英语词汇学--词义的变化共123页文档
词义的变化
(2)联想意义/关联意义associative meaning 词的关联意义又叫联想意义，是词的附带 意义，包括词的感情色彩，文体意义等，这 种意义不稳定，变化大。 Woman一词，让我们联想到“妈妈”， “养儿育女”，“温柔”，“持家”“脆 弱”。
词的关联意义可分为: 内涵意义 connotative meaning 社会意义 social meaning 情感意义 affective meaning 反映意义 reflected meaning 搭配意义 collocated meaning
小结 1.概念意义 2.内涵意义 3.社会意义 4.情感意义 5.反映意义
6.搭配意义
7.主题意义
逻辑、认知或外延的内容 通过语言所指事物来传递的意义 关于语言运用的社会环境意义 关于言者/作者的感情和态度意义 通过同一个词语的另一意义的联想 来传递的意义。 通过与倾向于出现在另一个词的环境 中出现的词的联想来传递的意义 通过组织信息的方式（语序、强调） 所传递的意义。
词义变化的基础
词义的变化（change of meaning）指的是词 义的改变和新义的产生。由于有的事物之间 在功能、形状、动作等特征方面存在着某些 相似之处，词可从一种事物、现象、行为的 名称转指另一种事物、现象、行为的名称， 如隐喻、借代、提喻等。这是词义的改变和 新义产生的基础。
I.词义的组成 (语法意义和词汇意义)
Hale Waihona Puke (2.2)社会意义social meaning 指关于语言运用的社会环境的意义，主要代表是 “文体/风格”意义stylistic meaning. 一类词的概念意义相同,风格意义不一定相同. 如： a. horse 一般用语, steed 诗歌用语, nag 俚语, geegee 儿语 b. father 中性, male parent 书卷气，专业术语, daddy 口语，儿语
英语词义的变化
英语词义的变化作者：贾红光来源：《文化研究》2015年第01期【摘要】本文简要介绍了英语词义的变化，即词义的外延和内涵的变化。
词义外延的变化包括词义的扩展，词义的缩小和词义的转化，词义内涵的变化包括词义的升格和词义的降格。
【关键词】扩展；缩小；升格；降格英语词义的变化是指词义的改变和新义的产生，是所有语言共同的一种现象，虽无法预料.但归根到底词义的变化不外乎词义的外延和内涵的变化。
1.词义外延的变化：词义外延的变化包括词义的扩展，词义的缩小和词义的转化。
1.1词义的扩展：词义的扩展（generalization又称extension）是指从原先表达外延较狭窄的概念扩大至表达外延较宽广的概念，也就是从表示个别意义扩大到表示一般意义。
比如“mill” 原指“磨坊”，例如十九世纪著名女小说家乔治·爱略特（George Eliot）的自传性小说The Mill on the Floss River（《弗洛斯河上的磨坊》）。
1.2词义的缩小词义的缩小（specialization又称narrowing）与词义扩展相反他它指词义从原先表达外延较宽的概念缩小到表达外延较狭窄的概念，即从范指转为特指。
古英语“deer”的意思是“动物”，现在词义缩小为“鹿”。
“meat”曾一度指“食物”，这一意思仍保留在“sweetmeat”（甜食）及詹姆斯王钦定《圣经》中，如meat for the belly（食物），meat and drink（食物和酒）。
古英语“starve”的意思是“死”，“饿死”，“冻死”的表达方式分别是“starve of hunger”，“starve of cold”。
而现代英语中“starve”的词义缩小为“饿死”。
某些日常生活用语转为技术术语，从而使词义缩小，如“pill” 原义“药丸”，词义缩小后的特指“避孕药丸”；“link up” 原义“联接”，词义缩小后特指“对接（飞船在外空）”1.3 词义的转化：词义的转化是指通过暗喻，借代提喻，通感等修辞手段而产生新的词义，以及抽象意义与具体意义互相转化、主观意义与客观意义互相转化所产生新的含义。
词义的变化
词义的变化不会停止因为语言已经存在变化，而且还将继续变化。但是没人能总结变化的方 式。然而，有一些改变的方案。这一章将讨论主要方案的一些细节，已经引起变化的原因。 Come into being Degradation 降级 Elevation 升级 Generalization 一般化 Manuscript 手稿 Word-processor 文字处理软件 Resemble 类似 Fabulous 美好的 Fable 寓言 Marvelous 非凡的 Barley 大麦 Drawing 图样 Periodical 期刊 Bonfire 营火 Butcher 屠夫 7.1 变化类型 词义变换通过延展，缩小，降级，升级和转移的方式。在其中，延展和缩小尤其普遍。 7.1.1 延展 意义的延展也被说成一般化，是对某些词语意义扩展的命名。它是原来词语意义具体现在便 的一般化的过程。换而言之，词语已经扩展去包括更广泛更不明确的概念。一个好的例子是 “手稿“，现在指”任何作家的作品不管是手写或者打印或者用字处理软件打印，但是它最 初的意义是“手写”，就是用手写。“美好的”开始的意思是“类似寓言”或者，“基于寓 言”，但是后来称谓“美好的”或“非凡的”。因为难以置信和非凡的经常出现在寓言中。 “谷仓”曾经是“只储存大麦的地方”，但是现在意义扩展为“储存室”。这种扩展也反映 在picture 中，原来只指“油画”，但是现在包括“图纸”甚至“照片”，更多的例子是 Mill 把谷物磨成粉的地方 制作产品的地方 Journal 日报 期刊 Bonfire 骨头火 在开阔处燃烧物体的火 Butcher 杀山羊的人 杀动物的人 Companion 分享面包的人 公司 Polysemic Assembly 议会 Council 委员会 Alibi Plea 请求 Accuse 指控
英语词汇学论文---词义的变化
英语词汇学论文---词义的变化The Causes of Changes in Word Meaning Abstract:Key words: historical; social; psychological; linguistic; semanticDo you know when Juliet tells Romeo, “I am too fond”, she is not claiming she likes Romeo too much? She means “I am too foolish” Do you know when Horatio says to Hamlet, “Season your admiration for a while…”, he is not telling Hamlet “to increase his respect( the current meaning of admiration) for something”?In fact, he means “ to moderate his astonishment.”Don?t be surprised, because, as Quirk asserts, almost every word we use today has slightly different meaning from the one is had a century ago; and a century ago it had a slight different meaning from the one it had a century before that. When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different, the result is a change of word meaning.As nonnative English learners, learning the causes of changes in word meaning can help us deepen the understanding of the meaning of lexicology, vocabulary, semantic field and culture background. By learning this, we can use vocabulary in a more precise way and avoid mistake or embarrassment when communicating with native speakers.The causes of changes in word meaning can be divided into linguistic cause and extra-linguistic cause. Extra-linguistic cause can also divide into historical cause, social cause and psychology cause.Linguistic causeChange of meaning is frequently brought about by two tendencies in a linguistic system: towards ellipsis and towardsanalogy. Some linguists think foreign influence should subordinate linguistic cause.Ellipsis occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole, so it often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adjective + noun or attributive noun + noun. Private, daily, duplicate are all adjectives, but they are used as nouns. Private means a soldier of the lowest rank, daily means daily newspaper, and duplicate means duplicate copy. Under such circumstances, whatever is left, whether a noun or an adjective, is all used as a noun assuming the original meaning. Naturally, the association became so close that the first element could alone carry the meaning of the whole phrase.Besides, there is a change of grammatical function as well, as when adjectives assumethe roles of nouns. Unlike the above examples, whose sense of one word has been transferred to another simple because the two occur together habitually, in some cases, it is the second or “headword”of the phrase that remains. For example, (stream) engine, (coal) gas and (light) bulb.The analogical tendency means new meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical bas e. Fortuitous formerly denoted …happening by chance?, …accidental?, and later took on the meaning …fortunate?probably by analogy because the two words look similar in shape. Another interesting example is fruition, originally from a Latin word fruitio meaning enjoyment. But now, its meaning is given as “fulfillment of (plans, desired results, aims, etc.),”possibly from connection with the word fruit.Foreign influencesA particularly important cause of change of meaning inwords has been the influence of foreign words. For example, the native word stool originally meant any kind of seat for one person, and could even be used for a king?s seat. It got its humble meaning because the French word chair was adopted to denote a more comfortable piece of furniture. Other example is dream. Dream meant “joy” in OE; it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.Historical causeIt often happens that though a word retains its original form, its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed. This is the historical cause of semantic change.The well-known semanticist Ullmann notes, “It often happens that language is more conservative than civilization, material as well as moral. Objects, institutions, ideas, scientific concepts change in the course of time; yet in many cases the name is retained and thus helps to ensure a sense of tradition and continuity.”(Ullmann 1997:198)Indeed, it often happens that a word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed because the referent has changed. Take pen for example, it donated …feather?, which was used in the West as pen in old times. Now, the time when …feather? served as pen is long gone, and people are using hall-point pens and fountain pens, yet the name is still kept. This change has also occurred to computer, which designated a …person who computes? in the past. At present, when we talk about computer, people, people would think of an …electronic machine? rather than a person.There are also many scientific concepts which have retained their original forms, although their meanings have changed as a result of new scientific discoveries and increased knowledge. Forinstance, before Copernicus, the sun was thought to be …the luminous celestial body that in the Plolemaic system is one of the seven planets revolving around the earth? and this meaning is retained in “The sun rises and sets.”The Copernician theory tried to change the historical point of view and now everyone knows that the sun is a …star around which the earth a nd other planets revolve…?Social causeWe are going to discuss social cause of the changes of words?meanings in five aspects.A. Social developmentChange in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common word and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change. (Ullmann 1997:199-200) As a result, some technical words have lost their specialized meanings and have come to be used in more general senses, which connect with electricity, physics, chemistry, medicine, mathematics, etc. For instance, feedback means “response” in common use, as in “The teacher likes to have feedback from his students.”Dimension: as a common word, it means “extent in a particular aspect”, as in “This problem has a new dimension.”B. Social environmentBig events in society will change the meaning of some words. The simple words cold and hot have changed their meanings in the field of politics, as in “cold war” and “hot war”. In England, Abdication can mean King Edward VIII abdicated for marrying a divorced American woman, Ms Simpson. In these cases, nonnative speakers should try to memorize.C. Social classVillain means bad people, but its original meaning is villager.Because the aristocrat looks down upon the low social status villagers, the meaning of villain changed. It is a kind of degeneration of meaning. More examples are clown, boor, knave, and churl. Thus, if a word has something to do with low social status, it will have derogatory sense, vice versa.D National sentimentNational sentiment influences the meaning of word deeply. In English, some bad things will have connection with other nations. For instance, to take French leave means leaving without saying goodbye. Italian hand means interfere. Spanish athlete means a person who says nonsense.The most obvious nation, to which English shows great prejudice, is Netherlands, because these two countries always fought each other in 17century. Dutch act means commit suicide. Dutch comfort means comfort of no help. Dutch widow means prostitute. Dutch uncle means strict critic. Dutch treat means a party that you should pay for yourself. Dutch bargain means a deal made when you are drunk. I amDutched means I am cheated. Double Dutch means words that are rather baffling. I’m a Dutch man if …E. SexismThere are some words with sexism in English, but the number is minor. For example, “Man is a rational animal; men are born equal.”The man in there refers to human being. Recent years, thanks to feminist movement, more and more words are created to refer to women, such as businessperson, draftsperson, poetess, heroine, spokeswoman etc.Psychological causePsychological cause is also constantly at work in bringing about changes in word meaning. Psychological factors play abasic part in meaning change, which leads to the elevation or degradation of word meanings. It takes three forms: euphemism, grandiloquence and cynicism.A.EuphemismPeople change word-meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy, suspicion, pessimism, irony, contempt, hatred, etc. People tend to use mild, agreeable language when speaking of an unpleasant or embarrassing fact and taboo subjects.Death and things related to death are one of the most common objects of euphemism. “To pass away,”“to brea the one?s last,”“to cease to think,”“to fall asleep,”“to kick the bucket,”“to be no more,”“to go west,” all refer to death.Toilet is another example. Rest room, lounge, convenience, comfort station and powder room are just some of its euphemism. Pregnant can be said “big,”“big with child,”“expectant,”“heavy with child,”“laden,”“anticipating,”“in the family way,”and “in an interesting condition.”B.GrandiloquenceGrandiloquence refers to the use of long, important-sounding words for effect. The desire to upgrade or raise the social status of a position, occupation, or institution by changing its common name to one felt to confer greater dignity or importance is another psychological factor in the change of word meaning.In American English, there are so many words of grandiloquence used in unpopular jobs. Garbage collector is sanitation engineer, servant is domestic engineer, mortician is funeral director and gardener is landscape architect.In a sense, grandiloquence is a form of euphemism, too. So some linguists consider grandiloquence subordinate the Euphemism.C.CynicismCynicism is the desire to sneer and to be sarcastic. For instance, the word pious may mean “hypocritically virtuous” in addition to its primary meaning, “having, showing deep devotion to religion.” The present meaning of sanctimonious is “pretending to be very holy or pious”, while it once meant “devout, holy or sacred”. Fanatic, a Latin synonym for enthusiastic, means “unreasonably enthusiastic, almost approaching to madness.”ConclusionChange in word meaning is commonplace and fundamental in a living language, for it is one of the simplest and most convenient ways of meeting peoples? need for new manes to refer to new things, ideas, processes, etc. Broadly speaking, change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addiction of new meaning to established words.The causes of semantic change are historical, social, psychological or purely linguistic. As nonnative English learners, we need to pay more attention to the changes of word meanings, for we are not familiar with their own history, their culture background and psychological situation. Only by learning these causes can we get a better understanding of lexicology, vocabulary, semantic field and context. Only by learning these causes can we know which words should be used and which words should be avoided, so that we can express our meaning more specific in communication with others.Bibliography:Jackson Howard (2000), Words, Meaning and V ocabulary, Trowbridge: The Cromwell PressJavier E Diaz Verd (2004), Lexicography, Semantics and Lexicology in English Historical Linguistics, Netherlands: Rodopi 汪榕培（2000），《英语词汇学研究》，上海：上海外语教育出版社汪榕培& 卢晓娟（2006），《英语词汇学教程》，上海：上海外语教育出版社杨艳华& 张树凡（2007），《现代英语词汇学》，：冶金工业出版社张维友（1997），《英语词汇学教程》，武汉：华中师范大学出版社张韵斐（2012），《现代英语词汇学概论》，北京：北京师范大学出版社。
英语词汇学-第五章 词义的变化
综上所述
语义理据为理论基础
原始意义
通过隐喻、借代、提喻等
派生意义
词义变化Biblioteka 词的理据丧失中心意义和次要意义
如下图
强国 Power 放大率 控制权
能力
权限 体力
乘方
机械能
普遍意义和特殊意义
由于词义范围在历史演变中的扩大或小， 有 些词既可以指一类事物，也可以指这类事 物中 的一个。
例如： fire泛指各类 “火” ，在 the fire in the sitting room中特指 “炉火”。
比喻意义 不热情的，冷冰冰的 a cool reception 冷漠的接待
• 词具备两个或两个以上的意义便成为多义词。
一词多义分析
• 普遍意义和特殊意义
• 原始意义和派生意义
• 抽象意义和具体意义
• 中心意义和次要意义
• 字面意义和比喻意义
原始意义和派生意义
原始意义，即本义。 派生意义：词在发展过程中形成的，称转义。
e.g. Harvest 原义
转义
秋天
收割；收成
有的原始意义与派生意义同时在现代英语中
一词多义
• 一词多义的形成 • 一词多义分析
何晓非
一词多义的形成
一个词刚出现的时候只是用作一定的事物、
现象、 性质或者行为的名称，因而总是单 义的，继而在语言发展过程中逐渐获得新
义， 这样便形成了一词多义。
例如
• 原义
Albatross
• 引申义
信天翁
Manuscript 手稿
忧虑之源
底稿
• 一词多义是词义变化的结果。
等改变词义。
例如：copper 原指铜，可用来指铜币(coin)。
词汇学基础第六章 词义的发展
（二）词义的扩大
➢ 响：回音——一切声响
➢ 《左转》“今与王言若响，国其若之何” ➢ 骆宾王《在狱咏蝉》 “露重飞难进，风多响
易沉”
（二）词义的扩大
➢ （3）表名物的词适用对象从单一事物发展到一般 事物，其表示的对象特征也随着变化.
➢ 河：黄河——一切河流 ➢ 江：长江——一切江河
➢ 匠：木匠——匠人 ➢ 皮：兽皮——“人或生物体表面的组织” ➢ 《墨子》“古之民未知为衣服时，衣皮带茭”（草
（四）词义的转移
➢ 2. 词性转换造成的词义转移 ➢ （1）动——名 布告：宣告——机关团体张贴出来的文件 环境：环绕全境——周围的自然条件和社会
条件
孩：小儿笑——小孩儿 《老子》：“如婴儿 之未孩”（还不会笑）
（四）词义的转移
➢ （2）形——名
细软：纤细柔软——贵重物品 秀才：才能优秀——明清两代秀才——泛指
绳）
（二）词义的扩大
➢ （4）表性状的词适用对象扩大 ➢ 动听：言辞——声音，音乐 ➢ 平衡：平衡器的两端——一般事物
➢ 加：雌雄：鸟类——一切生物
➢ 这种类型的词义发展，后起义如果用得频繁，常 常分出自成义项，这样，原义和后起义因适用对 象不同，所表示的性状特征也有差异了。
（二）词义的扩大
➢ （5）表动作行为变化的词的行为变化主体 扩大
➢ （1）表名物的词适用对象从部分发展到整 体（指空间），表示的对象特征也随之变 化。
➢ 脸：目下颊上——整个脸面 ➢ 腿：小腿——小腿大腿的总称
（二）词义的扩大
➢ （2）表名物的词适用对象从部分发展到整 体（指成员），表示的对象特征也随之变 化。
➢ 妇人：同士匹配的女子——已婚女子 ➢ 火花：灯迸发的火焰——所有烟火迸发的
词义演变的原因和过程-文档资料
词义朝贬义方向演变的过程叫做词义的降格 (degradation, degeneration, deterioration, catachresis或 pejoration of meaning)。 词义朝褒义方向发展的过程叫做词义的升格 (the elevation, ascent或 amelioration of meaning)。
民族偏见在谚语中也有体现 One Englishman can beat three Frenchmen.一个英国人可以打败三个法国 人。 The Itanians are wise before the deed, the German in the deed, the French after the deed.意大利人事前聪 敏，德国人事中聪敏，法国人事后聪敏。 An American will go to hell for a bag of coffee.美国人为了一袋咖啡可以连 命都不要。
专门术语和普通词汇之间经常交叉使用，也使 词义发生了演变 Salt：食盐；(化)盐，盐类 Appendix：附录；(生理)阑尾 Scene(戏剧)一场，一景；场景，布景；场 面，场所
2. 社会环境与词义变化 社会上发生的事件往往会使词的意义发生变 化： Abdication：退位 可以特指英王爱 德华八世1936年为能与沃利斯· 辛普森夫人 结婚而正式放弃王位 Accession Day：登基日 现在英国特指 1952.2.6伊丽莎白二世登基之日
穷人: The disadvantaged / the underprivileged / the low-income group 失业的人：Forgotten man 涨价：Upward price readjustment 贫民区：Culturally deprived environment 流落街头：Urban camping
英语词义的变化
目录引言 (3)1、英语词义演进与退化 (3)2、英语词义的缩小与扩大 (5)3、英语词义的弱化与加强 (7)4、英语词义功能的转变 (7)结束语 (8)参考文献 (9)英语词义的变化摘要：语言作为人类交流思想和传递信息的工具，总是随着人类社会的进步而发生着变化。
英语作为一种语言，已经有1500年的历史，其变化巨大也是可想而知的。
英语词义的变化主要表现在词义的演进与退化、词义的缩小与扩大、词义的弱化与加强以及词义功能的转变等方面【1】。
关键词：英语；词义；变化The changes of lexical meanings of English wordsAbstract: The language as tools of human thought and communicate information, is always changing with the progress of humansociety. English as a language, having1500 years of history,the change is palpable. English word meaning changes in wordmeaning evolution and degeneration, narrowing of the meaningand expand, the weakening and strengthening as well as themeaning of the word function transformation, etc.Key word：English；meaning；change引言随着社会的发展，时代的变迁，英语像汉语一样，一些新词出现，旧词消失，一些词义退化演进，词义的功能也在发生转变。
词义的变化从时间上可以分为文艺复兴时期、资产阶级革命时期、殖民地开拓时期【2】。