同民族的语言在结构上存在差异。
（）4. 语言的历时性是指语言在历史发展过程中不断变化。
（）5. 语言的共时性是指在同一时期内，语言系统内部各要素之间的关系。
（）四、简答题1. 简述语言学的定义及其基本任务。
2. 简述语言的社会属性。
3. 简述语言的符号属性。
4. 简述语言的社会功能。
5. 简述语言的历史发展过程。
五、论述题1. 论述语言的社会属性对语言学研究的重要性。
2. 论述语言的符号属性对语言学研究的影响。
3. 论述语言的社会功能在人类社会发展中的作用。
4. 论述语言的历史发展对现代语言学研究的启示。
5. 论述语言学与其他学科的关系及其相互影响。
六、名词解释1. 语音学2. 语义学3. 语法学4. 词汇学5. 修辞学6. 话语分析7. 语言学史8. 语音学中的音素9. 语义学中的多义现象10. 语法学中的句法结构七、选择题1. 下列哪位学者被誉为“现代语言学之父”？A. 威廉·冯·洪堡特B. 罗曼·雅各布森C. 马克斯·普鲁斯特D. 费尔迪南·德·索绪尔2. 下列哪项不属于索绪尔提出的语言学的两个基本概念？A. 语言/言语B. 音素/音位C. 形态/词法D. 语义/所指3. 下列哪项不是结构主义语言学的代表人物？A. 雅各布森B. 列维斯特劳斯C. 布龙菲尔德D. 哈罗德·拉斯克4. 下列哪项不是功能主义语言学的代表人物？A. 奥斯汀B. 莫里斯C. 布龙菲尔德D. 哈罗德·拉斯克5. 下列哪项不是语法学的代表人物？A. 乔姆斯基B. 布龙菲尔德C. 列维斯特劳斯D. 奥斯汀八、判断题1. 结构主义语言学强调语言的结构和模式。
语言学概论第五章
第五章语义第一节语义的性质1 语义语义是语言形式表达的内容，是人的思维活动和情感活动的结果。
2 理性意义理性意义也叫逻辑意义或指称意义，是对主客观世界的认识。
在词语平面上，它是与概念相联系的那一部分语义；在句子平面上，它是与判断和推理相联系的那一部分语义。
理性意义是语义的基本要素。
3 词的非理性意义词的非理性意义是说话人的主观情感、态度以及风格等方面的内容，它一般附着在词的理性意义之上的，因而又叫做词义的“附加色彩”。
4 语汇形式和语汇意义语汇形式就是一种语言里所有的实词和固定短语。
由语汇形式表达的语义叫“语汇意义”。
5 语法形式和语法意义语法形式包括语序、虚词、形态、重音、语调等形式。
由语法形式表达的语义叫语法意义。
6 语言意义和语境意义语言形式所表达的意义有一般与个别、稳定与临时的分别。
在通常情况下都能够存在的意义是一般的、稳定的，在特定的上下文，特定的交际场合中或特定的知识背景下才能出现的意义是个别的、临时的。
一般的、稳定的意义是语言形式本身所表达的意义，而个别的、临时的意义则是语言形式在特定的交际场合和知识背景等语境因素的作用下所表达的意义，前者我们通常称之为“语言意义”，也就是语义，后者则通常叫做“语境意义”。
7简述语义的概括性。
概括性是语义的重要属性，无论是词义还是句义都是概括的。
词义是一定的语言社会对一定对象的概括反映。
词义从具体事物中抽象概括出可以使某类事物区别于他事物的特征，同时舍弃同类事物之间的各种差别。
正是由于词义是概括的，人们才可能用有限的词语去指称它们，如“鞋”的词义是“穿在脚上、走路时着地而又没有高筒的东西”，这个意义是从皮鞋、布鞋、棉鞋、平底鞋、高跟鞋、球鞋、旅游鞋、拖鞋等各种具体的鞋子中抽象出来的，它反映了各种鞋所共同具有而其他类事物所没有的特征，而这种鞋在材料、款式、用途等方面的差别则被舍弃了。
专有名词虽然用来指称世界上独一无二的事物，而不是指称整类事物，但它的词义也是概括的。
《语言学概论》第五章 语义和语用
《语言学概论》第五章語義和語用第五章語義和語用语义是以语音形式表达的各级语言单位所包含的意义，以及在语言使用过程中产生的意义。
语言意义:语言系统中固有的意义是抽象的、概括的、相对稳定的，不受语境和语境的影响。
语用意义:指在一定的交际环境中所表达的特定的、暂时的、隐含的意义。
第一节词汇和词义一词和词汇词是语言中可以自由使用的最小符号，是语法结构中最重要的语法单位。
词汇是一种语言中所有的词和成语等固定用语的总汇，具有全民常用性、稳固性、能产性。
一般词汇语言词汇中除了基本词汇以外的词，包括新词、古词、外来词、行业用语、科技术语、方言俚语等，其特点为：数量大，成分杂，变化快。
二词的词汇意义1概念意义也称词的“理性意义”，它是词义的核心，指说一种语言的人在对现实世界的认知中形成的共同的主观映像，是认知的成果。
它这包含三个方面：1它是对现实世界中各种现象的分类和概括反映；2它对于说一种语言的所有人来说是共同的；3它必须与某种语言的特定声音相结合。
2色彩意义也称词的“修辞意义”，是指以理性意义为基础附加上人们的主观态度的意义，包括感情色彩、形象色彩、语体色彩、联想色彩。
a感情色彩：是指说话者对所谈对象的主观感情评价和态度。
有褒、贬、中性之分。
b形象意义：词在获得理性意义的同时，还往往因对对象的描绘而具有某种形象感。
①内部形式比较生动的复合词；②拟声、绘色、摹状的词；③具有比喻义的词。
c语体意义：词用于不同的语体时所产生的一种附加意义。
d联想意义：通过理性意义或语音中介的联想而产生的，大多具有民族特点。
3搭配意义一个词经常与一些词组合而不与另一些词搭配，这种由于组合关系而产生的意义叫搭配意义。
三词义的概括性1一般。
在复合词的词义中可以更清楚地看到，在词义的泛化中，把特殊复杂的东西变成一般简单的东西。
2模糊性。
一个词的意义所指的现象有一个大致的范围，它还必须包含能区别于其他现象的特征，但往往没有明确的界限。
3全民性。
语言学 第五章 semantics
6 Collocative meaning（）搭配意义
conscience
case
sky
clear
The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context are called collocative meanings.
Thematic meaning is mainly a matter of choice between alternative grammatical • constructions. Tomorrow I plan to have an outing. I plan to have an outing tomorrow.
有意义，无指称
5.3.2 Leech’s seven types of meaning
Geoffrey Leech
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Geoffrey N. Leech (Born 16 January 1936[1]) was Professor of Linguistics and Modern English Language at Lancaster University from 1974 to 2002. He then became Research Professor in English Linguistics. He has been Emeritus Professor in the Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University, since 2002.
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Plato（柏拉图）：词义就是事
物、行为和属性的名称，或者说 词语有指义或命名的功能。 Russell（罗素）：一个词的意 义就是一个对象，即一个词意指 着某客体，也就是代表着一个客 体。
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ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred… 4) Some words may have different meanings in different contexts. 5) The same reference may have different names.
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The conceptualist view概念 论(ideational theory）
there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
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Important Figures of Behaviorism: Watson：词的意义就是对词的有条件 的反应。 Bloomfield（布龙菲尔德）：意义就 是讲话人的刺激和听话人的反应。 （meaning as speaker‘s stimulus and hearer‘s response）
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A problem with the contextualism
Context is such a complicated concept, consisting of so many factors. 如：世界知识、语言知识、集体知识、 参与者、背景、正式程度和基调、媒介、 语篇因素、表现等。（胡壮麟 2002： “语境研究的多元化”）
Linguistic context:
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The linguistic model of contextualism
Context
Speaker A language speaker B
Language is always used in a certain context.
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Important figures of contextualism
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Jill Jack S________ r …… s ________ R Meaning consists in the relationship between speech indicated by the small letters r…… s and the practical events represented by the capitalized letters S and R that precede and follow them respectively.
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1. Definition:
the study of meaning; More specifically, the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
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The basic area of study: the meaning of signs; relations between different linguistic units
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意义： 语言文字或其他符合所表达的内 容。 e.g. 节约就是不浪费的意思。 价值；作用。 e.g. 人生的意义
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Naming
theory (Plato) The conceptualist view Contextualism (Bloomfield) Behaviorism Truth conditions
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Sense: concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, abstract and decontextualized. 意思、涵义、意义、或系统意义：指与 语境无关、仅涉及语言内部成分之间关 系的意义，它是意义的中心.
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3. Leech‘s 7 types of meaning
1974, Semantics: The Study of Meaning. 7 types of meaning:
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Conceptual meaning Connotative meaning Social meaning Affective meaning Reflected and meaning Collocative meaning Thematic meaning
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The contextualism 语境论
I
am near the bank. ―black‖: black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; The context meaning. determines the
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1. 形式与意义直接相关，用实线连接。 意义通过符号形式来表达，形式是语义 的载体。 2. 意义是在各观事物的基础上概括而成 的，是客观事物在头脑中的概括反映， 两者也有直接联系，用实线连接。 3. 形式和所指之间没有必然的联系，故 而两者间用虚线连接，所以同一事物可 以用不同的形式来表示。
Malinowski: For a large class of cases……the meaning of a word is its use in the language. Firth: We shall know a word by the company it keeps. Halliday: Meaning is the bridge between linguistic forms and situation.
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Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle
Thought/reference/concept
Symbol/form word/phrase/sentence
Referent/object in the world of experience
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The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.
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Naming theory (Plato)命名论
Words are names or labels for things. N.: objects or events adj.: properties of those objects or events V.: actions Adv.: the properties of those actions
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2. Approaches to meaning:
What
is the meaning of sputnik? I didn‘t mean to hurt you. Life without faith has no meaning. Fame and riches mean nothing to the true scholar.
Associative Meaning
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Conceptual meaning概念意义
(‗denotative, logical or cognitive‘ meaning). desk: a piece of furniture with a writing surface and usually drawers or other compartments Bird: warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrates characterized by feathers and forelimbs modified as wings
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Behaviorism 行为主义论
Behaviorists:
―the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.
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the meaning: ―I‘m Thirsty.‖ : Jill Jack S________ r …… s ________ R S = Jill sees an apple r = Jill says ―I‘m Thirsty‖ s = Jack hears Jill says ―I‘m thirsty‖ R = Jack picks the apple for Jill