外文文献翻译
外文文献及翻译

外文文献原稿和译文原稿DATABASEA database may be defined as a collection interrelated data store together with as little redundancy as possible to serve one or more applications in an optimal fashion .the data are stored so that they are independent of programs which use the data .A common and controlled approach is used in adding new data and in modifying and retrieving existing data within the data base .One system is said to contain a collection of database if they are entirely separate in structure .A database may be designed for batch processing , real-time processing ,or in-line processing .A data base system involves application program, DBMS, and database.THE INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSThe term database is often to describe a collection of related files that is organized into an integrated structure that provides different people varied access to the same data. In many cases this resource is located in different files in different departments throughout the organization, often known only to the individuals who work with their specific portion of the total information. In these cases, the potential value of the information goes unrealized because a person in other departments who may need it does not know it or it cannot be accessed efficiently. In an attempt to organize their information resources and provide for timely and efficient access, many companies have implemented databases.A database is a collection of related data. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning. For example, the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of all the people you know. You may have recorded this data in an indexed address book, or you may have stored it on a diskette using a personalcomputer and software such as DBASE Ⅲor Lotus 1-2-3. This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and hence is a database.The above definition of database is quite general. For example, we may consider the collection of words that made up this page of text to be usually more restricted. A database has the following implicit properties:● A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning. A random assortment of data cannot be referred to as a database.● A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose. It has an intended group of user and some preconceived applications in which these users are interested.● A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the miniworld. Changes to the miniworld are reflected in the database.In other words, a database has some source from which data are derived, some degree of interaction with events in the real world, and an audience that is actively interested in the contents of the database.A database management system (DBMS) is composed of three major parts: (1) a storage subsystem that stores and retrieves data in files; (2)a modeling and manipulation subsystem that provides the means with which to organize the data and to add, delete, maintain, and update the data; and (3) an interface between the DBMS and its users. Several major trends are emerging that enhance the value and usefulness of database management systems.●Managers who require more up-to-date information to make effective decisions.●Customers who demand increasingly sophisticated information services and more current information about the status of their orders, invoices, and accounts.●Users who find that they can develop custom applications with database systems in a fraction of the time it takes to use traditional programming languages.●Organizations that discover information has a strategic value; they utilize their database systems to gain an edge over their competitors.A DBMS can organize, process, and present selected data elements from the database. This capability enables decision makers to search, probe, and query database contents in order to extract answers to nonrecurring and unplanned questions that aren’t available in regular reports. These questions might initially be vague and/or p oorly defined, but people can “browse” through the database until they have the needed information. In short, the DBMS will “mange” the stored data items and assemble the needed items from the common database in response to the queries of those who aren’t programmers. In a file-oriented system, user needing special information may communicate their needs to a programmer, who, when time permits, will write one or more programs to extract the data and prepare the information. The availability of a DBMS, however, offers users a much faster alternative communications path.DATABASE QUERYIf the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database ,as well as interrogate it ,this capability allows for managing personal database. However, it does not automatically leave an audit trail of actions and does not provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organization .There controls are only available when a set of application programs is customized for each data entry and updating function.Software for personal computers that perform some of the DBMS functions has been very popular .Individuals for personal information storage and processing intended personal computers for us .Small enterprises, professionals like doctors, architects, engineers, lawyers and so on have also used these machines extensively. By the nature of intended usage ,database system on there machines are except from several of the requirements of full-fledged database systems. Since data sharing is not intended, concurrent operations even less so ,the software can be less complex .Security and integrity maintenance are de-emphasized or absent .as data volumes will be small, performance efficiency is also less important .In fact, the only aspect of a database system that is important is data independence. Data independence ,as stated earlier ,means that application programs and user queries need not recognize physical organization of data on secondary storage. The importance of this aspect , particularly for the personal computer user ,is that this greatly simplifies database usage . The user can store ,access and manipulate data at ahigh level (close to the application)and be totally shielded from the low level (close to the machine )details of data organization.DBMS STRUCTURING TECHNIQUESSpatial data management has been an active area of research in the database field for two decades ,with much of the research being focused on developing data structures for storing and indexing spatial data .however, no commercial database system provides facilities for directly de fining and storing spatial data ,and formulating queries based on research conditions on spatial data.There are two components to data management: history data management and version management .Both have been the subjects of research for over a decade. The troublesome aspect of temporal data management is that the boundary between applications and database systems has not been clearly drawn. Specifically, it is not clear how much of the typical semantics and facilities of temporal data management can and should be directly incorporated in a database system, and how much should be left to applications and users. In this section, we will provide a list of short-term research issues that should be examined to shed light on this fundamental question.The focus of research into history data management has been on defining the semantics of time and time interval, and issues related to understanding the semantics of queries and updates against history data stored in an attribute of a record. Typically, in the context of relational databases ,a temporal attribute is defined to hold a sequence of history data for the attribute. A history data consists of a data item and a time interval for which the data item is valid. A query may then be issued to retrieve history data for a specified time interval for the temporal attribute. The mechanism for supporting temporal attributes is to that for supporting set-valued attributes in a database system, such as UniSQL.In the absence of a support for temporal attributes, application developers who need to model and history data have simply simulated temporal attributes by creating attribute for the time interval ,along with the “temporal” attribute. This of course may result in duplication of records in a table, and more complicated search predicates in queries. The one necessary topic of research in history data management is to quantitatively establish the performance (and even productivity) differences betweenusing a database system that directly supports attributes and using a conventional database system that does not support either the set-valued attributes or temporal attributes.Data security, integrity, and independenceData security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database of the database, called subschemas. For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.Data integrity refers to the accuracy, correctness, or validity of the data in the database. In a database system, data integrity means safeguarding the data against invalid alteration or destruction. In large on-line database system, data integrity becomes a more severe problem and two additional complications arise. The first has to do with many users accessing the database concurrently. For example, if thousands of travel agents book the same seat on the same flight, the first agent’s booking will be lost. In such cases the technique of locking the record or field provides the means for preventing one user from accessing a record while another user is updating the same record.The second complication relates to hardware, software or human error during the course of processing and involves database transaction which is a group of database modifications treated as a single unit. For example, an agent booking an airline reservation involves several database updates (i.e., adding the passenger’s name and address and updating the seats-available field), which comprise a single transaction. The database transaction is not considered to be completed until all updates have been completed; otherwise, none of the updates will be allowed to take place.An important point about database systems is that the database should exist independently of any of the specific applications. Traditional data processing applications are data dependent.When a DMBS is used, the detailed knowledge of the physical organization of the data does not have to be built into every application program. The application program asks the DBMS for data by field name, for example, a coded representationof “give me customer name and balance due” would be sent to the DBMS. Without a DBMS the programmer must reserve space for the full structure of the record in the program. Any change in data structure requires changes in all the applications programs.Data Base Management System (DBMS)The system software package that handles the difficult tasks associated with creating ,accessing and maintaining data base records is called a data base management system (DBMS). A DBMS will usually be handing multiple data calls concurrently.It must organize its system buffers so that different data operations can be in process together .It provides a data definition language to specify the conceptual schema and most likely ,some of the details regarding the implementation of the conceptual schema by the physical schema.The data definition language is a high-level language, enabling one to describe the conceptual schema in terms of a “data model “.At the present time ,there are four underling structures for database management systems. They are :List structures.Relational structures.Hierarchical (tree) structures.Network structures.Management Information System(MIS)An MIS can be defined as a network of computer-based data processing procedures developed in an organization and integrated as necessary with manual and other procedures for the purpose of providing timely and effective information to support decision making and other necessary management functions.One of the most difficult tasks of the MIS designer is to develop the information flow needed to support decision making .Generally speaking ,much of the information needed by managers who occupy different levels and who have different levels and have different responsibilities is obtained from a collection of exiting information system (or subsystems)Structure Query Language (SQL)SQL is a data base processing language endorsed by the American NationalStandards Institute. It is rapidly becoming the standard query language for accessing data on relational databases .With its simple ,powerful syntax ,SQL represents a great progress in database access for all levels of management and computing professionals.SQL falls into two forms : interactive SQL and embedded SQL. Embedded SQL usage is near to traditional programming in third generation languages .It is the interactive use of SQL that makes it most applicable for the rapid answering of ad hoc queries .With an interactive SQL query you just type in a few lines of SQL and you get the database response immediately on the screen.译文数据库数据库可以被定义为一个相互联系的数据库存储的集合。
浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译

核准通过,归档资料。
未经允许,请勿外传!浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译The influence of political connections on the firm value of small and medium-sized enterprises in China政治关联在中国对中小型企业价值的影响1摘要中小型企业的价值受很多因素的影响,比如股东、现金流以及政治关联等.这篇文章调查的正是在中国政治关联对中小型企业价值的影响。
通过实验数据来分析政治关联对企业价值效益的影响.结果表明政府关联是关键的因素并且在中国对中小型企业的价值具有负面影响。
2重要内容翻译2。
1引言在商业界,有越来越多关于政治关联的影响的经济研究。
它们发现政治关联能够帮助企业确保有利的规章条件以及成功获得资源,比如能够最终提高企业价值或是提升绩效的银行贷款,这种政治关联的影响在不同的经济条件下呈现不同的效果。
在高腐败和法律制度薄弱的国家,政治关联对企业价值具有决定性因素1的作用.中国由高度集权的计划经济向市场经济转变,政府对市场具有较强的控制作用,而且有大量的上市企业具有政治关联。
中小型企业发展的很迅速,他们已经在全球经济环境中变得越来越重要。
从90年代起, 政治因素对中国的任何规模的企业来说都变得越来越重要,尤其是中小型企业的价值。
和其他的部门相比较,中小型企业只有较小的现金流,不稳定的现金流且高负债率.一方面,中小型企业改变更加灵活;另一方面,中小型企业在由于企业规模以及对银行来说没有可以抵押的资产,在筹资方面较为困难。
企业如何应对微观经济环境和政策去保证正常的企业活动,并且政治关联如何影响企业价值?这篇论文调查政治关联和企业价值之间的联系,并且试图去研究企业是否可以从政治关联中获利提升企业价值。
2.2定义这些中小型企业之所以叫中小型企业,是和管理规模有关。
对这些小企业来说,雇员很少,营业额较低,资金一般由较少的人提供,因此,通常由这些业主直接管理企业。
外文文献翻译(图片版)

本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学(贸易方向)年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文(一)中国银行业的改革和盈利能力(第1、2、4部分) (1)2 外文文献原文(一)CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY(Part 1、2、4) (9)1概述世界银行(1997年)曾声称,中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。
当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候,金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要(Lardy,1998年,Prasad,2007年)。
事实上,不久前,中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”,它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。
但是,在银行改革开展以来,最近,强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。
但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路,它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。
此外,其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲,但不可持续增长。
随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化,银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。
本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响,这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。
相反,我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略,并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现,但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。
本文有三个部分。
在第二节中,我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略,以及其执行情况,这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。
第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行:中国工商银行(工商银行),中国建设银行(建行),对中国银行(中银)和交通银行(交通银行)。
引人注目的是中国农业银行,它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。
第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。
毕业设计论文外文文献翻译

毕业设计(论文)外文文献翻译院系:财务与会计学院年级专业:201*级财务管理姓名:学号:132148***附件: 财务风险管理【Abstract】Although financial risk has increased significantly in recent years risk and risk management are not contemporary issues。
The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market。
Information is available instantaneously which means that change and subsequent market reactions occur very quickly。
The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchange rates interest rates and commodity prices。
Counterparties can rapidly become problematic。
As a result it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management。
【Key Words】Financial risk,Risk management,YieldsI. Financial risks arising1.1What Is Risk1.1.1The concept of riskRisk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss while exposure is the possibility of loss although they are often used interchangeably。
外文文献及翻译

外文文献及翻译1. 文献:"The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health"翻译:运动对心理健康的影响Abstract: This article explores the effects of exercise on mental health. The author discusses various studies that have been conducted on this topic, and presents evidence to support the claim that exercise can have positive impacts on mental well-being. The article also examines the mechanisms through which exercise affects mental health, such as the release of endorphins and the reduction of stress hormones. Overall, the author concludes that exercise is an effective strategy for improving mental health and recommends incorporating physical activity into daily routines.摘要:本文探讨了运动对心理健康的影响。
作者讨论了在这个主题上进行的各种研究,并提出证据支持运动对心理健康有积极影响的观点。
该文章还探讨了运动如何影响心理健康的机制,如内啡肽的释放和压力激素的减少。
总的来说,作者得出结论,运动是改善心理健康的有效策略,并建议将体育活动纳入日常生活。
2. 文献: "The Benefits of Bilingualism"翻译:双语能力的好处Abstract: This paper examines the benefits of bilingualism. The author presents research findings that demonstrate the cognitiveadvantages of being bilingual, such as enhanced problem-solving skills and improved attention control. The article also explores the social and cultural benefits of bilingualism, such as increased cultural awareness and the ability to communicate with people from different backgrounds. Additionally, the author discusses the positive effects of bilingualism on mental health, highlighting its role in delaying the onset of cognitive decline and in providing a buffer against age-related memory loss. Overall, the author concludes that bilingualism offers a range of advantages and recommends promoting bilingual education and language learning. 摘要:本文研究了双语能力的好处。
外文文献及翻译

Yunnan Ethnic pattern in Packaging DesignAbstract: Art is a folk Mother of the arts,is the source of the new art, From which to draw a strong tradition of high—grade Nutrition。
The persons belonging to national folk arts Ethnic patterns,are folk arts Intraoperative a gem, its development Research,and with the means of modern art,art wind Grid,professional skills combine to form a unique Style and features a modern design There are important applications,this paper focuses on Minority Folk pattern in modern packaging design Meter applications are discussed.Keywords: Yunnan Ethnic. Pattern。
Packaging Design.IntroductionYunnan is a multi-ethnic province, Here multiply survive the Han, Yi, Bai More than twenty families, Zhuang, Miao, Dai, etc。
Nation. Long history of various ethnic groups in Yunnan Province, the source is far Long, creating a rich and colorful Folk art。
论文外文文献翻译

论文外文文献翻译以下是一篇700字左右的论文外文文献翻译:原文题目:The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Medical Diagnostics: A Review原文摘要:In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the field of medical diagnostics. AI has the potential to improve the accuracy and efficiency of medical diagnoses, and can assist clinicians in making treatment decisions. This review aims to examine the current state of AI in medical diagnostics, and discuss its advantages and limitations. Several AI techniques, including machine learning, deep learning, and natural language processing, are discussed. The review also examines the ethical and legal considerations associated with the use of AI in medical diagnostics. Overall, AI has shown great promise in improving medical diagnostics, but further research is needed to fully understand its potential benefits and limitations.AI在医学诊断中发挥的作用:一项综述近年来,人工智能(AI)在医学诊断领域的应用引起了越来越多的关注。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)

外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance(c)Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the financesector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more i ts “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more.Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to l ending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing itinto EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs: •The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive,which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, whichstrengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating w ill also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to easetransparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目:未来的中小企业融资背景:中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品,贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
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估计技术和规模的希腊商业银行效率:信用风险、资产负债表的活动和国际业务的影响11.介绍希腊银行业经历了近几年重大的结构调整。
重要的结构性、政策和环境的变化经常强调的学者和从业人员有欧盟单一市场的建立,欧元的介绍,国际化的竞争、利率自由化、放松管制和最近的兼并和收购浪潮。
希腊的银行业也经历了相当大的改善,通信和计算技术,因为银行有扩张和现代化其分销网络,其中除了传统的分支机构和自动取款机,现在包括网上银行等替代分销渠道。
作为希腊银行(2004 年)的年度报告的重点,希腊银行亦在升级其信用风险测量与管理系统,通过引入信用评分和概率默认模型近年来采取的主要步骤。
此外,他们扩展他们的产品/服务组合,包括保险、经纪业务和资产管理等活动,同时也增加了他们的资产负债表操作和非利息收入。
最后,专注于巴尔干地区(如阿尔巴尼亚、保加利亚、前南斯拉夫马其顿共和国、罗马尼亚、塞尔维亚)的更广泛市场的全球化增加的趋势已添加到希腊银行在塞浦路斯和美国以前有限的国际活动。
在国外经营的子公司的业绩预计将有父的银行,从而对未来的决定为进一步国际化的尝试对性能的影响。
本研究的目的是要运用数据包络分析(DEA)和重新效率的希腊银行部门,同时考虑到几个以上讨论的问题进行调查。
我们因此区分我们的论文从以前的希腊银行产业重点并在几个方面,下面讨论添加的见解。
首先,我们第一次对效率的希腊银行的信用风险的影响通过检查其中包括贷款损失准备金作为附加输入Charnes et al.(1990 年)、德雷克(2001 年)、德雷克和大厅(2003 年),和德雷克等人(2006 年)。
作为美斯特(1996) 点出"除非质量和风险控制的一个人也许会很容易误判一家银行的水平的低效;例如精打细算的银行信用评价或生产过高风险的贷款可能会被贴上标签一样高效,当相比银行花资源,以确保它们的贷款有较高的质量"(p.1026)。
我们估计效率的银行和无此输入调整为不同的信用风险水平和对效率的影响。
第二,以往的研究中,希腊银行业,我们考虑资产负债表活动期间估计的效率得分。
几个最近的研究审查效率的DEA 或随机前沿技术的银行,承认银行在非传统的活动中更多地参与,包括任何非利息(即费)收入(e.g. Lang和Welzel,1998年;德雷克,2001 年;托尔托萨Ausina,2003年)或资产负债表项目(例如阿尔通巴什等人,2001 年;阿尔通巴什和查克,2001年;架和Hassan,2003a、b ;Bos 和Colari,2005 年;饶,1原文出处及作者:巴斯大学管理学院2007年硕士毕业论文,作者Fotios Pasiouras2005年)作为额外的输出。
然而,尽管他们希腊银行的重要性上升,这种活动没有被考虑在过去。
再次,我们估计,银行的效率在我们的示例与无负债表外活动,以观察是否它将会对效率有影响。
第三,我们比较所得的中介方法随之而来的银行的效率与利润导向的做法,最近在dea 方法,提出了由德雷克等人(2006 年),在他们随机前沿方法的上下文中杰和美斯特(2003 年)的做法是一致的最新研究的结果。
这使我们能够观察是否不同的输入/输出定义影响效率分数。
第四,我们比较效率得分的希腊银行,扩大了其海外的业务(即国际希腊银行,以下简称IGBs),与那些希腊银行的业务在国内市场都有限的(即纯粹的国内银行,以下简称Pdb)。
为了最好的我们的知识,没有研究开展了这种分析对于希腊。
然而,在土耳其银行业的研究中,Isik和Hassan(2002 年)发现的证据,跨国公司的国内银行均优于纯粹国内银行的所有提高效率的措施(即成本效率、资源配置效率、技术效率、纯技术效率)除了规模效率。
从我们的研究得出的结论可能是有用的希腊银行或其他正在考虑他们的业务的国际化的中型银行部门的经理。
第五,我们运行回归来解释银行效率的一直在希腊(赫里斯托普洛斯等人,2002年;Rezitis,2006年)。
但是,在我们的例子中我们检查最近一段时间,遵循上文所述的许多变化。
本文的其余部分是,如下所示:第2节文献侧重于希腊银行部门的效率。
第 3 节规定DEA 的简短的讨论。
第4节给的数据和变量。
第 5 节讨论实证分析的结果,并节 6 总结研究。
2.文献综述Karafolas和Mantakas (1996) 使用二阶超越对数成本函数估计(第一次)在希腊银行部门的费用的一种计量形式和调查的规模经济。
十一银行从1980年至1989 年期间使用的数据,他们发现虽然经营成本规模经济确实存在,但总成本规模经济并不存在。
由银行的大小(即大、小银行)和时间段的子样本数据集的参与(即1980年—1984 年,1985年-1989 年) 并没有改变结果。
最后,结果表明技术变革中,降低平均成本不发挥了统计学意义的作用。
Noulas(1997 年)检查生产率增长的十个私营和十个国有银行经营在希腊在1991 年和1992 年,期间使用的Malmquist生产率指数和DEA 测量效率。
作者遵循调解方法,并发现生产率平均增长8%左右,与国有银行表现出较高的增长比私人的。
结果还表明增长的来源不同跨银行的两种类型。
国有银行生产率增长是进步的由于技术,而私人银行的增长是进步的提高效率的结果。
赫里斯托普洛斯和Tsionas (2001)在1993年—1998年期间估计在希腊的商业银行业效率使用同方差与异方差性的前沿。
他们发现平均技术效率约80%的异方差模型和总体平均值的分布之一的83%。
他们还发现技术和资源配置低效率降低随时间较小,以及较大的银行。
回归的低效率措施反对趋势指示在技术和资源配置效率低下的小改进银行同等19.7%和39.1%,因此,大型银行的相应数字是10.4%和21.1%。
赫里斯托普洛斯(2002 年)检查同一个多输入、多输出的柔性成本函数代表部门和差异方差前沿方法来测量技术效率的技术相同的样本。
提高效率的措施对银行的各种特性的回归表示较大的银行都是比较小的效率较低和经济绩效、银行贷款和投资都呈正相关,成本效率。
在后者的研究中,Tsionas et al.(2003) 使用赫里斯托普洛斯和Tsionas(2001 年)和赫里斯托普洛斯et al.(2002 年)相同的样本,但雇用DEA测量技术和资源配置效率和Malmquist 全要素生产率方法来衡量生产力的变化。
结果表明,大多数银行经营接近最佳的市场实践与整体效率水平达到95%以上。
较大的银行似乎比较小的效率更高,而资源配置低效率成本似乎要比技术效率低成本更重要。
他们还记录正面但不是坚固的技术效率变化的主要原因是生产效率的提高,为中等规模的银行和大型银行的技术变化改进。
Halkos 和Salamouris(2004 年)也使用DEA 但按照不同的方法,对比以往的研究,通过使用财务比率作为输出和没有输入的措施。
根据正在审议的今年15和18 银行之间的样本范围。
结果表明在1997 年—1999 年期间平均效率宽变化与大小和效率之间的积极关系。
此外,还有非系统的关系之间通过私有化公共银行的所有权转让和最后一期的性能。
Apergis 和Rezitis (2004) 指定超越对数成本函数的全要素生产率分析希腊银行部门、技术变化率和增长率的成本结构。
1982—1997年期间,他们使用中介和生产方法和样本的六家银行。
这两个模型表明,重要的规模经济和技术变化和全要素生产率增长的负年度利率。
Rezitis(2006年)使用相同的数据集,但运用的Malmquist生产率指数和DEA 测度与分解生产力的增长和技术效率,分别。
他还比较1982年—1992 年和1993年—1997 年的分时段,并雇用Tobit回归来解释银行间效率上的差异。
结果表明,总体技术效率的平均水平为91.3%,而生产率增长的整个期间平均上升2.4%。
生产力的增长在二子期较高,归因于技术进步与效率是主要驱动力,直到1992年中的改进。
此外,在第二次分时段纯效率较高,和规模效率较低,表明虽然银行取得较高的纯技术效率,但他们搬离最优规模。
回归结果表明大小和专业化纯两方面产生积极的影响和规模效率。
3.研究方法从方法论的角度来看,有几种方法可以用于检查的银行,如随机前沿分析(SFA)、厚厚的前沿方法(TFA)、自由的分配办法(DFA)和DEA 效率。
Et al.伯杰(1993 年),伯杰和汉弗莱(1997年) 和戈达德等人(2001年)提供关键讨论和比较这些方法在银行业的上下文中。
在本研究中,以下几个最近的研究我们使用DEA 估计银行的效率。
Dea方法,这是有关对我们的学习,知名的优点之一是它特别好与小样本工程。
作为Maudos et al.(2002 年) 指出的那样,所有的技术测量效率,需要观测的最小数目的那个是的非参数和确定性的DEA,作为参数技术指定大量的参数,使它有必要可用很大数量的观测。
(p.511)。
其他的DEA 的优点是它不需要任何的假设做出关于分布的低效率,它不需要特定功能窗体上的数据在确定最有效决策单元(动车组)。
另一方面,DEA 的缺点是它假定数据是免费的测量误差,这是敏感的异常值。
我们只简要的勾勒DEA 在这里,而更详细和技术的讨论可以发现在Coelli et al.(1999 年)、库珀等人(2000年)和Thanassoulis(2001年)。
通过下面的符号是那些用于Coelli (1996 年)和Coelli et al.(1999年),由于我们使用他们的电脑程序深 2.1 估计效率得分。
DEA 是使用线性规划法的生产前沿发展和的测量效率相对发达的前沿(Charnes 等人,1978 年)。
通过分段线性组合的样品(Thanassoulis,2001年)中的所有决策单元的输入——输出对应的实际输入——输出对应集构造决策单元(动车组),在我们的案例银行,样品的最佳实践生产前沿。
每个DMU 被分配一个范围0 和 1 之间,与分数等于 1 指示针对其余部分动车组在样品中的有效决策单元的效率得分。
DEA 可以由假设(CRS)规模收益不变或变量返回到规模(VRS)执行。
在他们的开创性研究,Charnes et al.(1978) 提出了模型输入的方向,并假定CRS。
因此,此模型的输出是一个指示每个DMU的下CRS的总体技术效率(OTE) 的分数。
在更多的技术术语讨论DEA,让我们假设是有K 的输入数据和M 输出每个决策单元N (即银行)上。
为ith DMU 它们都分别由向量x i和yi表示。
K ×N 输入的矩阵、X 和Y,M ×N 输出矩阵表示的数据的所有N 内燃动车组。
特定的DMU,CRS 下的输入为导向的测量计算如下:Minθ,λθ, s.t.−y i +Yλ≥0,θx i−Xλ≥0, λ≥0θ≤1 是高效率的标量得分和λis N × 1 向量的常数。