《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
英语词汇学知识点总结
Word-formationWord-formation Word-formation or or or word-building word-building word-building is is that that branch branch branch of of of lexicology lexicology lexicology which which which studies studies studies the the the patterns patterns patterns on on which a language, in this case, the English language, coins new words. Percentage of new words coined by the different word-formation processes after World War The three major processes of word formation: Composition or CompoundingDefinition : Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or or more more more bases bases bases to to to form form form a a a new new new unit, unit, unit, a a a compound compound compound word. word. word. Compounding Compounding Compounding is is is the the the most most productive word-formation process in contemporary English . Identity crisis 个性危机stand-up collar 竖领hit-and-run tactics 打了就跑的战术spoon-feed 填鸭式灌输，娇养糊里糊涂muddle-headed/minded 笨嘴笨舌heavy-tongued 无忧无虑carefree 饱经风霜weather-beaten/worn 令人心碎heart-breaking 半死不活dead-alive/dead-and-alive 不合时宜ill-timed/badly-timed 批量生产mass-produce Compounds are very often used because of their brevity and vividness. For example, A schoolboy is more concise than “a boy attending school ”; “U p-to-the-minute information information” ” is more vivid than “the latest information ”; “The The old old old man man man would would would sit sit sit for for for hours, hours, hours, thinking thinking thinking sadly sadly sadly of of of all all all the the might-have-beens ” ” is is is more more compact and expressive than “…thinking sadly of the desirable things that could have happened in the past .”The relative criteria of a compound wordOrthographic criterion (书写标准) : Compounds are written in three ways, e.g. solid: airmail ;hyphenated: air-conditioning ; open: air force, air raid.Phonological criterion (语音标准) : Compound accent: a single stress on the first element; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element. E.g. 'blackboard, 'blue ‘bottle (a large buzzing fly with blue body ) ) Normal phrase accent : : a a a secondary secondary secondary stress stress stress on on on the the the first first first element element element and and and a a a main main main stress stress stress on on on the the second element. E.g. ‘ blue 'bottle (a bottle which is blue) Semantic criterion (语义标准) : A compound is a combination forming a unit expressing a a single single single idea. idea. idea. The The The lexical lexical lexical meaning meaning meaning of of of the the the components components components are are are closely closely closely joined joined joined together together together to to to create create create a a compound compound with with with a a a meaning meaning meaning which which which one one one can can can easily easily easily recognize, recognize, recognize, e.g. e.g. e.g. backdoor, backdoor, backdoor, sunset, sunset, sunset, workday. workday. However, the meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts, e.g. dog days, flatfoot ( a policeman), greenhouse, greenback (美钞)，green-hand(生手), greenroom （演员休息室）, mother wit （天生的智力）, Indian paper （字典纸）. More examples:home letters(家信), home voyage （归程）, home life （家庭生活）, home affairs （家庭事务），home bird （不爱外出的人）（不爱外出的人）, home economics （家政学）, home front （大后方）, home games （在本地举行的比赛）, home help （家务女佣）（家务女佣）, homemaker （主妇）（主妇）, home plate（棒球的本垒打）, home sickness （思家病）（思家病）. Word order: A flower pot (花盆) a pot flower (盆花) tiptoe(脚尖) deaf-mute （聋哑者）（聋哑者）Some of them were influenced by French : court martial(军事法庭) ; president elect （当选总统）; ambassador designate （尚未上任的大使）（尚未上任的大使）Classification of compoundsCompounds can be classified according to parts of speech of the compounds . noun compounds : airplane , flower potadjective compounds: w eather-beaten weather-beaten , snowwhite verb compounds: p roof-read, proof-read, baby-sit proposition compounds: notwithstanding, alongside of conjunction compounds : whenever ,whereas pronoun compounds: a nother another , myselfThe three commonest types are noun compounds, adjective compounds, andverb compounds.noun compounds• Noun + nounrainwater 雨水; ; springwater springwater 泉水; ; houseplants houseplants 室内植物;fireball 火球火球 ; ; firecracker firecracker 鞭炮 ; spacecraft/spaceship 太空船；spacesuits 太空服；mousemat ； 鼠标垫鼠标垫 Dream Team ；bar code 条形码；条形码； lip service 口头上说得好听的话；口头上说得好听的话； information highway 信息高速公路； science fiction 科幻小说；科幻小说； sugar cane 甘蔗；gaslight 煤气灯；煤气灯；• Noun + verbdaybreak 拂晓； nightfall 夜幕降临；sunset/sunrise 日落， earthquake 地震；landslip/landslide (山体滑坡)； headache toothache ；stomachache ；heartbeat drumbeat ； footbeat 脚步节拍 ； wingbeat 翅翼振动 ； window-dress 布置橱窗；布置橱窗； water-supply 自来水自来水 ； snowfall 降雪量； toothpick 牙签；牙签； haircut ； pickpocket ； scarecrow 稻草人稻草人 ( scare the crow) • V erb + noun cry baby (爱哭的婴儿)； playboy (花花公子) ；glowworm (发光虫)； watch-dog (看家狗), swearword （骂人话）, breakwater （防波提）（防波提）, driveway （车道）, jump suit （伞兵跳伞服，连衣裤工作服）；rattle snake(响尾蛇响尾蛇) • V erb + adv / prep changeover (转变进程) ； setback (挫折挫折)； breakdown (崩溃)， show-off(炫耀), slip-up（疏忽，不幸事故）, put-off （推迟，搪塞）, follow-up （连续广告法）（连续广告法）sit-in, dropout, breakdown, walk-on, walkout, setback, take-off• Adjective + nounclear-way(超速道路), easy-chair, deadline, hard disk, soft disk ，red tape(官样文章官样文章) • adverb + noununder-clothes(内衣), after-effect （后效，副作用）（后效，副作用）, upgrade（升级）, overburden • V+ing + nounchewing gum(口香糖), baking powder （发酵粉）, reading lamp （台灯）, lodging house （分间出租供人休息用的房屋），leading article(社论), working party （作业队）（作业队）• Adverb + verb outlet(出口), upset （颠覆）（颠覆）, downfall （垮台，陷落）（垮台，陷落）, upstart （暴发户）（暴发户）, onflow （滚滚向前）前）adjective compounds• Pre-modifier VS. Post-modifier Post-modifier ( ( ( describe describe describe a a a noun noun noun phrase phrase phrase or or or restrict restrict restrict its its its meaning meaning meaning in in some way) • Compound modifiers, because of their expressiveness and brevity, are used quite flexibly in current English, especially in journalistic writings. • noun + adjective• skin-hungry, power-hungry, news-hungry, career-hungry (急于成名的) , bloodthirsty • duty-free, tax-free, fat-free, toll-free, maintenance-free, dust-free, interest-free, care-free, ice-free, danger-free, nuclear-weapon-free • water-proof, fire-proof, bullet-proof, rain-proof, bomb-proof, vibration-proof • air-sick, seasick, car-sick, home-sick, heartsick (沮丧的) • user-friendly, reader-friendly • profit-conscious,time-conscious, class-conscious, environment-conscious, security-conscious • slap-happy(被打得晕头转向的) boxer ， trigger-happy (嗜杀成性的)gangster ， travel-happy(对旅游入迷的) • accident-prone, crisis-prone (危机四伏的)，error-prone, • air-tight(不透气的)，water-tight, light-tight(不透光的), rain-tight • work-shy(不愿工作的)，camera-shy(怕上镜头的)， publicity-shy (不愿出头露面的) • color-blind, night-blind • blood-weary (厌战的)，travel-weary(旅途劳累的) •stone-deaf, skin-deep, snow-white, ice-cold, knee-deep, paper-thin, mirror-bright, feather-light, fire-hot, crystal-clear, waist-high, shoulder-high, life-long, grass-green, dog-tired, threadbare （穿旧的）（穿旧的） • college-bound/preparatory (准备考大学的)，labor-short (缺乏劳动力的)，top-heavy(头重脚轻的)，penny-wise(小事聪明的) ， oven-fresh (刚出炉的) line-dry(一晾就干的一晾就干的)，world-famous • adjective + adjectivewet-cold, wet-cold, icy-cold, icy-cold, icy-cold, red-hot, red-hot, red-hot, white-hot, white-hot, white-hot, bitter-sweet, bitter-sweet, bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, deaf-mute, deaf-mute, shabby-genteel(shabby-genteel(穷酸的)，dead-alive(半死不活的)，dark-blue, dark-blue, deep-blue, deep-blue, deep-blue, light-blue, light-blue, light-blue, pale-blue, pale-blue, pale-blue, bright-red, bright-red, bright-red, bloody-red, bloody-red, yellow-green, yellowish-green ，social-political• V+ing + adjectivesteaming-hot/smoking-hot steaming-hot/smoking-hot ((滚烫的，热气腾腾的)，soaking-wet/wringing-wet(湿淋淋的，湿得可拧出水来的)，biting-cold/freezing-cold (冷得刺骨的，冰冷的) • Adverb/Prep + adjectiveever-victorious (战无不胜的)，over-cautious, all-round (全面的全面的)， far-reaching (深远的，广泛的)，evergreen (tree), wide-awake (机警的)，over-sensitive, over-anxious, under-ripe (不成熟的)，too-rapid • noun +V+ingpeace-loving, time/space/energy/labor-saving, time-consuming, summer-flowering(夏季开花的), ocean-going (远洋的)， fault-finding, record-breaking, heart-breaking, hair-raising, side-splitting (令人捧腹的)，thirst-quenching (解渴的)，man-eating• noun + V+edheart-felt(衷心的), air-born （空降的，（空降的，空运的）, home-made, travel-worn （旅行得疲乏的）, hen-pecked, book-filled, poverty-stricken, weather-beaten, thunder-struck, suntanned • adjective/adverb + V+ingfresh-frozen(速冻的), easy-going(随和的), familiar-sounding (听起来熟悉的)，hard-working, ever-lasting (永恒的) • adjective/adverb + V+ednewly-developed, well-balanced, far-fetched (牵强附会的)，half-baked(烤得半生不熟的，肤浅的), hard-won (来之不易的)，quick-frozen (速冻的), new-laid (eggs), so-called, fresh-caught, newly-built, well-informed, well-organized • noun + Noun+edhot-tempered(急性子的)，chicken-hearted (胆怯的，软弱的)，honey-mouthed, paper-backed (平装本的)， eagle-eyed(目光尖锐地) • adjective/adv. + Noun+edshort-sighted, short-sighted, tender-hearted, tender-hearted, tender-hearted, sweet-hearted(sweet-hearted(性情温和的), ), green-fingered(green-fingered(擅长园艺的)，open-handed, single-handed, bald-headed, empty-headed, hot-headed, kind-hearted, light-hearted, whole/half-hearted, absent-minded, narrow/broad-minded, double-faced, straight-faced, blue-eyed, muddle-minded/headed muddle-minded/headed ((糊里糊涂) ) , , , commercially-minded, commercially-minded, commercially-minded, heavy-tongued heavy-tongued heavy-tongued ((笨嘴笨舌的)，middle-aged, middle-aged, cold-blooded, cold-blooded, cold-blooded, strong-bodied, strong-bodied, strong-bodied, rosy-cheeked, rosy-cheeked, rosy-cheeked, apple-cheeked, apple-cheeked, apple-cheeked, close/tight-fisted(close/tight-fisted(吝啬的)， bare-footed, white-haired, high-heeled, ill-intentioned, weak-kneed (易屈服的)，long-legged, close/tight-lipped (嘴紧的), ill-mannered, thick/thin-skinned (脸皮厚/薄)，high-spirited, iron-willed, iron-willed, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, glib-tongued glib-tongued glib-tongued ((油嘴滑舌的)，loose-tongued(嘴不严的) • adjective + Nounlong-distance, full-length （未删节的），white-collar, red-letter(喜庆的), ，full-time, first-rate, high-speed, high-level, low-frequency, left-hand, real-time(实时的)， long-range, deep-sea (fish) • Verb + Nounbreak-neck (危险的)， telltale(搬弄是非的)， cut-rate (减价的，次等的减价的，次等的)• Phrases or sentencesat-risk （处境危险的）, in-your-face （明目张胆的）, devil-may-care(不顾一切的), dog-eat-dog （狗咬狗的）, round-the-clock, on-the-spot, cards-on-the-table, matter-of-fact, never-to-be-forgotten, once-in-a-life-time, off-the-cuff (临时想起的意见)opinion, back-up (备用) a stand-up collar (竖领), a walk-in closet (走入式大壁橱)，a see-through shirt （透明的衬衫）（透明的衬衫）（透明的衬衫） take-home pay ，cross-border raid ，a keep-fit class （保健班）（保健班）（保健班） verb compoundsThe common way to form a compound verb is by means of back-formation. The back-formation back-formation is is is a a a process process process of of of word word word formation formation formation by by by which which which a a a word word word is is is created created created by by by dropping dropping dropping the the supposed or imagined affixes Housekeeping → housekeep, test-drive(试车)，machine-gun, nickname, spotlight, honeymoon, honeymoon, outline, outline, outline, speed-read, speed-read, speed-read, soft-land, soft-land, soft-land, vacuum-clean, vacuum-clean, vacuum-clean, mass-produce, mass-produce, mass-produce, sight-see, sight-see, sight-see, proof-read, proof-read, tape-record, chain-smoke, ghost-write, air-condition, baby-sit, window-shop, spoon-feed, hen-peck, snowball, middle-road(走中间道路), chain-react, face-harden(使表面硬化), wire-pull (幕后操纵)，daydream, skyrocket, sleepwalk, highlight, safeguard, whitewash, sweet-talk，job-hop A compound verb can also be formed by means of analogy1.chain-drink: from chain-smoke 2.bottle-feed: feed from a bottle. from breast-feed:• feed from a mother's breast A compound verb can also be formed by means of verb phrasesoverwork, withhold(扣留), cross-question(盘问)，upbuild (建立建立), uplift, uproot, fast-talk(花言巧语地企图说服)，off-load(卸货)，outeat(吃得比……多)，outgo, outgrow , ill-treat, overhear, overtake, undergo, underline, undermine, undertake, Affixation or DerivationIt is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix, or combining form, to an already existing word. A combining form is a bound morpheme, which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek, such as auto-（from GK a utosautos self）. 据统计下列14个词根和20个词缀出现在词典里10，000多个英语单词中词根词前缀前缀 词根Precept pre- (before) capere (take, seize) detain de- (away, from) tenere (hold, have) intermittent inter- (between) mittre (send) offer ob- (against) ferre (bear, carry) Insist in- (into) stare (stand) monograph mono- (alone, one) graph (write) epilogue epi (upon) egein (say, study) 词根词前缀前缀 词根aspect ad- (to, toward) spicere (see) com- (together) plicare (fold) uncomplicated un- (not); c omnonextended non- (not); e x ex- (out of) tendere (stretch) reproduction re- (back, again); pro- (forward) ducere (lead) dis- (apart from) ponere (put, place) indisposed in- (not); d isoversufficient over - (above); s ub sub - (under) facere (make, do) mistranscribe mis - (wrong); t rans trans - (across) scribere (write) Number-related prefixes from Latin prefix meaning examples uni- one uniform duo- two duet (二重唱二重唱/奏）奏） tri- three trio (三人组）三人组）三人组） quad-, quart- four quadruplets (四胞胎）四胞胎）四胞胎） quint- five quintuplets sext six sexet (六人组）六人组）六人组） sept seven september (7th month, Roman calendar) oct- eight october nona nine nonagenarian (90-99岁的人）岁的人）Number-related prefixes from Latin deca- ten decade cent- hundred centigrade (一百度的）一百度的）一百度的） multi- many multiply prim-, prin- first primary secund second secondary ambi both (双）双）双） ambivalent (两种价值观的，有矛盾心理的）两种价值观的，有矛盾心理的） equi- equal equidistant (等距离的）等距离的）等距离的） omni- all omnipotence (全能）全能） semi-, sem half semester (half a year 学期）学期）demi- half demitasse (half a cup for serving coffee (一小杯清咖啡）一小杯清咖啡）Number-related prefixes from Greek prefix meaning examples Mono- one monologue duo-, di- two dialogue tri- three triangle tetra- four tetrameter (四音步诗）四音步诗） penta- five pentameter ，pentagon hexa- six hexagon hepta- seven heptagon deka-, dec- ten decathlon hemi- half hemisphere pan- all pandemic (大流行病）大流行病）I.Prefixation The definition of prefixation Prefixation Prefixation is is is the the the formation formation formation of of of new new new words words words by by by adding adding adding prefixes prefixes prefixes to to to stems. stems. stems. Prefixes Prefixes Prefixes do do do not not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, there is an insignificant number of class-changing prefixes Non-class-changing prefixes: n atural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfair natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfairClass-changing prefixes: force-enforce, danger-endanger , form-deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollegeThe classification of prefixes In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes) are classified according to their source, but this does not seem to help from a practical point of view. view. It seems It seems more helpful to classify the most important productive prefixes by their meaning into the following ten categories: The most productive prefixesPrefixes which are negative a-, dis-, in-, non-, un- Prefixes which are reversative or privative de-, dis-, un- Prefixes which are pejorative mal-, mis-, pseudo-Prefixes which are of degree or size arch-, arch-, extra-, extra-, extra-, hyper-, hyper-, hyper-, macro-, macro-, macro-, mini-, mini-, mini-, out-, out-, out-, over-, over-, sub-, super, sur-, ultra-, under- Prefixes which are of attitude anti-, co-, contra- counter-, pro- Prefixes which are locative extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, super-, tele-, trans-, Prefixes which are of time and order ex-, fore-, pre-, post-, re- Prefixes which are of number semi-, uni-, mono-, bi-, di-, tri-, multi-, poly- Prefixes which are of a miscellaneous category Auto-, neo- pan-, proto-, vice-1.Negative prefix a-/an- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy, dis- dishonest, discontent, disobey, disagree in- Incomplete, Incomplete, inconsistent, inconsistent, inconsistent, incorrect, incorrect, incorrect, invulnerable, invulnerable, invulnerable, illogical, illogical, illogical, illegal, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance, irrational, irregular non- nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic, nonadjustable, nonalcoholic un- uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest 2.Reversative or privative prefix 含“消除”意思意思 de- defrost, deregulation, degeneration, denationalize ，dehydrate depollute, devalue, decentralize un- undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested(公正的，无私的), disambigulate 3.Pejorative prefix mis- misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice, mal- maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction, maldevelopment,maltreat, malodorous, malnutrition pseudo- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic, pseudo-friend, pseudodemocratic, 4) Prefixes of degree or size hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious ultra- ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative mini- minibus, minicamera, miniskirt out- outdo, outgrown, outlive over- overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden under- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate super- supermarket, superpower, superstar sub- subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude co- Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive, counterattack, counterculture, counterpart anti- anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial, anticancer, antibody pro- pro-American, pro-American亲美的, pro-Communist, pro-student, proslavery 6) Locative prefixes fore- forearm, forehead inter- international, intergovernmental, interdisciplinary, intercollege trans- transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant tele- telephone, telegram, telecommunication U.S. intercontinental missile洲际导弹洲际导弹 是指射程在8000千米以上的导弹。
英语词汇学知识点整理
词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1一、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）二、Vocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。
词的总和构成语言的词汇。
词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。
三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. 二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发音和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oralform.自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。
(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。
《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。
英语词汇学知识点归纳总结
英语词汇学知识点归纳总结
1.词汇分类：英语词汇可以分为实词和虚词两大类。
实词包括名词、
动词、形容词和副词，是能独立存在并具有词义的词类；虚词包括冠词、
介词、连词、代词和助词，是不能独立存在或不具有词义的词类。
2.词根与词缀：英语词汇中有很多词根和词缀，词根是词的核心部分，词缀是附加在词根上的，可以改变词的词义、词性或词形。
3.词义：英语词汇的词义可以通过定义、同义词、反义词、上下义词
等方式进行描述和解释。
词义可以有直观意义、引申意义和隐喻意义等。
4.词汇建构：英语词汇的建构可以通过合成、派生、转化、缩略等方
式进行。
合成是通过将两个或多个词根组合成一个新词，派生是通过添加
前缀或后缀来构成新词，转化是通过改变词的词类来构成新词，缩略是通
过省略部分词组或词根来构成新词。
5.词汇变化：英语词汇的变化形式包括时态、语态、人称、数和比较等。
词汇的变化形式可以通过词形变化、语法变化和语义变化等方式进行。
6.外借词：英语词汇中存在大量的外借词，这些词汇主要来自拉丁语、希腊语、法语、德语等其他语言。
外借词在英语中经过适当的拼写、读音
和意义调整后被接受和使用。
7.同源词：英语词汇中存在一些同源词，这些词源于同一词根或词源，并在语音、形态或词义上有一定的相似性。
了解同源词可以帮助理解和记
忆词汇。
8.词汇扩展：英语词汇在发展的过程中会发生扩展，即一个词从最初的特定意义扩展到更广泛的意义。
词汇扩展可以通过引申、转义、隐喻等方式进行。
这些是英语词汇学中的一些主要知识点，通过对这些知识点的学习和理解，可以更好地掌握和应用英语词汇。
词汇学知识点总结
词汇学知识点总结词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究的是词汇的形成、结构和意义等方面的问题。
在学习英语等外语的过程中，词汇是其中一个重要的组成部分。
下面，本文将对词汇学的一些知识点进行总结与归纳。
一、词的形态学词的形态学是词汇学中必须掌握的一个重要方面，主要包括词的构词法、屈折变化和派生变化等。
词的构词法指的是如何通过组合原有的词来创造新词，包括派生法、合成法、缩略法、转化法等。
屈折变化指根据语法要求，变化词的形态以表示不同的格、时、数、性等。
派生变化则指通过在原有词基础上添加字母或词缀等来产生新的词。
掌握词的形态学是很有必要的，因为它和词汇的理解和使用密切相关。
二、词的分类在英语中，词可以根据其不同的语法特征被归为不同的类别，常见的类别包括名词、代词、动词、形容词、副词、介词、连词和感叹词等。
不同的词在句子中扮演着不同的角色，掌握各类别之间的区别以及它们在句子中的作用，可以帮助我们更好地理解和表达语言。
三、词义词义是从语言学的角度定义词的意义，包括原义和引申义。
原义指的是一个词最基本的意思，而引申义则是在原义基础上经过延伸、扩展而得到的新意义。
同一个词的不同意义和语言环境等也会导致其含义的变化，例如“bank”既可以表示银行，也可以表示河岸等。
在学习外语的过程中，掌握词义是十分重要的。
四、词汇的学习方法词汇的学习是英语学习中最基础也最重要的部分之一，因此选择适合自己的学习方法对于提高词汇量、扩大词汇面积至关重要。
常用的学习方法包括反复背诵、积累单词簿、整理词根词缀、阅读和听力等。
在学习方法上，以选择适合自己和有用的方法为主，同时注意与语言运用的联系，不断地推广和实践。
五、词汇的应用掌握了词汇学的知识和学习方法后，其实就迈出了学习英语的第一步。
在实际运用中，如何运用得当也是至关重要的环节。
为了提高语言的流利度，需要在口语和书面语两个方面加强实践，增强实际运用能力。
另外，可以较晚多在社交网络等平台上与外国人联系，使用所学的词汇，将知识应用到实际交流之中，效果更佳。
英语词汇学知识点整理
词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1一、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）二、Vocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。
词的总和构成语言的词汇。
词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。
三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. 二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发音和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oralform.自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。
(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology(词汇学): is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words、The Nature and Scope of English lexicology:English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages、The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to:English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics(文体论) and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology:According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English、A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power、The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively、The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately、A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise theirproblem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study、Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord(词的定义): A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function、(1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning(声音与意义): almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form(读音与形式):不统一的四个原因(1)the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other (2)the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years(3)some of the difference were creates by the early scribes(4)the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary(词汇): all the words in a language make up its vocabulary Classification of English Words:By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock(基本词汇): is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language、Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary、The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character(全民通用性most important) 2)Stability(相对稳定性)3)Productivity(多产性) 4)Polysemy(多义性) 5)Collocability(可搭配性)没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon(行话) (3)slang(俚语)(4)Argot(暗语) (5)Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms(古语) (7) Neologisms(新词语):Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings、(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words(本族语词): known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes、(mainstream of the basic word-stocks)、Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words(外来语词): words taken over from foreign languages、(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens(非同化词/外来词):are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其她语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans(借义词):they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages(8大印欧语群)The Eastern set:(1)The Balto-slavic Group(波罗的-斯拉夫语族):Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc、(2)The Indo-Iranian Group(印度-伊朗语族):Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc、(3)The Armenian Group(亚美尼亚语族):Armenian、(4)The Albanian Group(阿尔巴尼亚语族):Albanian、The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group(古希腊语族):Greek、(6)The Italian Group(意大利语族):Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc、(7)The Celtic Group(凯尔特语族):Irish,Welsh,Breton etc、(8)The Germanic Group(日耳曼语族):Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc、The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language、2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages、In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections、English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language、Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词:the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements、(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words、3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant、Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme,differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)(1)Free Morphemes(自由词素): have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences、A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself、(independent)、(2)Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself、Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes、2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words、B)suffix:An adjective suffix(形容词后缀) that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective、Free Morpheme =free root(自由词根)Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem(词根与词干)The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity、A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root、Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1、Affixation词缀法(Derivation派生法):the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem、(1)Prefixation(前缀法):It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems、1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc、disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes(逆反前缀): un-,de-,dis- etc、unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis(贬义前缀):mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc、misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀):arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect、overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude(倾向态度前缀):contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc、anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes(方位前缀):extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc、extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order(时间与顺序前缀):fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc、monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes(数字前缀):uni-,mono-, bi-,di-, tri-,multi-,poly- ,semi-,etc、bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes(混杂前缀):auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-、vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation(后缀法): It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems、1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes2、Compounding复合法(also called composition)Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail),hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds(复合词的形式)(1)noun compounds :e、g、: air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot(2)adjective compounds : e、g、acid + head = acid-head(3)verb compounds : e、g、house + keep = housekeep3、Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class、(功能转换,又叫零派生、functional shift/zero-derivation)4、Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word、e、g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5、Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead、e、g、plane from airplane, phone from telephone、四种形式:1)、Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2)、Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3)、Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4)、Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6、Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms、(1)Initialism(首字母缩写词法): initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter、e、g、: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)(2)Acronym(首字母拼音法):Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word、E、g、:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7、Back-formation(逆生法,逆构词)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation、It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes、(greed from greedy)8、Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e、g、: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt(瓦特,电功率单位)Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word、It is the arbitrary and conventional、It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific、Concept(概念):which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind、Sense(意义):It denotes the relationship inside the language、‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language、’Motivation(理据):It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning、1) Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据):words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises、Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning、E、g、: bang, ping-pong, ha ha、2)Morphological motivation (形态理据):multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines、E、g、: airmail, miniskirt 、例外:black market, ect、3)Semantic motivation(词义理据):refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word、It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word、E、g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation (词源理据):the history of the word explains the meaning of the word、E、g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1、Grammatical Meaning(语法意义):indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2、Lexical Meaning (词汇意义)(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1)Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning、2)Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning、[4types:（1）Connotative(内涵意义):the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations、(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic(文体意义):many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts、（3）Affective(感情意义) :indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question、这种情感价值观分两类:褒义与贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative(搭配意义):is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion、]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field (语义关系与语义场)Polysemy(多义关系)Two approached to polysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):1、diachronic approach(历时方法) :from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word、First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings、2、synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time、基本意义就是central meaning , 次要意义就是derived meaning、Two processes of development(词义的两种发展类型):1.radiation(辐射型):is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes、(e、g: face, neck)2.concatenation(连锁型):is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning、(e、g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning、In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains、Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between、4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy、Generally, radiation precedes concatenation、In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other、Homonymy(同形同音异义关系):words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling、Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1)Perfect homonyms(完全同音同形异义词):words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning、2)Homographs(同形异义词):words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning、(最多最常见)3)Homophones(同音异义词):words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning、Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1)change in sound and spelling :(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2)borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3)Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes(同音同形异义词与多义词的区别):1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings、2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源):Homonymys are from different sources、Polysemant is from the same source、3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning、Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another、In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries、Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色):As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule、Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning 、Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms(完全同义词):also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i、e、both in grammatical meaning and lexicalmeaning, including conceptual and associative meanings、[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology、](2)relative synonyms(相对同义词):also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality、(e、g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing(借词):最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English (方言与地区英语)3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words (单词的修饰与委婉用法):occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact、4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions(与习惯表达一致):win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand、Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同、Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning、(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同、By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words、Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness、(借词:answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal、中性词:policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request、古语词、诗歌:ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application、Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms、They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns、(allow sb、to do sth、- let sb、do sth、/ answer the letter-replyto the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition、Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning、Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning、特点:①The assertion of one is the denial of the other、②Such antonyms are non-gradable、They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them 、(e、g: single/married)2)contrary terms(对立反义词): antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes、(e、g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other、3)relative terms(关系反义词): this type consists of relational opposites、(parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give)Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion(语义内涵)4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite、(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms(反义词的使用)1)Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words、2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast、(e、g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友,weal and woe哀乐)3)To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together、(proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go、/ more haste, less speed、)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion、The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word、For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词与下义词):use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader、Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea、Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory、e、g、(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc、make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language、e、g、(aunt in English, ma y means “父亲的姐姐, 妈妈的姐姐,父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese、(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content、Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form、Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1、Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo、It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized、(e、g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2、Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小):is the opposite of widening meaning、It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense、In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English、(e、g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl)、[ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly、]3、Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble(粗陋的) beginnings to positions of importance、[nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4、Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory(贬损的) sense、[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5、Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer、Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1、Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因):Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time、E、g: pen, car, computer、2 )Class reason(阶级原因):The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation、3) Psychological reason(心理原因):the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors、Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons、2、Linguistic factors(语言内部原因):the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system、1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义与语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word、Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts、Two types of context(语境的种类)1、Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation(非语言语境):In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background、(look out, weekend, landlord )2、Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境):In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears、It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book、分为两类:1) Lexical context(词汇语境):It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question、(e、g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context(语法语境):It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs、(e、g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1、Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1)Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy、2)Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2、Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3、Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy(上下义关系)7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms(习语的定义): are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements、In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms(俗语), Catchphrases(标语),slang expressions (俚语),proverbs(谚语),etc、They form an important part of the English vocabulary、Characteristics of Idioms(英语习语的特点)1、Semantic unity (语意的整体性): words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity、Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom、The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom、2、Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable、1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article、4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity、习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms(英语习语的分类)1、idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 、idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语(as poor as a church mouse)3 、idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语(look into)4 、idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语(tooth and nail 拼命)5 、sentence idioms 句式习语(never do things by halves)Use of idioms(习语的使用)1、Stylistic features(文体色彩):1）colloquialisms(俗语)2）slang (俚语)3）literary expressions(书面表达)The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned(指派)different meanings、2、Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation (语音处理):(1)alliteration头韵法(2)rhyme尾韵法2)lexical manipulation(词法处理)(1)reiteration(duplication of synonyms)同义词并举[scream and shout](2)repetition 重复[out and out](3)juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3、figures of speech(修辞格)(1)simile明喻(2)metaphor暗喻(3)metonymy换喻/以名词代动作:live by one’s pen(4)synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体:earn one’s bre ad(5)Personification拟人法(6)Euphemism委婉语:kick the bucket(die)(7)hyperbole 夸张:a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式):1、addition增加2、deletion删除3、replacement替换4、position-shifting位置转移5、dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology(语源)、Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1、Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries(单语词典与双语词典):最早的词典都就是双语的(1)、Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD)、The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language、(2)、Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2、Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries(语文词典与百科词典)(1)Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc、)可以就是单语或就是双语的(2)Encyclopedic dictionary:1)encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se(本身)but provides encyclopedic information、Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information、2)Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3、Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)(1)Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster’s Third New International Dictionary>(2)Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000](3)Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音与最重要的意义,很少或者几乎不举例。
英语词汇学知识点归纳
英语词汇学知识点归纳英语词汇学是研究词汇的学科，主要研究词汇的形成、发展、构造和使用规律。
以下是一些英语词汇学的主要知识点。
1. 词汇分类：英语词汇可以分为原生词汇和派生词汇。
原生词汇是指直接来源于英语语言的词汇，而派生词汇则是通过加前缀、后缀或改变词性形成的新词。
2. 词根、前缀和后缀：许多英语单词都有共同的词根，通过添加前缀和后缀，可以构成各种派生词。
例如，'un-'是一个常见的前缀，表示否定，如'unhappy'（不快乐）。
3. 同义词和反义词：同义词具有相似的意思，可以在不同的上下文中互换使用，例如'big'和'large'。
反义词则是意思相反的词汇，如'hot'和'cold'。
4. 合成词：合成词是由两个或多个独立的词组合而成的词汇。
例如，'sunflower'（向日葵）由'sun'（太阳）和'flower'（花）组成。
5. 词源学：词源学研究词汇的起源和演变过程。
许多英语单词来自其他语言，如拉丁语、法语和希腊语。
了解词源可以帮助我们理解词汇的含义和用法。
6. 词义的变化：词汇的意义会随时间和语境的变化而变化。
一些词汇可能会产生新的意义或失去原有的意义。
例如，'mouse'（老鼠）最初是指一种小动物，现在也可以指计算机的输入设备。
7. 词汇的语法功能：词汇在句子中扮演不同的语法角色，如名词、动词、形容词等。
了解词汇的语法功能可以帮助我们正确使用它们。
8. 语义关系：词汇之间存在各种语义关系，如同义关系、反义关系、上下位关系等。
了解这些关系可以帮助我们扩展词汇量，提高语言表达能力。
9. 词汇的习得和记忆：习得和记忆词汇是学习英语的重要一部分。
采用合适的记忆方法，如使用词汇卡片、词汇表等，可以帮助我们更好地掌握词汇。
以上是英语词汇学的一些主要知识点。
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English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary词汇Vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary词语分类Classification of English Words：1.By use frequency: basic word stock & non basic vocabulary基本词汇的特征:1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的词:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words (6)Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms2.By notion: content words实词 & functional words虚词3.By origin: native words & borrowed wordsNative words（本族语词）: Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)1) denizens(同化词，融入英语): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词，可以看出源头）: kowtow3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see / tofu4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed withreference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed pioneer本指开拓者，先引申为先锋。
Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary印欧语系The Indo-European Language FamilyThe Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:(1)The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.(2)The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romancelanguages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.三个发展阶段The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000): was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500): retaines much fewer inflections （1066法国开始入侵英国）3 Modern English (1500-up to now) 始于印刷术英语外来元素Foreign elements：Latin （war and agriculture/罗马人把基督教带到英国church terms）Greek (science/sports/medicine/politics)French(government andadministration/feudalism/religion/morality)Scandinavian 纳维亚人（nouns、pronouns/birds/sea）Minor elements：Italian、German、Dutch、Spanish and Portuguese、Celtic词汇的发展模式Modes of Vocabulary Development:1) 创造新词creation：the formation of new words by using the existing.2) 旧词新义semantic change: create many more new useages of the words.3) 借用外来词 borrowing: constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsChapter 3 Word Formation I词素Morpheme: the smallest functioning unit in the compositionof words词素变体Allomorph: is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning词素的分类Type of Morpheme（1）Free Morphemes: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot standby itself.Free Morpheme =free rootMorpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivational派生suffixaffixinflectional 曲折判断题：affix must be bound morphemes√不是所有的词都需要自由词素√per-ceive trans-late re-mit大部分词语是派生的√词根和词干A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定):un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义）：mal-, pseudo- (bad behavior)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-6)Locative prefixes（方位）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinaryof time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-,tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, (2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ： . acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ： . house + keep = housekeep转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. : smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off theoriginal and using what remains plane from airplane, phonefrom telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings (phone from telephone) 2).Backclippings (dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings (flu from influenza) 4).Phraseclippings (pop from popular music) 首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining theinitial letters of names of social and political organizationsor special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: BBC(for BritishBroadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）: TEFL (teaching English as a foreignlanguage)（逆生法，逆构词）(greed from greedy)From Proper Name(专有名词转成法): .: watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningReference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. .: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. .: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect. 3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. :the foot of the mountain(foot) 4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. :pen-feather词义的类别Types of meaning1. 语法意义Grammatical Meaning: indicates the grammatical concept or relationships2. 词汇意义Lexical Meaning ：Conceptual meaning and associative meaning4types: Connotative 、Stylistic 、Affective（appreciative & pejorative）、 CollocativeChapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）多义关系的两种研究方法Two approached to polysemy1. 历时方法diachronic approach ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. 共时方法synchronic approach : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.词义的两种发展类型Two processes of development1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primarymeaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. : face, neck) 2.连锁型concatenation:is the semantic process in which themeaning of a word move gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directlyconnected to the primary meaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of thedevelopment leading to polysemy. Generally, radiationprecedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.类别Types of homonyms1）Perfect homonyms一词多义2)Homographs（同形异义词）:同一个词发音不同意思不同words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）来源Origins of homonyms1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)同音同形异义词和多义词区别The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes1)基本区别 Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2) etymology(词源)：H are from different sources. P are from the same source.3) semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularlyhomophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :synonyms（完全同义词）synonyms（相对） : change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing：(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind,finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.同义词辨析Discrimination of Synonymsin denotation外延. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil,want-wish-desire)in connotation内涵. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar,homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses,dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect,mere-lake )in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)反义关系Antonymy :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of oneis the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . :single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）： this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife,employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）反义关系的特点Some of the characteristics of antonyms1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semanticopposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own correspondingopposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)反义词的使用The use of antonyms1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2) To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast. :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.上下义关系Hyponymy：Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal上义词和下义词Superordinate and Subordinate：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.语义场Semantic FieldViewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory..(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language..(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变词义变化的种类Types of Changes1. Extension /generalization2. Narrowing/ specialization3. ioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4. Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的） sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5. Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.词义变化的原因Causes of Semantic Change1.外部因素1) Historical reason 2 )Class reason阶级原因3) Psychological reason心理原因2.内部原因： 1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier 2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast 3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. : paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. : become)语境的作用The role of contextof ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a littleof referents(限定所指)如何限定所指——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal contextof clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition 2)explanation 3)example 4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系） 7)relevant details 8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 习语定义Idioms: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements.特点Characteristics of Idioms unity （语意的整体性）stability分类Classification of Idioms．(white elephant累赘物 the salt of the earth 诚实正派人 apple of discourse 祸根)2 .adj.（as poor as a church mouse一贫如洗 cut and dried 确定的 wide of the mark不确定的）3 .v.（bite the hands that feeds忘恩负义 keep the pot boiling 维持生活 give sb. the bag解雇）4. adv.(tooth and nail 拼命 through thick and thin不畏艰辛 in nothing flat立刻）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（one swallow does not make a summer 独木不成林）使用Use of idiomsfeatures（文体色彩）：colloquialisms（俗语）big wheel重要的人slang （俚语）hit the sack: 上床 in the soup: 有麻烦literary expressions（书面表达）bear witness to 证明features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法：part and parcel（2）rhyme尾韵法：toil and moil2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration 同义词并举 [scream and shout] [pick and choose]（2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置 [here and there] [day and night]of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻 as proud as peacock像孔雀一样骄傲 /as mute as a fish 默不作声（2）metaphor暗喻 a white elephant / a black sheep（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen/ from cradle to grave（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法 actions speak louder than words （6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of trouble / a flood of tears来源Origins of idioms:works:Screw one’s courage鼓起勇气 To the manner born天生Man Friday 忠仆，得力助手Brevity is the soul of the wit简洁是智慧的灵魂 Live not to eat, but eat to live.Judas’s kill 出卖朋友 Much cry and little wool空叫喊Turn the other cheek忍受暴力 Spare the rod and spoil the child不打不成材Bell the cat替别人冒风险 Cat’s paw被别人利用的人Pandora’s box灾祸之源 Dead sea fruit华而不实 The heel of the Achilles唯一要害metaphorAs wise as owls猫头鹰的聪明As quite as mouse老鼠的安静As timid as rabbit兔子的胆小Bury one’s head in the sand逃避现实 Come out of the cocoon开始与人交往lifeOn the rocks濒临灭绝 Bead of roses舒适的生活 Turn on a new leaf改头换面Hear around the grapervine道听途说 Beat around the bush旁敲侧击 Spill the beans泄露秘密。