hnd_经济学outcome
HND大二经济学导论报告参考Outcome三
An Evaluation of UK Government Policy on Mentalhealth and behavior in schoolsTable of Contents1 Introduction (1)2 Market failure (2)2.1 Merit goods (2)2.2 Public goods (2)2.3 Impertfect competition (2)2.4 Externalities (2)3 UK Governments policy (1)3.1 Introduction to the policy (2)3.2 instruments used (2)3.3 Justification of the performance of policy (2)4 Conclusion (2)References (5)Appendices (6)Appendix I: (6)Appendix II: (6)1IntroductionThis report aims to explain the‘market failure’and the role of government in relative to merit goods, public goods, imperfect composition and externalities.The policy about mental health and behavior in school will also be introduced.Then it will describe the instruments used to achieve the policy and evaluate the policy.2Market failureMarket fail, that is, they do not provide all of the goods and services needed by the government,nor by society(SQA,2013a p184).2.1Merit goodsThe government provides services that might not be provided by the private sector in sufficient quantities or of a sufficient quantity (SQA,2013a p188).For instance,medical services,education and so on.In China,the government provides the public universities and nine year education,which support children to go to school and get a better education.2.2Public goodsThese are commodities, which would not be provided by the private sector because they would find that many people, even if they benefited from them, would refuse to pay(SQA,2013b p190), for example, grills in the park and Automatic Pet Water Fountain and so on.In many countries, the government provides the Automatic Pet Water Fountain, which is convenient for passerby to drink water whenever they want.2.3Imperfect competitionA company which control their own market , and they have no rival. A monoplist can adjust prices output in the market.for example, on February 5, 1991, pierpont Morgan bought Andrew Carnegie, Rockefeller,several iron ore and all the steel business,became the largest steel company , 65% of steel production by their control.The government could establish perfect competition through the establishment of enterprise competition policy (Peter,2013)2.4ExternalitiesAn externality is an effect of a purchase or use decision by one set of parties on others who did not have a choice and whose interests were not taken into account (SQA,2013d p188).For example, the negative externalities include car exhaust, smoking, kara OK noisy,which will do harm to the environment and people’health.As far as I am concerned, the government should have odd-and-even license plate rule and provide new energy electric vehicle.The positive externalities include new technology like purify the water and restoration of historical buildings.I think the government should support the enterprise to create more new technology.3UK Governments policy3.1 Introduction to the policy--Mental health and behavior in schoolsThe purpose of this policy is to let all pupils benefit from learning and developing in a well ordered school environment that fosters and rewards good behaviour and sanctions poor and disruptive behaviour. Their behaviour and discipline in schools advice sets out the powers and duties for school staff and approaches they can adopt to manage behaviour in their schools. It also says that schools should consider whether continuing disruptive behaviour might be a result of unmet educational or other needs. Published on16 June 2014，last updated on18 March 2016(Gov,UK,16 June 2014)3.2 Instruments usedInstruments- economic variables that governments can control directly for example, tax, public spending(SQA,2013e p194).The government take actions via government spending and relevant regulation.They found the Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services to deal with it.The specific services offered by CAMHS vary depending on the needs of the local area. The best way to influence those services overall is to get involved with the local health and wellbeing board.The government take actions to help them in referring pupils effectively to specialist CAMHS and otherwise working well with the service for the benefit of their vulnerable pupils. These include:1.The government hire some people documenting evidence of the symptoms or behaviour that are causing concern,encouraging the pupil and their parents/carers to speak to their GP2.The government spent some money working with local specialist CAMHS to make the referral process as quick and efficient as possible(Spence, S.H. 2003)3.1Justification of the performance of the policyI think the policy is successful, the mental health care benefits can make children to have a happier life.Thanks to the policy, children now have the ability to develop psychologically, emotionally, intellectually and spiritually.However,I think the policy also has some disadvantages.It has greatly increased government pressure.For example,Set up the CAMHS organization to support the school and some public organization。
HnD经济学导论outcome1报告
International CollegeCentral South University of Forestry and TechnologyASSIGNMENT COVER SHEETAssessment Task: _____________________________________________________________ Course Name:__________________________________ Outcome: ____________________ Prepared by:______________________________________________________ (English name) ________________________________ (Chinese name) ___________________ (Candidate Number) Class: ____________________ Name of Tutor:___________________________ Due Date: _______________ Date Submitted: ___________________Your report/essay should meet the following requirements. Please confirm this before submitting your assignment.☐Assignment is presented on A4 size paper and is tidily typed and well presented..☐Pages have been firmly stapled.☐ A copy has been retained by me.☐Declaration below is completed.DeclarationAll forms of plagiarism, cheating and unauthorized collusion are regarded seriously by the University and could result in penalties including failure in the unit and possible exclusion from the University. If you are in doubt, please contact the Unit Coordinator.Expect where I have indicated, the work I am submitting in this assignment is my own work._______________________________________ (Signature)Question1：With reference to the case study, summaries the relationship between goals, objectives and policy and advice the management of Scotia Airways of the contribution each will make to effective managerial performance.Answer1：Goal:Organizational goal is to complete the mission and purpose of the carrier organization. It is a future state that an organization strive to achieve, and it is the basis and motivation to carry out the organization's activities. Every social organization has its own intended purpose or result, it represents an organization's direction and future. For the organization, the purpose is the common goal; to the members, the common goal is to organize the stage needs to reach the destination. The organisations are usually determine the direction that it will take over the long term and are not always very specific, but some goals may be unintelligible and hard to understand.There are 4 types of organization: Operational goals, Product goals, Consumer goals, and Secondary goals.Operational goals that means increase efficiency, promote the work efficiency vigorously. Like the Scotia Airways, they have the culture of trust has been emphasized and developed by both the management and workers, and this has served to enhance the effectiveness, efficiency and overall performance of the business. When they have the awareness, team spirit, have the incentive measures, the working efficiency will increase.Product goals signify better service to consumer and higher products qualify, to ensure sustained and stable quality system. The Scotia Airways do well in this side,it offers several value added services, such as, valets to assist the passengers in boarding the plane, gourmet meals and a range of in-flight services and entertainment. And Scotia Airways is the first airline to offer full business class services, but at prices that are equivalent to the economy class of its competitors. A key driver of the success of Scotia Airways is the management focus upon the level and quality of service output.Consumer goals means satisfied the different demand from the different consumers. Scotia Airways is aimed at it, their operate scheduled flights mainly targeting business and leisure travelers and aims to provide exceptional value for money, unparalleled comfort and convenience to its passengers. It illustrated that everyone in the world is not the same, so an organization especially a company should adapt diverse needs.Secondary goals by organisations which are not the most important things that they would like to achieve but are nevertheless important. It is mainly about the social responsibility, making a profit or improving award. The Scotia Airways has been reinforced by positive management approaches and wide ranging reward policies that were agreed and supported by Trade Union representatives. And as far as possible to promote social harmony and integration, to create a better atmosphere.Object:Business objectives are more clear and specific than goals and identity the specific path to be taken in order to achieve goals. In this step, how can we do next, how quickly can we do it and how do we know when we have been successful are the important questions.The objectives should be SMART, include 5 aspects: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and be Time-bound. These are the core of objectives’ requirements.To promote the market share increase, the airline has an increasing presence at Scotland’s main airports in Glasgow, Edinburgh and Aberdeen. And currently covers eight destinations across Europe, including Brussels, Paris, Frankfurt, Madrid, Rome, Lisbon, Amsterdam and Copenhagen as well as domestic flights to Manchester, Birmingham, Bristol and four London airports.It is also expanding to major business centers in Eastern Europe and the Middle and Far East. This several plans for improving the market share, expand the business scope is very effective.Pay more attention to suitable consumer groups is significant, too. The airline to operate flights mainly is the special value of providing funds for business and leisure travelers, incomparable comfort and convenience of passengers. To provide different services for different customer groups demand, is important to increase the performance and able to establish good relationship with customers.Policy:The policy is a require ment for the organization’s operating and transaction. It provides a guideline to channel a manager's thinking in a specific direction, it can also provide the path to complete goals and objectives. It provides a framework of rules or guidance within which management and staff can make decisions. Policies contain some different, for example, Inward investment policy, Welfare policy and Reward or Punishment policy.Inward investment policy: The equipments are freshing, all staff receives adequate training, the establishments of the new division and gain more market share are both in it.It has seen that the company expansion over resent year in many aspects and departments. Then they found new distributions in Eastern Europe and the Middle and Far East during this year.Reward or punishment policy: For the completion of the expansion target, organizations should set standards, regulations and purposes to evaluate employees' performance, and then take reactions respectively. The Scotia Airways has been reinforced by positive management approaches and wide ranging reward policies that were agreed and supported by Trade Union representatives.Relationship: The goal is the totality, it can including many objects, goals and objectives provide different kinds of requirements of organization. After make goals and objectives, the organization must have the policies to guides behavior by defining how something should be done. Suitable policies can help the organization to achieve goals and objectives, but inappropriate polices will result in bad effects and cannot complete the goals and objectives. Finally, healthy relationships among goals, objectives and policies are the basis of effective performance. The three affect each other and are both in hand.Q2: Explain the main principles of Open Systems Theory with reference to Scotia Airways.A2: The environments that are both internal and external would influenced the organization. The inter-related parts of a system can interact with the external environment. Changes in the external environment will affect the internal environment changes, the internal factors will also affect the overall changes, resulting in a chain effect.There are 4 aspects in this system. Input contains Staff, Managers, Clients orders, Bank loan and Equipment. Process contains Admin support, Allocation of projects, Communicate with clients, Promotion and Production. Output consists of High quality designs, Skilled staff,Satisfied clients and Service or product. Environment consists of Economy, Social trends, Policies, Legislation, Technology and Culture.When the EU and UK government relax their control over the licensing of airline provision, the input in the airway will increase, and then the output will also increase with the input. That is the external environment policy affect the change of the internal environment.And the government imposes taxes on high emissions of enterprise, then the cost will rise and the profit will reduce. So the company will decrease production, the airways maybe reduce a few airplane and maybe open up just one or two air lines.Q3: Identify the main differences between the formal and informal organization within Scotia Airways.A3: The Scotia Airways both formal and informal organization characte ristic.The aspects at formal organization characteristic are, it has clear goals, objectives, policies and missions; defined structure, clear division and classification; and the organization will be controlled. For example, the airways currently employ executives and managers in marketing, finance, HR and flight operations with operational and administrative staff within each department. Rosa Dallevic is in overall charge, assisted by her long-term colleague, Azim Ishtiaq. She has also employed the same personal assistant, Katrina Wright. That is a holonomic structure in the company.And the aspect at in formal organization characteristic is, it has ambiguous relationships in the airways. For example,the company is very much regarded as a family-style business and has established a range of suppliers and clients that are seen as the extended family. So it has relaxed and harmonious atmosphere, not very serious and tense.Q4: Describe four primary stakeholders of Scotia Airways and explain their interests in, and influence on the organisation.A4: G overnment: Whether the taxation violate related laws, whether the company compliance to related laws and whether solve the problem of local employment, that are the government concern about, is their interests. The influence in this case is the EU and UK governmentrelax their control over the licensing of airline provision. Then the airways business will improve and the profit will increase, so the government could charge a higher tax.Creditors: The creditors are concern about the credit score, liquidity, repayment ability and new contracts. When to borrow the money and when to return is the most important key to creditors. Only the airways credit rating better, can it borrow much money when they need, so the turnover of the fund more convenient.Investors: Have interest earning income from investment; have profitability, market share and business achievement are the significant matter to the investors. The influence are have big expansion plans and hire a team of administration. The investors in Scotia Airways have set an ambitious programme for expansion over the next 5 years, introducing flights to major European tourist destinations and to establish new branch in Eastern Europe and the Middle and Far East. Besides, They set about appointing a management team whose experience and expertise was firmly grounded in the budget aviation market.Employees: They concern about the rates of pay, job security, respect, truthful communication and work condition. The attitude and enthusiastic in working will influence the quantity and efficiency. The Scotia Airways have t o develop a wide range of rewards and punishment system, let the employees enthusiasm greatly improve.Q5:Identify an effective control strategy that the management of Scotia Airways could successfully implement, and justify its suitability.A5: I think the Bureaucratic control is the most effective control strategy to the Scotia Airways.Bureaucratic control means it can dominate the process, is the use of the determined rules, policies, hierarchy of authority, reward systems and other formal mechanisms to influence employee behavior and assess performance. The advantages are it could increase efficiency of the company, and can be controlled with market or price mechanisms, it is so stable. The disadvantage is the Poor flexibility. Bureaucratic control through the Organization Structure,In Scotia Airways, they begin to appointing a management team in the budget aviation market and currently employs 80 staff across all divisions. Its expansion over recent years has seen the company commit significant resources to the marketing and sales department, its finance department. There has been an increase in staffing levels, in budgets and in capital investment. It currently employs executives and managers in marketing, finance, HR and flight operations with operational and administrative staff within each department. Rosa Dallevic is in overall charge, and she has also employed the same personal assistant, Katrin Wright. In this organization structure, is helped promote consistency and continuity, lead to a positive working relationship within and between different departments. Various departments perform their respective duties, everything in good order and well arranged. The Scotia Airways also have some rules and regulations to guarantee employees behaviors in the company.So the Bureaucratic control is the best choice to the Scotia Airways.Bibliography:1. Stephen P. Robbins, (2008),The Principle of Management, 3edt,Beijing, China Renmin University Pres s Co. LTD2. Stephen P. Robbins, (2012), Organizational Behavior, 4edt,Beijing, China Renmin University Pres s Co. LTD3. Douglas Macgregor, (2008), The human side of enterprise,1edt,Beijing, Chinese International Book Trading Corporation. LTD4. James G.March, Herbert A Simon (2013), Organization, 2edt, Beijing,China Machinery press. LTD。
HND_经济学导论_outcome2_标答
Outcome 21.书178，179二个图Households buy commodities from firms, using the income individuals receive for their labour and capital supplied to firmsThe firms use the income received from the sale of commodities to pay for the labour and to invest in new premises,plant and equipment.2.Injections：Investments：Loan from banks, building societies, insurance companies etc. Money saved by household can be re-injected back into the inner flow as investment by business sector (firms) after they borrow the money out of financial institutions. Government Spending：Roads, hospitals, ing the fund largely collected through taxation, the government can be the biggest buyer spending money on the products and services provided by firms If government wishes to expend the flow of income in circulation, it may choose to increase the amount of its spending and probably adopt a tax-cutting.Exports：These are goods and services that are sold abroad. The payment for them will return to the firms in this country. For example, if someone buys textiles of China, then the proceeds of the sale belong to our country. This increases the circular flow and creates more economic activity in the economy for our country. Withdraws：Savings：Amount of income that consumers choose not to spend but retain for the future uses (normally deposit in financial institutions, e.g. banks and buildingsociety). Ability or desire to save out of income is measured by ‘marginalpropensity to save (MPS)’. Level of income is the biggest factor affects level of savings, i.e. the higher the income is, the greater savings (withdrawal) out ofcircular.Taxation：Through forms as personal income tax, V AT, corporate income tax, the disposable money circulated in the economy is drawn out by the government as its revenue. This can be in the form of direct tax on our income or indirect tax onpurchases, for example V AT.Imports：Part of the consumption of both households and firms are on foreign products or products contain imported components. So that portion of expenditure will eventually go into foreigners’ pockets therefore reduce the total income circulatedin domestic economy. For example if someone in Britain buys a Japanese car, then the proceeds of the sale will go back to Japan. Imports are therefore withdraws from the circular flow.3.四选二(a)1.Production: In calculating GNP, only those items which are paid for are normally included because calculations have to be made in money terms, the inclusion of other goods and services would involve imputing a value to them. For example, if a value is placed on certain jobs which a person does for himself—growing vegetables, cleaning his car, painting his house, then why not include shaving, cooking, cleaning, driving to work, etc. on the other hand, excluding what a person does for himself may distort national income figures. An imputed money value is included for certa in payments in kind which are recognized as a regular part of a person’s incoming earning, for example, goods produced and consumed by a farmer.2,Danger of Double Counting:This can arise through ‘stock appreciation’. When inflation occurs, the value of stocks of raw materials goods raises. While this adds to the profits of firms holding such stocks it represents no increase in real output. Such gains therefore, must be deducted from the Income and Output figures.3,The Black Economy: The size of the black economy can be difficult to estimate but certainly causes distortion. National Income figures for certain industries, for example, building industries have many workers who are self-employed and are paid in cash, tax revenue is lost and welfare benefits are claimed unnecessarily.(c)National Income will be in equilibrium when expenditure is equal to consumption or when injections equal total withdrawals total. And change in the level of injection or withdrawals will bring about a change in National Income. However, the change in National Income will be relatively greater than the initial change. This is known as the “Multiplier” effect.+ 书第200页的公式。
hnd经济学1微观经济学outcome1
Table of Contents1.0Introduction (1)2.0 Oligopoly (1)Entry barriers (1)Non-price competition (2)3.0 Explanation for Diagram in Oligopoly (2)4.0 Pure Competitive Market (3)Lower prices (3)Low barriers to entry (4)5.0 Explanation for Diagram in Pure Competitive Market 46.0 Roles of Profit in Market Economy (6)Demand for factor resources (6)Market Entry (6)7.0 The other two alternatives to profit maximization (7)Satisficing behaviour (7)Sales revenue maximization (7)8.0 Influences on a Firm in the Short Run (8)9.0 References (9)1.0I ntroductionMarco and Micro economic knowledge we had learned in this period is mainly to discuss about some major market structures in the entire market now. And they are oligopoly, monopoly and pure competitive market and so on. In this case, the Virgin Mobile had entered in mobile phone market in the UK, which is an oligopoly market. In this market, Orange, Vodafone, BT Cellnet and One2One are the oligopolists.2.0O ligopolyWhen a market or industry is dominated by a small number of sellers, we usually believe an oligopoly appears. And there are two main features of oligopoly:Entry barriers: It’s a great block for the new company to be a long-run part of an oligopoly market. Usually, many smaller firms operate on the periphery on such s market, which means these companies cannot reach the supernormal profits or affect much to market prices and output. Take Virgin Mobile (VM) as an example: Before VM engaged in the mobile phone market in the UK, there were some industrial giants conquered the market-Orange, Vodafone, BT Cellnet and One2One, which account for a large market share. Although VM is making profit, the money it earned is far less than any one of these oligopolist.Non-price competition:As a few company be dominant to an industrial, pricing can be no longer an effective competitiveness for those oligopolistic firms. Compared with pricing, after-sales service, extension of new market and advertising seem to be more emphasized by them. In this case, the VM is better to promote the competitiveness in such ways -- improving the after-sales quality, expanding into new markets , building their own brand and so on.3.0E xplanation for Diagram in OligopolyIn the oligopolistic market, the oligopolists may react diversely to the different price variation trend of their rivals. If one oligopolist raises the price and other companies will not follow it to maintain the market share, however, if the company reduce the price and other companies must follow, which is to keep more market shares. It can be seen in the kinked demand curve below.Before the price is higher than P1, the product demand is elastic that means the price raises and the total revenue will reduce. But when the price is lower than P1, the product demand is inelastic -- the price reduces and the total revenue will also do. Thus, the company may able to reach a stable profit-maximizing equilibrium at the point G, so the companies in the oligopolistic market can not change the price optionally.4.0Pure Competitive MarketIn the pure competitive market structure, the company can compete with each other perfectly. There are two common characteristics that are considered to be “competitive”are:Lower prices: Generally, a perfectly competitive market existswhen every participant is a "price taker"which means thesuppliers will have not able to raise price for facing elasticdemand curves, and no participant influences the price of theproduct it buys or sells.( /wiki/Perfect_competition#Basic_structural_characteristics ) .So simply raising price will make a loss of demand and totalrevenue. The cross-price elasticity of demand can reflect thecustomers’attitude towards some particular goods. Thedemand of substitute goods is holding pace with the pricewhen it has any change. Conversely, the demand ofcomplementary goods would decrease when the price increase.In this condition, customers will always find the most propergoods for themselves.Low barriers to entry: Compared with oligopoly, the new firms would be easier to enter in the pure competitive market. Andthe entry of new participants will probably providecompetition and ensure price is kept low in the long run.5.0Explanation for Diagram in Pure Competitive MarketIt is known to all that each individual firm is considered as a pricetaker. Customers may not prefer to buy a product with a higher price. Because of the characteristic (perfect knowledge) of pure competitive market, neither buyers nor sellers can gain an advantage and firm may sell their goods at the point where they have the maximized profit.From the short run view of a firm in a pure competitive market structure, the explanation of the diagram is as follow:The price in a pure competitive market structure is decided by demand and supply, which can be seen in panel on the right. When demand rises from D1 to D2, the equilibrium point goes from A to B and P2 is the established price. Because of the price which a firm use stays at P2, marginal revenue is equal t o P2 at last average revenue is equal to P2 as well. When MC=MR, pr ofit maximization is achieved, so the point which firms will stop prod ucing should be C which ordinate is P2 and abscissa is Q2. Accordingto the diagram above, when quantity is Q2, ATC is equal to P1. So P2 subtract P1 is average profit and then multiply by Q2 can obtain tot al profit.6.0Roles of Profit in Market Economy●Demand for factor resourcesScarce factor resources to flow where the expected rate of return or profit is highest. In the mobile phone market, when Richard Branson started to get profit in 2002, VM has 1,445,492 customers, which means stronger demands, more labour and capital are committed.With more scarce factor resources, VM may able to earn more profit.However, in a recession, the output, incomes and investment for VM must all fall, which may cause the profit loss. Thus the company should take action (for example cutting costs) to preserve its market position.●Market EntryIf an individual company gets more profit than others, it must be a signal to other producers within a market that profitable entry may possible. After three-year efforts, Richard Branson made VM profiting.When it comes, many other firms would be attracted to enter the industry. Thus, the competition would be increased and new products,technologies would be also updated in a higher speed.7.0The other two alternatives to profit maximization●Satisficing behaviourSatisficing behaviour can be the substitute to profit maximization behaviour. This behavioural method lays stress on how decisions are taken within the firm. When a decision is making, satisficing explains that individuals and groups should choose the first option that is good enough to address most needs rather all. Based on Herbert Simon’s work concerning behaviour --“people possess limited cognitive ability and can exercise only ‘bounded rationality’when making decision in complex, uncertain situations”, satisficing behaviour encourages individuals and groups to attain a more realistic goal.If VM set a goal that expending their customers to 2 million in a year, finally it reaches 2.5 million. Thus wise we can take the goal for a receivable.●Sales revenue maximizationThe goal of sales revenue maximization is to maximize the sales other than profits. The managers decision price and strategy of products. In this pattern of management, business can grow or sustain marketshare, ensure survival, discourage competitors, achieve bonuses and build the prestige of the senior management.For the VM, when it initially entered the mobile phone market, it is a great approach that selling their products as many as possible with the lowest profit to enlarge their market share.8.0Influences on a Firm in the Short RunFrom the diagram above, which can be seen are total cost (TC) is the sum of fixed (TFC) and variable costs (TFC).In the beginning, when nothing is being produced ,the fixed costs will be equal to the total cost. The TC and TVC increase concurrently with the quantity, but they are paralleled and the distance between them is TFC which is always invariable. And total cost is an upward trend.The diagram is about the short run cost curves. One time the fixed cost is excessively used, which will lead to the progressive decrease of marginal product, meanwhile the marginal product reduce will lead to the decrease of marginal revenue. Leading the reducing of the ATC when MC<ATC, on the opposite, it will lead to the ATC's increasing. Making the short-run ATC curve look like U-shaped, on the other side, the law of diminishing returns will lead to the rise of marginal cost of pr oduction as output increases.When AVC increasing higher than the fall in AFC one time the output in creases , which the marginal cost is rising will lead to the average total c ost rising9.0References( /wiki/Perfect_competition#Basic_structural_char实用文案acteristics ) .标准文档。
HND经济学导论OUTCOME3_共2页
Market Failure and Government PolicySCN: 177099996GTB4Li WenxuanTutor: Lou QiuyinNovember 6 , 2016thContent 1.0 introduction2.0 Market Failure2.1 Merit Goods2.2 Public Goods2.3 Imperfect Competition2.4 Externalities3.0 Welfare Policy3.1 Some important welfare3.1.1 child benefits3.2 Case of welfare3.3 Instrument4.0 ConclusionReference1.0 IntroductionEconomy is human activity that consists in producing exchanging, distributing, and consuming goods and services, studied by economics and realized inside on. In this report, discussing the reasons for market failure and probe government roles in relation to each of the following and government policy.2.0 Market FailureThe market is a set of buyers and sellers with the potential to trade with each other. But when the market cannot distribution goods and labor efficiency that is market failure.2.1 Merit goodsMerit goods are products whose consumption or production creates social benefits that exceed the private benefit. Just like education, healthcare, public transport. Because many people cannot know anything the advantages, so the government should intervene people choice. Government can get to make a law. For Chinese, have ‘Nine-year compulsor y education law’. That can help people choose merit goods and benefits of people.2.2 Public GoodsPublic goods are ready for societal members enjoy the items together, strict sense of the public goods with non-competitive and non-exclusive. It is a public thing just like the Park bench or civil defense siren. Someone used it that do not hinder others use it. The government should build this goods, because do not have someone could even want to build build but the society need it. The government use tax to build and maintain it.2.3 Imperfect CompetitionImperfect competition is monopolistic competition and oligopoly. It is meant by perfect competition cannot maintain. Because have some buyers or sellers could affect the market price. The market cannot change the price. Because the imperfect competition will decrease the market efficiency. The government should change it to adjust a market to a new environment. For example make a law. Just likes Antitrust Law.2.4 ExternalitiesThe following sentences are from Wikipedia. In economics, an externality is the cost or benefit that affects a party who did not decide to incur that cost or benefit. Economists often urge all governments adopt policies that "internalize" an externality, so that costs and benefits will affect mainly parties who choose to incur them. Just like the pollution, government thinks who take this who should solve this. If there are external benefits, such as in communal safety, less of the good may be produced thanwould be the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others. Thus, unregulated markets in goods or services with significant externalities generate prices that do not take into account the full social cost or benefit of their transactions; such markets are therefore inefficient. So government should make some laws or rules to standard it.3.0 WelfareThe UK as a long-term capitalist country. It is a long and perfect social welfare safeguard system. Society welfare including the benefits of family, child benefits, death and benefits etc.3.1 Some important welfare3.1.1 Child BenefitsThe child benefits in the UK, government ensures that every child can receive education and life even they do not have kinsfolks. From child to adult, government subsidies, aid, guarantee the smooth growth of children. The British government's children's welfare, both in terms of welfare, welfare content and service level, its integrity and comprehensiveness is exemplary. first of all, British children welfare legislation perfect, various kinds of laws and regulations, not only covers the grand, and established the principle of "children's welfare is the highest", for children's right to survival and development, such as participation rights protection are made a detailed regulations and emphasis. second, the completion of the "welfare state" for citizens "from cradle to grave tomb" comprehensive social security, the benefit of children mainly include: the national health insurance, children can enjoy besides dental surgery, visual acuity and glasses all free medical care. Family subsidy system, covering maternity benefits, birth allowance, children stick, Tianjin, children, child care allowance, single special allowance, etc.; Education funding, children receive primary and secondary school education for free, with free books, stationery, lunch at school; Social services, set up the children's home within the community, for too busy to take care of the child's family to provide help and received orphans and abandoned children, and is responsible for their life and education. Again, the whole society to found a multi-level, vertical and comprehensive child welfare system. This way is mainly under the government's macro management, association for the disabled, charitable organizations, social service machine structure, all kinds of schools and community organizations and groups, within their respective fields to carry out the child welfare services, formed a multi-level, three-dimensional type, a full range of child welfare services network. The British not only built up social relief, social insurance, social security, basic education, medical service content such as children's social welfare system, and children's rights in government policies, laws and institutions for medical treatment and teaching education practice of occupies more and more important position.3.2 Case of welfareIn the UK, child benefit is operated by Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs (HMRC). As of April 2015, This is £20.70 per week for the first child (including the eldest of a multiple birth) and £13.70 per week for each additional child.The system was also implemented in August 1946 as "family allowances" under the Family Allowances Act 1945, at a rate of 5s (= £0.25) per week per child in a family, except for the eldest. This was raised from September 1952, by the Family Allowances and National Insurance Act 1952, to 8s (= £0.40), and from October 1956, by the Family Allowances Act and National Insurance Act 1956, to 8s for the second child with 10s (= £0.50) for the third and subsequent children.By 1955, some 5,000,000 allowances were being paid, to about 3,250,000 families.It was revised in 1977, with the payments being termed "child benefit" and given for the eldest child as well as the younger ones; by 1979 it was worth £4 per child per week. In 1991, the system was further altered, with a higher payment now gave the first child than for their younger siblings. In October 2010, the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government announced that Child Benefit would be cancelled from households containing a higher-rate taxpayer from January 2013.After some controversy this was amended so that any householder with a least one person with prescribed income over £50,000 would lose Child Benefit by a taper which removed it altogether when the income reached £60,000. This came into force on 7 January 2013.3.3 InstrumentIn the UK, child benefit is administered by Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs (HMRC)4.0 ConclusionOver the years, the welfare policy help stabilize the social order, ensure the people's living standards, the general improvement of social material and cultural level. Close the gap between the rich and the poor area, ease social contradictions in all walks of life. However,, at the same time, the years of high welfare, let government deficitcontinue to increase, and weakening the enthusiasm of people to work, make social efficiency is low, and the resulting a series of struggle between the parties.ReferenceExternalities https:///wiki/Externality Buchanan, James; Wm. Craig Stubblebine (November 1962). "Externality". Economical. 29 (116): 371–384. doi:10.2307/2551386Case of welfare，https:///wiki/Child_benefit，Https:///government/publications/tax-and-tax-credit-rates-and-thresholds- for-2015-16/tax-and-tax-credit-rates-and-thresholds-for-2015-16#child-benefit-and- guardians-allowanceJump up ^ Whitaker's Almanack: For the year 1958, p. 1127. J. Whitaker & Sons, London, 1957Jump up ^ "Spending Review, October 2010, United Kingdom HM Treasury, Oct 2010. Jump up ^ "HMRC High Income Child Benefit chargeRedo:3.1.1 Child Benefits. No matter how much you earn or how much insurance you pay, you are eligible for Child Benefit as long as you have a duty to caring for the child. Benefits apply to children under 16 years of age and are eligible if children aged 16 to 18 are still enrolled in non-tertiary institutions.How to Apply: Request by the hospital or the Social Security Office.British university before the stage of education is free, university stage, 90% of college students are eligible for government subsidies. Therefore, for low-income families, from kindergarten to university education is a loose way.。
HND2013经济学outcome1答案框架
Answer the following questions in relation to WJE1 Economics revolves around the nature of choice and the availability of Resources. With reference to WJE’s current situation, explain what is meant by the term ‘the bas ic (central) economic problem’.经济学围绕所选择的性质和资源的可用性。
参考Wje的现状，解释什么是“基本经济问题”（中央）。
回答：在这里涉及到基本经济问题中的两种，一种是稀缺资源，另一种是选择。
稀缺资源：定义（看书）+ 文章中的例子（金钱，材料等等具体说出来）；机会：定义（看书）+ 文中的例子（在introduce a new model和upgrade the Tiger2 at a modest cost中选一个）2 In relation to WJE’s current situation explain what is meant by the term opportunit y cost. 在关系到Wje现状的解释什么是短期机会成本。
回答：机会成本的定义（书上）+联系例子（文中选择了introduce a new model，因此文中的机会成本便是upgrade the Tiger2 at a modest cost）3 Figure 1 shows the demand and supply curves for performance sports cars similar to those offered by WJE. The quantity demanded is illustrated by line D, and the quan tity firms are prepared to supply is illustrated by line S.图1显示性能跑车所提供的类似的需求和供给曲线Wje。
HND 经济学(2) outcome3
Report for Economic IssuesOutcome 3Name: Zhang ChenMajor: International Economic and TradeClass: 2Number: 20115434Contents1. Introduction2. Findings2.1 Market Failure2.2 Public Goods2.3 Merit Goods2.4 Externalities2.5 Imperfect Competition2.6 UK Government policy on welfare2.7 The evaluation3. Conclusion4. Reference1. IntroductionMy reporter is expounding the market failure, and in my explanation I make appropriate reference to the role of government in relation to each of the following: Public Goods, Merit Goods, Externalities and Imperfect Competition. Later, I will explain the UK government policy on welfare and identify and describe the instruments the government use to achieve their policy and give a justified evaluation of the performance of the policy in relation to its use within the UK2. Findings2.1 Market FailureAn economic term that encompasses a situation where, in any given market, the quantity of a product demanded by consumers does not equate to the quantity supplied by suppliers. This is a direct result of a lack of certain economically ideal factors, which prevents equilibrium.Market failures have negative effects on the economy because an optimal allocation of resources is not attained. In other words, the social costs of producing the good or service (all of the opportunity costs of the input resources used in its creation) are not minimized, and this results in a waste of some resources.For example, the common argument against minimum wage laws. Minimum wage laws set wages above the going market-clearing wage in an attempt to raise market wages. Critics argue that this higher wage cost will cause employers to hire fewer minimum-wage employees than before the law was implemented. As a result, more minimum wage workers are left unemployed, creating a social cost and resulting in market failure.2.2Public GoodsImagine that the government did not provide an army, navy, air force, etc. A private company might have the idea of forming a national army and to raise the required money, they decide to ask everyone for £10. If you were that person on the CND march, and you did not want to be defended, then you would not pay. There may be a lot of people who refuse to pay for this reason. Also, there may be some people who do quite want to be defended, but take the risk of not paying on the assumption that there will be some people in the UK that will care enough to pay the inevitable increased price. This is the free-rider problem. The people who do not pay, for whatever reason, are having a free ride.To sum up, the reason why public goods come under the topic 'Market failure' is that the free market would fail, horribly, to provide defense and street lighting if left to them. The government has to intervene to correct this market failure.2.3 Merit GoodsMerit goods are also things that are 'good' for you, but unlike public goods they can be provided privately. The problem is that if they are provided solely by the privatesector then they tend to be under-consumed, so, again, the government has to step in to correct the market failure.The best two examples are health and education. Both of these goods can be provided privately. Some of you may be at a private school (or independent school, as they are called), or your family may have a private health insurance scheme. But, if the government did not step in and provide state schools and the NHS, then numerous families would not be able to afford either. This would cause increased crime and reduced productivity from an underclass of the non-educated and increased health problems which can also cause problems for the labor market.2.4ExternalitiesNegative Externalities in Production: The socially optimal output level is less than the market equilibrium quantity. Negative externalities in production or consumption lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable.When externalities are significant and private solutions are not found, government may attempt to solve the problem through command-and-control policies, market-based policies.The government can either regulate behavior or internalize the externality by using Pigovian taxes.2.5 Imperfect CompetitionIn economic theory, imperfect competition is the competitive situation in any market where the conditions necessary for perfect competition are not satisfied. It is a market structure that does not meet the conditions of perfect competition.There may be imperfect competition due to a time lag in a market. An example is the “jobless recovery”. There are many growth opportunities available after a recession, but it takes time for employers to react, leading to high unemployment. High unemployment decreases wages, which makes hiring more attractive, but it takes time for new jobs to be created.2.6 UK Government policy on welfareWelfare economics is the study of how an economy can best allocate its resources to ensure that they achieve the greatest utility or economic welfare of its people, When resources are used efficiently then they maximize the welfare or utility of all. This is refers to people’s well being, and the United Kingdom Government believes it has a role in the redistribution of income and wealth allowing the increase in economic welfare. This policy is achieved by1.Taxation——by taxing those “who have ”,the Government can then give to those who do not “have ”2. Legislation——employment laws or discrimination laws (see supply side policies)3. Providing system of benefits and support.Government accepts that there are certain goods and services that are beneficial tosociety but will not be provided by the private sector in either the correct quantity or at an affordable level. Such areas include health and welfare.Traditionally the Government provides the majority of care for the elderly in the form of large long-stay institution/nursing homes. The Thatcher Conservative Government believed in the role of the free market and introduced the legislation that would introduced the legislation that would introduce market principles into welfare by closing the long stay institution and increasing the number of services-care in the community.2.7 The evaluationIt is clear that the policy has proved to be more expensive than was envisaged. It is difficult to assess the amount of money needed to carry out the policies, such as, care in the community and free personal care-local authorities that may not have enough money to provide these partly due to the aging population. However, another issue arose. Once the policies were put in place, local authorities and social workers soon discovered that there were many more people in the community entitled to these benefits than had previously claimed Government help.This problem will, in the future, be exacerbated with the decline in the population –there will not be enough young people to work and provide the taxes needed to support an aging population. Another issue was that demand was outstripping supply. When free personal care was introduced, social work and health services were swamped with demand for these services.This is not the only area of public ownership. We must always remember that the role of public ownership will cover many aspects of our society:·Public goods·Nationalized / Government owned industries for example, BBC, Royal Mail ·Regulation of industries for example, transport with OFGAS, OFTEL etc3. ConclusionThis report mainly writes the term market failure, and discusses the role of government in the market failure by four parts. Also talk about the UK government policy on welfare and the way or instrument to achieve this policy and give a justified evaluation for this policy.4. Reference·Economic Issues: An Introduction··· 。
HND经济学导论outcome2
Assessment task 2Assessment task instructions The UK economy is made up of millions of people and billions of economic activities. Within these activities, goods and services are created and exchanged. It can be complicated at times but a simple model explaining in general terms how an economy is organised and how those involved interact is a good start.Question 1 Draw a diagram showing the participants of the Circular Flow of Income and explain how it operates. The simple model is sufficient for a beginning, but an economy is more complex and involves external influences, which can raise or lower economic activity.Question 2 Identify three injections and three withdrawals from the Circular Flow of Income; give examples of each, and how they affect levels of economic activity. In the following table, there are examples of the growth rate of various countries over nine years Country United Kingdom United States Bulgaria Switzerland 1994 4.7 4.0 1.8 0.3 1995 2.9 2.7 2.1 0.6 1996 2.63.6 -9.4 0.3 1997 3.44.4 -5.6 1.7 1998 3.0 4.3 4.0 2.4 1999 2.14.1 2.3 1.6 2000 3.1 3.85.4 3.0 2001 1.9 0.3 4.0 1.3 2002 1.6 2.4 3.5 0.6Question 3 Choose any two of the following questions: (a)Explain at least three difficulties encountered in measuring the National Income of a country. (b) Explain (using at least three reasons) why it is difficult to compare the growth rates of the countries in the table above. (c) Explain how the multiplier effect could substantially raise the level of National Income. (d) Explain the difference between real and nominal growth using the table above.Assessment task 2 Outcome(s) covered 2 Suggested solution and making an assessment decisionQuestion 1 A circular flow diagram clearly identifying the following in their correct places: Firms: Households: Markets for factors of production: Land, labour, capital and wages, rent, profit and income. revenue spending Goods and services sold Goods and services bought Firms Households Production inputs Land, labour, capital Wages, rent, profit income （PPT 书P74）Question 2Injections: Investment Withdrawals: Savings Government spending Taxation Exports Imports Appropriate examples: Investments: New factory being built 【built a new private enterprise (grow)】Government spending: New hospital being built (not PFI or PPP)【built public schools (grow)】Exports: Firm wins order to supply new computers to foreign firm 【In cooperation with foreign sales (grow)】Savings: High interest rates result in more savings【a country saves too much of its income (decline)】Taxation: Imports: Government raise level of income tax 【government raise income tax (decline)】Record numbers of holidaymakers go on overseas holidays 【spending on foreign goods by more national】（PPT书P73）Question 3(a) Any three from the following: Errors/omissions from the data gathered，Black economy，Non-recorded items，eg DIY, housework, barter，Transfer income，Double counting.(b) Methods may change over time. Accuracy of figures，Inflation adjustments，Social conditions，Work conditions，Unequal distribution of income. Spending patterns eg defence.(c) Explanation of multiplier either in words or through use of algebra（书P199.200）. Explanation should show that an initial injection to National Income results in a larger level of NI than the original injection. Propensity to save and consume.(d) An explanation of the difference between real and nominal growth, identifying that in real terms inflation is taken into account. In 1998 the growth rate is shown as 3%. If this figure is the nominal rate and inflation is measured at 3.1%, then there is no real growth in the economy. Any similar example will suffice.【GDP=Consumption +Capital investment spending +GeneralGovernment spending +Exports +Imports of Goods(Services) GNP=GDP+NPIA(Net property income from abroad) National Income=GNP-Capital Consumption Real Growth Rate=Nominal Growth Rate-Inflation Rate (Real Growth is the grow adjusted for inflation, Nominal Growth is the grow in the current value of money, Inflation Rate is measure of rate of change in price index)2000: 3.1-3.2=-0.1 no real growth 】。
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enterprise
Injections and withdraws
• Know definitions, examples, and influence on the circular flow of income.
• There are 3 sets of injections and withdrawals which can alter the circular flow of income in an economy.
• For example, households deposit money into banks or other financial institutions, or just retain money in treasuries.
• If a country saves too much of its income this is withdrawn from the circular flow and the flow will decrease. This means that less income circulates and economic activity is reduced.
Government Spending (G) and Taxation (T)
• Government taxes both the household and business, so that taxes (T) are withdraw. • Example: direct tax (income tax) and indirect tax (sales taxes). In detail, value added tax (VAT),
• More investment means that more production and more employment, and more income circulate and thus economic activity is increased.
Saving
• In economics, personal saving has been defined as personal disposable income minus personal consumption expenditure.
Capital gains tax, Corporation tax, Environment Affecting Tax, Inheritance tax, Property tax, etc. • Increasing taxes will decrease disposable income, thus less income circulates and economic
• Example: • This the circular flow and creates more economic activity in the
Exports (E) and Imports (M)
• Exports: goods and services are produced in one country and sold abroad. The payment for them will return to the firms in this country. Thus, it is an injection.
investment in roads, hospitals, housing, investment in nationalised industries, and the Welfare State, pensions, unemployment benefits and other transfer payments (TP). • Increasing investment and spending by government will increase employment and production, thus more income circulates and economic activity will be increased.
• Injection (J) is money entering the flow. Injections include Investment, government spending and Exports.
• Withdrawal (W) is money leaving the flow. Withdrawals include saving, taxation and imports.
activity is reduced. • The government purchases goods and services from the business, and gives transfer payments,
so that government spending (G) is injection. • (G) includes: investment directly into the economy in the form of grants, business allowances,
Investment
• In economics, investment is buying and producing capital goods which are not consumed but are to be used for future production.
• Examples include tangibles (such as building a railroad or factory) and intangibles (such as a year of schooling or on-the-job training), etc.