文体学 The Stylistic Analysis of News Report
原文：China Signs Mega East Africa Rail DealNairobi (AFP) - China on Sunday signed a deal to build a $3.8 billion rail link between Kenya’s Indian Ocean port of Mombasa and Nairobi, the first stage of a line that will eventually link Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan.Under the terms of the agreement, Exim Bank of China will provide 90 percent of the cost to replace the crumbling British colonial-era line with a 609.3 kilometer (379 mile) standard-gauge link and Kenya the remaining 10 percent.Construction is due to start in October and take three-and-a-half years to complete, with China Communications Construction Co. as the main contractor.Once the Mombasa-Nairobi line is completed, construction would begin to link east Africa’s largest economy wi th Kampala, Kigali, Bujumbura and Juba.The deal was signed at State House in Nairobi and witnessed by presidents Uhuru Kenyatta of Kenya, Yoweri Museveni of Uganda, Paul Kagame of Rwanda and Salva Kiir of South Sudan.“This project demonstrates that there is equal cooperation and mutual benefit between China and the East African countries, and the railway is a very important part of transport infrastructure development,” Chinese Premier Li Keqiang said.Li has been on a four-country tour of Africa, his first since taking office last year, with the world’s second-biggest economy keen to boost its presence on the continent to find new markets and opportunities.Kenyatta hailed the booming relationship with China, calling it one “based on mutual trust” and saying Kenya “has found an honourable partner in China”.Museveni also took a swipe at Western donors who have been critical of his leadership—including government corruption and his recent signing of draconian anti-gay legislation.“We are happy to see that China is concentrating on the real issues of development,” Museveni said."They don't give lectures on how to run local governments and other issues I don't want to mention," he said.译文：中国签署大型东非铁路协议内罗毕（法新社）——星期日，中国签署了一项协议，在肯尼亚的印度洋港口蒙巴萨和内罗毕间建造一条38亿美元的铁路线，这条铁路线的第一阶段最终会连接乌干达，卢旺达，布隆迪和苏丹南部。
根据该协议，中国进出口银行将提供90%的费用去取代摇摇欲坠的英国殖民时代的铁路线——一条609.3公里（379英里）标准铁轨距的铁路线。
肯尼亚支付剩余10%的费用。
该工程将于10月份开始，将会在三年半完工，中国交通建设股份有限公司是主要承包商。
一旦蒙巴萨-内罗毕线完工，该施工将连接东非最大的经济体，坎帕拉，基加利，布琼布拉和朱巴。
该协议签署于内罗毕国家宫，见证者有肯尼亚总统肯雅塔，乌干达总统穆塞韦尼，卢旺达总统卡加梅以及南苏丹总统萨尔瓦基尔。
中国总理李克强说，“该项目显示中国和东非洲国家的平等互利合作，蒙巴萨-内罗毕线是交通基础设施发展的重要组成部分。
”自从李克强去年上任以来，他已经有了首次非洲四国游。
中国作为世界第二大经济体渴望扩大在非洲大陆上的影响力，发现新的市场和机会。
肯雅塔赞扬了与中国蓬勃发展的关系，称这是在“互相信任的基础上的”，还说肯尼亚“在中国找到了一个光荣的伙伴。
”穆塞韦尼还抨击了西方的捐助者，他们一直在批评他的领导——包括政府腐败、他最近签署的反同性恋法案。
穆塞韦尼说，“我们很高兴看到中国致力于发展的现实问题上。
”他说，“他们不会再做演讲关于如何运行地方政府和其他问题上，我不想提及此事。
”The Stylistic Analysis of News Report1.IntroductionNews report refers to a general variety of language,which sends out hot news,news of important events,and interesting events to all parts of the country or region by mass media.In terms of field,It include all kinds of news,such as politics,military affairs,economy,culture,medicine,science and technology,public security,sports,family events,etc.Obviously,the news I chosen is about politics.The political news always very formal and official.The focus is on accuracy and objectivity .This paper tends to make an analysis of stylistics features of News report.2.Text StructuresHere we mainly focus on the general structure of news report.The prominent characteristic of news report have three parts:headline;introduction;and body.The three parts of this short news is very obvious.The relationship among the three is from general to particular.The headline is the summary of the main body. And the main body provide the detailed information.I will talk it one by one.2.1 headlineAny news have a headline.The headline can be a complete sentence or an incomplete sentence.The incomplete headline is always omitting some unimportant elements,such as articles;link verbs,etc.We called this grammatical feature ellipsis.But in our text,the headline is a complete sentence.China Signs Mega East Africa Rail Deal.The complete headlines have some advantages.Because headline is the first element that attracts reader’s attention.So after reading this headline we can know exactly the new’s content.2.2 GuideGuide is the further explanation of the headline.It usually consists of six elements:location,character,event,mode,time and cause,in which event and character are two obligatory elements.Here we can see in this text:China on Sunday signed a deal to build a $3.8 billion rail link between Kenya’s Indian Ocean port of Mombasa and Nairobi, the first stage of a line that will eventually link Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan.This paragraph is the guide in this news.The guide is always one subject at the beginning and other circumstantial elements,It creates the feeling of simplicity and clairity.In this sentence,the subject is China,then follow a verb “sign”,and the fuction of the rest sentence is to modify the verb “sign”.So after reading this we can know the main idea of the news.2.3 Main bodyThe main body gives the detailed description and narration of the event.Although the reader can just read the headline or the guide,but if he wants know more about the information and the process of the event ,he must read the body.In this piece of news,the body is long.It narrates the process of the event.In the body the writer inserts the conversation between Keqiang Li and some other country’s president.The content is abundant.So reader can know exactly about the news content.3.Stylistic Features of News3.1 voice and tenseWhen reading news English,we can see that both active voice and passive voice are used in headline.But the active voice is used more frequently.We can see in this text.:China Signs Mega East Africa Rail Deal.Generally speaking, the events reported in the newspaper have happened. According to the English grammar principle, writers should use past tense. In fact, it tends to use simple present tense to make readers feel that the news is fresh and timely when reading.And the present tense is simple,It is easy to let reader understand.3.2 Use of short wordsIn English newspapers short words are widely used.Because it can save space,and more brief, vivid, eye-catching.We can see in our text:China on Sunday signed a deal to build a $3.8 billion rail link between Kenya’s Indian .....Here the underline word “deal”is a short word,we may use “negotiation”instead.But in order to save the space,the writer uses the short word.The use of short powerful words, the variation in typing forms make them form deep impressions onthe readers’ mind, and convey much meaning to the readers.3.3 Use of AcronymsAcronym is a word made up from the first letters of the name of something. It is a good idea for writer to save the space without changing the meaning. Sometimes, readers may get confused with these words, because they are not familiar with the acronyms, which they see in headlines or body.There Here we can see in our text: (AFP)——Agence France Presse法新社3.4 Use of abbreviationAbbreviation means the words shorted in any possible way. These shortened words are formed with letters which are picked irregularly out of the original word, but their forms and pronouncing are different from the original ones. Here we can see in our text:Exim——Export-Import Bank 进出口银行This function is also to save some space and more conspicuous and eye-catching.3.5 Rhetorical DevicesRhetorical devices are widely used in news report.Alliteration, antithesis and metaphor are widely used to attract readers’ attention in news headlines.But,the text I chosen is a political news report.Which is always very formal and official.It uses less metaphor or simile.3.6 Discourse patternDiscourse pattern refers to the order writer narrates the news.In news report, it often adopts the inverted pyramid method. By using this method, the lead provides the most essential elements of the reporting, the following paragraphs have less important information.The writers put important things in front to attract the reader’s attention,which is advantageous to both the reader and the writer. For the reader, he can read wherever possible as time allows him without losing the most important things in the report. For the writer, he can save space.4.ConclusionIn this paper,I discuss the text structure and stylistical feature by using examples adopted from the text. Although the paper gives analysis of News report in someangles.It helps us better understand it,but it still has its deficiencies. With the development of society, language will be changed more and more quickly, it will be some new features in News English, I hope that there will be more description and analysis of newspaper in the future study.Bibliography1. Gutt. Translation and relevance: Cognition and Context [MI.上海:上海外语教育出版社,2004.2. Sperber and Wilson. Relevance: Communication and Cognition[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2001.翻译[M]. 中国对外翻译出版社, 2006.3.Wright. L,. Stylistics: A Practical Book [M].Peking University Press. 2000.4.张健. 新闻英语文体与范文评析[M]. 上海:上海外国语学院出版社, 2001.。
英语文体学 News Reporting
The English of News Reporting as a Variety
• News reporting • news by newspaper • news by radio and television
The English of News Reporting as a Variety
Main contents
• The English of News Reporting as a Variety • General Features of Newspaper Reporting • Stylistic Features of Newspaper Reporting • Stylistic Features of Radio and Television News
written to be read aloud over the radio and television. • They perform the same function as press news and share
many linguistic features with it, though they display some traits of their own.
Department official...
(3)Use of heavily modified nominal groups
文体学 The Stylistic Analysis of News Report
原文：China Signs Mega East Africa Rail DealNairobi (AFP) - China on Sunday signed a deal to build a $3.8 billion rail link between Kenya’s Indian Ocean port of Mombasa and Nairobi, the first stage of a line that will eventually link Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan.Under the terms of the agreement, Exim Bank of China will provide 90 percent of the cost to replace the crumbling British colonial-era line with a 609.3 kilometer (379 mile) standard-gauge link and Kenya the remaining 10 percent.Construction is due to start in October and take three-and-a-half years to complete, with China Communications Construction Co. as the main contractor.Once the Mombasa-Nairobi line is completed, construction would begin to link east Africa’s largest economy wi th Kampala, Kigali, Bujumbura and Juba.The deal was signed at State House in Nairobi and witnessed by presidents Uhuru Kenyatta of Kenya, Yoweri Museveni of Uganda, Paul Kagame of Rwanda and Salva Kiir of South Sudan.“This project demonstrates that there is equal cooperation and mutual benefit between China and the East African countries, and the railway is a very important part of transport infrastructure development,” Chinese Premier Li Keqiang said.Li has been on a four-country tour of Africa, his first since taking office last year, with the world’s second-biggest economy keen to boost its presence on the continent to find new markets and opportunities.Kenyatta hailed the booming relationship with China, calling it one “based on mutual trust” and saying Kenya “has found an honourable partner in China”.Museveni also took a swipe at Western donors who have been critical of his leadership—including government corruption and his recent signing of draconian anti-gay legislation.“We are happy to see that China is concentrating on the real issues of development,” Museveni said."They don't give lectures on how to run local governments and other issues I don't want to mention," he said.译文：中国签署大型东非铁路协议内罗毕（法新社）——星期日，中国签署了一项协议，在肯尼亚的印度洋港口蒙巴萨和内罗毕间建造一条38亿美元的铁路线，这条铁路线的第一阶段最终会连接乌干达，卢旺达，布隆迪和苏丹南部。
英语文体学 第十章 News Reporting
Grammtical Features
(1) Alternating use of long and short statement-type sentences
• And the cost of removing last winter's mountainous snows has strained the budgets of some localities in the Northeast and Midwest.Not so,however,in the Sunbelt.
• (2)Simple way of transition
• the obvious relatedness between sentences within a paragraph or between paragraphs within a story
• with the use of common connectives as also,on the other hand,or meanwhile
Semantic features
• (1)Distinctive discourse pattern
• headline, the lead, the body, the background, the ending • who what when where why and for a goFeatures
(1)Masthead---Box---White Space (2)Contrast in headlines: • Flush left • Drop form • Inverted pyramid form • Centered form • Overline/kicker • Subhead • Jump head (3)The use of punctuation
文体学课程论文StylisticAnalysisofDailyConversation
Stylistic Analysis of Daily ConversationI. IntroductionDaily conversation, the representation of spoken English, is an important part of the study of discourse. This paper is going to analyze the daily conversation, which excerpts from Gossip Girl, one of the most popular American soap opera. It is well known that Gossip Girl mainly talks about the story of Manhattan's upper social class, and shows the lives of the rich kids. In this soap opera, what attracts the audience attention is not only the fashion, but also the ups and downs of friendship, love, family, and so on.The conversation, which I am going to analyze, between Blair and Serena, the two main characters in Gossip Girl, focuses on their friendships. Blair and Serena used to be best friends, but a year ago, Serena’s leaving without notice completely broke Blair’s heart, now her return is absolutely a threat to Blair’s queen status. At the same time, the unusual relationship between Blair's boyfriend, Nate and Serena makes Blair more sensitive. So, at the beginning, Blair is hostile to Serena. Can Serena fix their friendship succeful The conversation centers around this issue.II. Textual Analysis1. At the Phonological Level1) Using stressThrough the overall analysis of the conversation, the stress is frequently used at beginning of the sentence. For example: In [Appendix A]Blair：You can go now. Sorry.Serena：No, that's okay. I got a lot of stuff to do anyway.Serena：No, go ahead. Blair! Think we could meet tonightIn [Appendix C]Blair：I must have totally blanked on the part where I invited you over.Serena：I called you. Blair, it's Sunday morning. Coffee, croissants. "Breakfast at Tiffany's." It's our tradition.Blair：I have new traditions now.In the above examples, the marked words are stress words. Frequently using the stress can attract the audience attention. Also, the strong emotions are expressed by these stress words. Here, Blair uses you and I to indicate that their friendship has been changed, expressing her unhappiness. While Serena affects not to care about not being invited by saying No. Certainly, the changing emotion is a bright spot to attract the audience.2) Using quick tempoThe overall tempo of the speakers trends to very quick. They make the tempo go fast by using elision, such as in the above examples, blanked,invited ,called. More to the point, because of the fast tempo, the contractions are frequently used, such as in [Appendix A], when's, you're, we're, that's, I'd, in [Appendix B]how's, I'm, didn't, don't, Let's, it's. In real life, the pace of life is always very fast. So to reflect the life truly, quick tempo is used.3) Normal non-fluencyThe normal non-fluency appears in the conversation. For example, in [Appendix B]Serena: No, I-I know, I was just...Boarding school is like...Serena: I just...I-I had to go. I just…I need to get away from everything. Please, just trust me.Serena: Let's fix that. I saw you at school with... With Katy and is, and I-I get it. I-I don't want to take any of that away from you...Serena: No, that... That's not what I mean. I...I miss you.As I have mentioned at the introduction, Blair is hostile to Serena. Facing Blair’ doubt, Serena is trying to explain and fix their friendship. But maybe because of her nervousness or anxiety, her words are not well planned. That is the normal non-fluency, Like I was just... like... I just... with... that... you... I...I miss.2. At the Graphological LevelFrom the viewpoint of graphological, the features of daily conversation are not obvious. In general, the conversation are arranged in the flush-left. Moreover, occurring in the daily life, between two good friends, the conversation is full of randomness and spontaneity. so the choice of punctuation is not strict. Periods , commas, apostrophes and ellipsis, are frequent used.3. At the Lexical Level1) Short and simple Anglo-Saxon wordsMost of the words are short and simple Anglo-Saxon words, and most of them are informal, monosyllabic. Such as , in [Appendix A], can go, got, do, meet, but; in [Appendix B], for, call, write, need, me, fix , take, have, keep. These words are very good to read and easy understand. Because Gossip Girl, as a popular soap opera, should be geared to the needs of public audience, who come from the different social background. So to help the audience understand the story better, simple words are used.2) Colloquial words and slangsSome colloquial words and slangs are used in the conversation. For example, kinda, okay ,Yeah , Well, Hmm,um, are colloquial words. While, In [Appendix C] Serena：Hey, I got two bone-dry caps and Audrey.Gossip Girl：Serena's visit was short and apparently not very sweet. But you know what is Revenge is a dish best served cold.Here, the mark words are slangs. Bone-dry caps refers to the non-milk cappuccino, and Audrey refers to the film starred by Audrey Hepburn. These thing are well known by average people. All the scenes in the Gossip Girl are of daily life, and the speakers are good friend, thus deciding that it is no need to use those formal and official words.4. At the Grammatical Level1) Simple sentences, using active voice and direct speechTypically, most of the sentences are simple sentences, using active voice and direct speech. Also, the tense are mostly past tense and simple present tense. For example: in [Appendix A]Serena：Hi. So...When's the partyBlair：You can go now. Sorry.Serena：No, that's okay. I got a lot of stuff to do anyway.Serena：No, go ahead. Blair! Think we could meet tonightUsing the simple sentences, on one hand, make the plot easy to understand. On the other hand, it sounds more like the dialogue in daily life, very casual, rather than the art of theater Performances. This is the reason why Gossip Girl is so popular.2) Incomplete, loosely coordinated sentencesThere are some incomplete, loosely coordinated sentences, such as:Serena：The palace. 8:00 Nate will wait.Serena: Let's fix that. I saw you at school with... With Katy and is, and I-I get it.Serena: …You know, and with our families...We need each other.Serena：I called you. Blair, it's Sunday morning. Coffee, croissants, "Breakfast at Tiffany's." It's our tradition.The marked sentences are incomplete, which do not square with the accepted rules of grammar. But here, this conversation occurs mainly between two friends, that is, the atmosphere is very easy and casually. So the speaker do not need to pay much attention to the grammar. More to the point, such loose sentences are closed to our daily life.5. At the Semantic Level1) Exophoric expressionsThere are some exophoric expressions in this conversation, such as:Serena: Let's fix that. I saw you at school with... With Katy and is, and I-I get it. I-I don't want to take any of that away from you...Serena: Blair, how can I fix thisIn the example, that refers to Serena left without notice, and this refers to Serena hided her affair with Blair’s boyfriend. All these things are known by themselves, and they do not need to speak out. Using these exophoric expressions implies their intimate relationship.2) Randomness of subject matterThe subject matter they are talking about is changing randomly, such as: in [Appendix B]Serena: So how's your mom doing with the divorce and everything…Serena: No, I-I know, I was just...Boarding school is like...Blair: I don't even know why you went, to boarding school to being with. Do you know how it felt, …Serena: Let's fix that. I saw you at school with... With Katy and is,…Serena: I just want things to go back to the way they used to be... Blair: You missed some classic Eleanor Waldorf meltdowns.…In this conversation, the marked phrases are the subjects the two speakers have talked, which are changing in high frequency. By changing the subject constantly, they make an in-depth communication and gain a good understanding of each other, thus helping to fix their friendship. For the audience, the randomness of subject matter brings them the sense of reality and homely.III. ConclusionThrough the stylistic analysis of the daily conversation in Gossip Girl, we can draw a conclusion that, in the overall, this conversation shows the features of socialization, filling with colloquialism, realism.Though I have been exposed to the concept of stylistics nearly a semester, I find that my understanding just rests on the theoretical level. So this paper is definite good chance for me to put the theory into practice. But obviously, the analysis of this paper is not comprehensive enough, because to some extent, I just select those aspects in Gossip Girl, which are more representative in stylistics, and try my best to make the analysis intensive, from a well-grounded understanding of Gossip Girl. During this process of analyzing, I gain a better comprehension of daily conversation. And more importantly, it make me know that our study should be thorough, in-depth and systematic, instead remaining at the theoretical level. Especially to those theoretical courses, it is preferable for us to have our own notions of the theory and try to make our judgments.References[1]张德禄. 英语文体学教程[M]. 高等教育出版社2021.2[2012/6/12][2] 邓小丽.从文体学角度分析电影对白中的随意会话[J]. 2021.07[2012/6/12].[3]朱曼.从文体学角度看<<老友记>> 台词的文体特征[J]. 2021.03[2012/6/12]。
Methods of Stylistic Analysis文体学分析的方法
— Characteristics of the use of language in Situation
a. Medium f communication: speech or writing b. Setting: private or public c. Role-relationship between addresser and addressee: the degree of intimacy; the degree of social distance d. Purpose for which language is used: e.g. to inform; to command; to express feelings; to establish social relations, etc. e. Subject matter (of limited stylistic significance) 2011-2-25
2011-2-25
Procedure of Stylistic Analysis ★ Linguistic description — The phonological category — The graphological category — The lexical category — The syntactic/grammatical categories — Semantic category
2011-2-25
Procedure of Stylistic Analysis ★ Context
Context of situation i. Setting public Private ii. Speaker-Hearer relationship Distant Intimate iii. Speaker’s intention To request 2011-2-25 To hint To persuade Speaker’s possible choice
文体分析新闻的文体特征 PPT
The use of short paragraphs is easy and convenient for the potential readers to follow. As we can see, passage one is split into 12 smaller paragraphs containing 19 sentences. Therefore, we can easy to know the background of the terrorist attack---the time, the maker and the injured people.
It uses a lot of Arabica figures to illustrate the number of injured or dead people, the related dates, and the distance of some locations.
The use of abbreviations
To save time and space, abbreviations are used in the news report.
The use of short power words
Short powerful words are very simple and easy-tounderstand and space-saving. These words also sound vivid and exciting, especially in the headline.
句法和语法特征
Semantic Features 语义特征
Analyzing Passage one: （P161） A Linguistic Descriptive Approach
文体学复习问题
Questions for English Stylistics1.What does general stylistics study?2.Why should we learn stylistics?3.What are the three steps of stylistic analysis?4.What are the functions of stress? Give examples.5.In what varieties of English the exclamation mark is most or least frequent?Why?6.Explain the functions of long and short paragraphs, and indicate in what varietiesof English short/long paragraphs are most frequently found.7.Give examples to illustrate the differences in pronunciation between standardBritish and American English.8.Give examples to illustrate the spelling differences between British and AmericanEnglish.9.Which of the two terms, American English and the American language, is moreappropriate, and why?10.What are the main differences between spoken English and written English?11.What is the danger if you use too much formal language in your dailyconversation?12.Can you use some colloquial words in writing? If so, what kind of writing shouldit be?13.What factors affect the degrees of formality?14.What is the effect of impersonal language?bel the following sentences according to the five degrees of formality:Would you be so good?Your silence is requested.Do shut up!Quiet, please.Put a sock in it!16.Are you speaking differently from or the same from your parents? Give examplesto illustrate your points.17.How did African American English come into being?18.Give examples of taboo and euphemisms.19.What are the basic stylistic features of conversation at the lexical level?20.What are the basic stylistic features of conversation at the semantic level?21.What are the most noticeable features of the vocabulary of casual conversation?22.How many types of public speeches are there?23.How do you make an effective public speech?24.What are the general stylistic features of public speeches?25.What are the general stylistic features of news reports?26.What are the general stylistic features and function of newspaper headlines?27.What types of variety may possibly co-occur with journalistic language? Why?28.What is the function of advertising language?29.How many parts does an advertisement usually consist of? And what are thefunctions of each part?30.Find some interesting advertisements from the Internet and present them to theclass with you own explanations.31.What is generally required of EST? Why?32.Tell how and why EST prefers impersonal sentence patterns?33.Why are the present tense and passive voice often used in EST?34.Why do we say that legal English appears extremely conservative and even oddin form? What archaic words are often found in legal documents?35.What punctuation marks occur the least frequently in legal documents?36.What is your favorite type of novel? Why?37.What are the general stylistic features of the language of a novel?38.What is the difference between poetry and prose?39.What are the commonly found stanzas in English?40.How does a poem appeal aesthetically to the reader?41.What is the function of lexical repetition? And what is the function of syntacticalrepetition?42.What effects are achieved through the manipulation of sounds?43.EST and Legal English are two widely different varieties, but there seem to existsome common features in style. Point them out.ment on how the author’s selection of details of description and choice ofwords contributed to the atmosphere of the novel.“The Bottoms” succeeded to “Hell Row.” Hell Row was a block of thatched, bulging cottages that stood by the brookside on Greenhill lane.There lived the colliers who worked in the little gin-pits two fields away. The brook ran under the alder trees, scarcely soiled by these small mines, whose coal was drawn to the surface by donkeys that plodded wearily in a circle round a gin, and all over the countryside were these same pits, some of which had been worked in the time of Charles II, the few colliers and the donkeys burrowing down like ants into the earth, making queer mounds and little black places among the corn-fields and the meadow. And the cottages of these coalminers, in blocks and pairs here and there, together with odd farms and homes of the stockingers, straying over the parish, formed the village of Bestwood.Then, some sixty years ago, a sudden change took place. The gin-pits were elbowed aside by the large mines of the financiers. The coal and iron field of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire was discovered. Carston, Waite and Co. appeared. Amid excitement, Lord Palmerston formally opened the company’s first mine at Spinney Park, on the edge of Sherwood Forest.D. H. Lawrence: Sons and Lovers45.Analyze the metrics of the following poem by W. B Yeats:When you are old and gray and full of sleep, And nodding by the fires, take down this book, And slowly read, and dream of the soft look Your eyes had once, and of their shadows deep; How many loved your moments of glad grace, And loved your beauty with love false and true, But one man loved the pilgrim soul in you, And loved the sorrows of your changing face;。
Lecture 8新闻报道文体分析
A stylistic analysis of English News Report
Several Levels
Graphological Features Lexical Features Syntactic/Grammatical Features Semantic Features
I .A Review of Headlines on English News Report
Some Major ica and Britain Classifications of Headlines Stylistic Features of Headlines
Type VI
“9月初的一天早晨，从钟祥县开往武汉的长 途汽车就要起动了。考取了北京大学的农家 子弟柯洪云欢欢喜喜地登上了汽车。这时， 一位中年妇女急急忙忙地赶来，把一件棉大 衣塞到了他手上。乘客们以为，这一定是这 个学生的妈妈！可是，人们怎么也没有想到， 这位妇女却是柯洪云的老师。”
Type VII
Type III
Is truancy becoming a national epidemic in Britain? Certainly there are clear signs that the number of pupils who simply do not turn up at school or who “clock in” and disappear during the school day, is increasing to a worrying level. ------ The Sunday Express “8点上班的钟声响过之后，中央国家机关多少人迟 到？”这是1987年6月15日新华社电讯《一些中央 国家机关的情况表明需要加强劳动纪律》的导语， 提出的问题非常敏感、突出，一开始就抓住了读者 的心。
从文体学和叙述学的视点看《围城》中自由间接引语的翻译
苏州大学硕士学位论文从文体学和叙述学的视点看《围城》中自由间接引语的翻译姓名：***申请学位级别：硕士专业：外国语言学及应用语言学指导教师：***201105摘要叙述学和文体学在当代叙事小说中占有非常重要的位置。
两个学科都具有旺盛的生命力，且都属于跨学科研究，二者通过利用语言学的模式来研究文学。
由于二者重视文本并将文学作品视为自成一体的艺术品，所以归为形式批评主义下的两个分支。
随着２０世纪形式主义的兴起，叙述视点成为学者激烈探讨的话题。
其作为叙述技巧，对文本描写叙述起着非常重要的作用。
本文采用视点理论来研究文体学和叙述学框架下的自由间接引语翻译。
虽然文体学和叙述学在研究主题、研究方向和研究目的侧重不同，但在视点理论上二者有重合之处，皆可应用于小说叙事分析。
叙述学通过结构主义和形式主义分析，着重研究叙述形式及其对特定语境的影响。
通过分析，叙述学家可以了解到原文是否很好地再现与译文中，译文的叙事效果是否与原文一致。
在叙事小说及叙事小说翻译研究中，叙述学能够帮助研究者考察源语文本中的叙事形式能否在译语文本中得到准确的重现。
文体学家侧重研究语言表达方式对文学效果的影响。
在文学翻译研究中，文学文体学可以通过阐述文学文体学的本质、功能和有效性，来探讨表达人物语言和思想的词句的作用及其对文本自身的影响。
本文通过对文体学和叙述学理论的整合，对小说《围城》中的自由间接引语的翻译进行研究，同时探讨了译文中译者的痕迹对译文的影响，为自由间接引语的汉英翻译提供了参考。
文章立足于文体和叙述两大领域，结合翻译研究中的视点理论，对比分析了自由间接引用原文和译文，探索了引起译文变化的原因。
关键词：视点；自由间接引语；文体学；叙述学ＡＢＳＴＲＡＣＴＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｃｃｕｐｙｖｅｒｙｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｂｅｉｎｇｉｎｔｅｒｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎａｒｙｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｓｗｉｔｈｇｒｅａｔｖｉｔａｌｉｔｙ，ｂｏｔｈｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｅｍｐｌｏｙｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｍｏｄｅｌｓｔｏｓｔｕｄｙｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅ．Ｔｈｅｙｐａｙａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏｔｅｘｔｓａｎｄｒｅｇａｒｄｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｗｏｒｋｓａｓｓｅｌｆ－ｃｏｎｔａｉｎｅｄａｒｔｉｓｔｉｃｗｏｒｋｓ．ｔｈｕｓｂｅｌｏｎｇｉｎｇｔｏｔｈｅｔｗｏｍｅｍｂｅｒｓｉｎｔｈｅｆａｍｉｌｙｏｆｆｏｒｍａｌｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍ．Ｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｆｏｌｌｏｗｉｎｇｔｈｅｒｉｓｅｏｆｆｏｒｍａｌｉｓｍｉｎ２０ｍｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ，ｂｅｃａｍｅａｌｉｖｅｔｏｐｉｃ．Ａｓａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅ，ｉｔｐｌａｙｅｄａｎｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｒｏｌｅｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓａｄｏｐｔｓｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｙｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｓｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｏｓｔｕｄｙｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｆｒａｍｅｗｏｒｋｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ．Ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｒｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉｎｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｓ，ｏｒｉｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｓａｎｄｐｕｒｐｏｓｅｓ，ｔｈｅｙｇｅｔｓｏｍｅｈｏｗｏｖｅｒｌａｐｐｅｄｉｎｔｈｅａｒｅａｏｆｔｈｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．ＢｏｔｈＣａｎｂｅａｐｐｌｉｅｄｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ．Ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｉｎａｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｃｏｎｔｅｘｔｗｉｔｈｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒａｌｉｓｍａｎｄｆｏｒｍａｌｉｓｍａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ．Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｗａｙ，ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｓｋｎｏｗｗｈｅｔｈｅｒｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔｉｓｗｅｌｌｒｅｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｄｉｎｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔａｎｄｗｈｅｔｈｅｒｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｉｓｉｄｅａｌ．ＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙＣａｎｈｅｌｐｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｓｔｏｅｘａｍｉｎｅｗｈｅｔｈｅｒｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔａｒｅｗｅｌｌｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ．Ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｃｅｎｔｅｒｓｏｎｈｏｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｅｆｆｅｃｔｓａｒｅａｃｈｉｅｖｅｄｂｙｍｅａｎｓｏｆｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｆｏｒｍ．Ｂｙｅｘｐｌｉｃａｔｉｎｇｎａｔｕｒｅ，ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｖａｌｉｄｉｔｙｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｓａｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ，ｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓＣａｎｂｅｕｓｅｄｉｎｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｆｒｏｍｔｈｅａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｌｅｘｉｃａｌｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎａｎｄｓｙｎｔａｘｆｏｒｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ．Ｃｏｍｂｉｎｉｎｇｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓａｎｄｍｅｔｈｏｄｏｌｏｇｉｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｔｗｏｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅｓ，ｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｍａｋｅｓａｎａｔｔｅｍｐｔｔｏｓｔｕｄｙｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｎｎｏｖｅｌＦｏｒｔｒｅｓｓＢｅｓｉｅｇｅｄａｎｄｔｈｅｃｈａｎｇｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｆｅｅｌｒｅｓｕｌｔｅｄｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓ’ｐｒｅｓｅｎｃｅ，ｗｈｉｃｈｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｓｒｅｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｆｏｒｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｉｎｔｏＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ．Ｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｐｌａｃｅｓｉｔｓｅｌｆｉｎｔｈｅｔｗｏｆｉｅｌｄｓ，ｂｒｉｎｇｉｎｇｔｏｇｅｔｈｅｒａｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｗｉｔｈｉｎａｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｙｏｎｏｎｅｈａｎｄａｎｄｆｏｃｕｓｉｎｇｏｎｔｈｅｅｌａｂｏｒａｔｉｏｎｏｆａｃｏｍｐａｒａｔｉｖｅｍｅｔｈｏｄｔｏａｎａｌｙｚｅｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｔｅｘｔａｎｄｉｔｓｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒ．Ｋｅｙｗｏｒｄｓ：ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ；ｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈ；ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ；ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙＡＣＫＮＯＷＬＥＤＧＥＭＥＮＴＳ１ｗｏｕｌｄｌｉｋｅｔｏｔｈａｎｋｍｙｔｕｔｏｒａｎｄｆｒｉｅｎｄｓｆｏｒｔｈｅｉｎｖａｌｕａｂｌｅｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｔｈｅｙｈａｖｅｇｉｖｅｎｍｅｉｎｗｒｉｔｉｎｇｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ｍｙａｃａｄｅｍｉｃａｄｖｉｓｏｒ，ＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＷａｎｇＨｏｎｇｈａｓｅｘｃｈａｎｇｅｄｗｉｔｈｍｅｉｄｅａｓｏｎｔｈｅｉｓｓｕｅｓｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄｂｅｆｏｒｅＩｓｔａｒｔｅｄｔｏｗｒｉｔｅ，ａｎｄｈａｓｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｄｎｕｍｅｒｏｕｓｉｍｐｒｏｖｅｍｅｎｔｓｉｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｔｅｎｔｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｒｅａｄｉｎｇｔｈｅｍａｎｕｓｃｒｉｐｔｖｅｒｓｉｏｎｓ．Ｈｉｓｐａｔｉｅｎｔｉｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎ，ｃｏｎｔｉｎｕｏｕｓｉｎｓｐｉｒａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｉｎｃｉｓｉｖｅｃｏｍｍｅｎｔｓｈｅｌｐｅｄｍｅａｌｏｔ．ＢｕｔｗｈａｔＩｌｅａｒｎｅｄｆｒｏｍｈｉｍｉＳｕｎｌｉｍｉｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅａｃａｄｅｍｉｃｆｉｅｌｄ．Ｔｈｅｎ，１ｗｏｕｌｄｌｉｋｅｔｏｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｍｙｄｅｅｐｔｈａｎｋｓｔｏＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＷａｎｇＲｏｎｇｐｅｉ，ＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＦａｎｇＨｕａｗｅｎ，ＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＤｕＺｈｅｎｇｍｉｎｇ，ａｎｄＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＨｏｎｇＱｉｎｇｆｕ．Ｉｔｈａｎｋｔｈｅｍａｌｏｔｆｏｒｔｅａｃｈｉｎｇｍｅｔｈｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｐｒｉｎｃｉｐｌｅｓａｎｄｍｅｔｈｏｄｓａｂｏｕｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｌａｓｔｂｕｔｎｏｔｔｈｅｌｅａｓｔ，１ｗａｎｔｔｏｓａｙｔｈａｎｋｓｔｏｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｓｆｒｏｍｗｈｏｓｅｗｏｒｋｓＩｈａｖｅｂｅｎｅｆｉｔｅｄｑｕｉｔｅａｌｏｔａｎｄｌｅａｒｎｅｄｑｕｉｔｅａｌｏｔｉｎｍｙｔｈｅｓｉｓｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ．Ｌ．Ｘ．ＬｉｓｔｏｆＴａｂｌｅｓＴａｂｌｅ２．１ＣｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗ……………………………………………………………·１５Ｔａｂｌｅ３．１ＣｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＦｒｅｅＩｎｄｉｒｅｃｔＤｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ………………………………………………·２１ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＯｎｅＩｎｔｒＯｄｕＣｔｉｏｎＴｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒｉｓｔｏｇｉｖｅｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌｓｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｗｉｔｈｐｕｒｐｏｓｅｓｏｆｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｉｎｇｒａｔｉｏｎａｌｅａｎｄｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓ，ｔｈｅｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓａｎｄｔｈｅｏｒｇａｎｉｚａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓ．１．１ＲａｔｉｏｎａｌｅａｎｄＳｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅＴｈｅｓｉｓＡｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｈａｖｅｂｅｃｏｍｅａｗｉｄｅｌｙｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄｔｏｐｉｃｉｎｒｅｃｅｎｔｙｅａｒｓ，ｔｈｅｉｒｓｕｂｏｒｄｉｎａｔｅ，ｔｈｅｉｓｓｕｅｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｈａｓｒｅｍａｉｎｅｄｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙｕｎｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｄ．Ｂｕｔｓｉｍｉｌａｒｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｃｏｍｉｎｇｃｌｏｓｅｓｔｔｏａｌｌｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓａｎｄｔｈｅｉｒｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓａｒｅｔｈｏｓｅ，ｆｏｒｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ｂｙＢｒｉａｎＭｏｓｓｏｐ（１９８３），ｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｅｓｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄｓｐｅｅｃｈ．Ｍｏｓｓｏｐｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｓｔｈａｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｓｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ（ＴＴ）ｉｓｔｈｅｒｅｐｏｒｔｉｎｇｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅａｎｄｔｈｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔ（ＳＴ）ｔｈｅｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ．Ｔｈｉｓｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｔｙｐｅｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｖｉｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙｈａｓｒｅｃｅｉｖｅｄｍｏｒｅａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｃｅ１９９６，ｗｈｅｎＴｈｅｏＨｅｒｍａｎｓ（１９９６）ｕｓｅｄｔｈｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓｖｏｉｃｅｉｎａｎａｔｔｅｍｐｔｔｏｐｉｎｐｏｉｎｔｔｈｅ‘ｏｔｈｅｒ’ｖｏｉｃｅｉｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｃｏｒｐｕｓ·ｂａｓｅｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｈａｖｅａｌｓｏｆｏｃｕｓｅｄｏｎｒｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ，ａｎｄｃｏｒｐｕｓｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｓａｎｄｔｏｏｌｓａｒｅｂｅｉｎｇｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｃｒｅａｓｉｎｇｌｙｔｏｉｄｅｎｔｉｆｙｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓ“ｓｔｙｌｅ”ｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ（Ｂａｋｅｒ２０００）．Ａｌｌｔｈｅｓｅａｒｅｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｓ．Ｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｓｅｅｋｓｔｏｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｔｈｅｎａｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓｄｉｓｃｕｒｓｉｖｅｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｐｒｅｓｅｎｃｅｂｙｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｎｇｃｅｒｔａｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ．Ａｌｓｏｔｈａｔｉｓｗｈｅｒｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓ．Ｔｈｅｓｔｕｄｙｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｉ．ｅ．ｆｒｏｍｗｈａｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎａｓｐｅａｋｅｒ／ｗｒｉｔｅｒａｄｏｐｔｓｉｎａｓｕｃｃｅｓｓｉｖｅｓｔｏｒｙ·ｔｅｌｌｉｎｇｈａｓｌｏｎｇｂｅｅｎｔｈｅｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｏｆｃｏｎｃｅｍｏｆｎａｎ＇ａｔｏｌｏｇｉｓｔｓ．Ｉｔａｌｓｏａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｉａｎｓｗｈｏａｒｇｕｅｔｈａｔｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｔｏｔｈｅｇｅｔｓｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．Ｉｎ２０ｔ｝ｌｃｅｎｔｕｒｙｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｔｈｅｃｏｒｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｉｎｔｈｅｒｅａｌｍｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍａｎｄｉｔｒｅｌａｔｅｓｔｏａｔｅｘｔ’Ｓｅｎｔｉｒｅｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｄｉｎｇ．Ｎｅｖｅｒｔｈｅｌｅｓｓ，ｔｈｅｔｗｏｓｃｈｏｏｌｓｏｆｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓｌａｙｅｍｐｈａｓｉｓｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｌｙ．Ｔｈｅｆｏｒｍｅｒｈａｖｅｔｒｅａｔｅｄｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓａｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｅｎｄｏｆｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ．Ａｎｄｔｈｅｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｔｔｒａｃｔｅｄｎｏｖｅｌｉｓｔｓ’ｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｔａｎｄｐｒａｃｔｉｃａｌｃｏｎｃｅｍ．Ｉｎｔｈｅｌａｔｔｅｒ，ａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｉｓｃｏｍｂｉｎｅｓｔｈｅｂｏｔｈｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｂｅｃｏｍｅｓｔｈｅｐｒｉｏｒｉｔｙ．Ｔｈｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｗｉｔｈｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｉｎｇｆｉｎｄｉｎｇａｂａｌａｎｃｅｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ．Ｉｎｏｔｈｅｒｗｏｒｄｓ，ｔｈｉｓｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓＳＯａｓｔｏｇｅｔａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｓｏｆｂｏｔｈｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｔｒｉｅｓｔｏｓｈｏｗｔｈｅｐｒｏｐｅｒｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓａｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｃａｎｈｅｌｐｂｅｔｔｅｒｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｄｂｏｔｈａｕｔｈｏｒ’Ｓａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓｓｔａｎｃｅｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｎａｒｒａｔｏｒ，ｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒａｎｄｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｒｅａｄｅｒ．Ａｎｄｃｏｎｓｅｑｕｅｎｔｌｙ，ｔｈｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｔｈａｔｅｍｂｏｄｙｔｈｅｉｒｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｖａｌｕｅｓ，ｌｉｋｅｔｏｎｅａｎｄａｔｔｉｔｕｄｅ，ａｒｅａｌｓｏｃｏｎｄｕｃｉｖｅｔｏｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｔｈｅａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｕｓｅｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．１．２ＳｐｅｃｉｆｉｃＲｅｓｅａｒｃｈＱｕｅｓｔｉｏｎＩｎａｎｏｖｅｌ，ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈ，ｔｏｓｏｍｅｅｘｔｅｎｔ，ｄｅｃｉｄｅｓｔｈｅｗｏｒｋ’Ｓｓｕｃｃｅｓｓａｎｄｖａｌｕｅ．Ａｓｔｏｄｅｐｉｃｔｖｉｖｉｄａｎｄａｔｔｒａｃｔｉｖｅｉｍａｇｅｓ，ａｎａｕｔｈｏｒｔｒｉｅｓｔｏｍａｋｅｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｔｉｅｓ．Ｆｏｒｒｅａｄｅｒｓ，ｔｈｅｙｔｒｙｔｏｇｅｔｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅｏｆｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｉｒｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｏｇａｉｎａｐｉｃｔｕｒｅｏｆｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｏｃｉａｌｌｉｆｅ．Ｔｈｕｓｔｈｅｋｅｙｔａｓｋｆｏｒｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｉｓｔｏｃｒｅａｔｅｉｍｐｒｅｓｓｉｖｅｉｍａｇｅｓ．Ｔｏｐｏｒｔｒａｙｔｈｅｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｉｍａｇｅｓ，ｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｕｓｕａｌｌｙｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｓｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈｔｏｒｅｆｌｅｃｔｔｈｅｉｒｓｏｃｉａｌｓｔａｔｕｓ，ｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ，ｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎ，ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｔｙ，ｑｕａｌｉｔｙａｎｄｔｈｅｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎ，ｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔ，ｅｖｅｎｔｈｅｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ，ｔｈｕｓｔｈｅｉｒｓｐｅｅｃｈｓｈｏｕｌｄｅｒｓａｌｌｔｈｏｓｅｆａｃｔｏｒｓ．Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｗａｙ，ｔｈｅｒｅａｄｅｒｓｆｕｌｌｙｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｉｍａｇｅｂｅｆｏｒｅｔｈｅｙｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｄｔｈｅｎｏｖｅｌｃｏｍｐｌｅｔｅｌｙ．Ｉｔｓｈｏｕｌｄｂｅｎｏｔｅｄｔｈａｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓｉｎｎｏｖｅｌｓａｒｅｈｉｇｈｌｙｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｚｅｄ，ｂｕｔｎｏｔｌｉｋｅｐｅｏｐｌｅ’Ｓｃｏｍｍｏｎｔａｌｋ．Ａｓｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｒｅｎｅｃｅｓｓａｒｙｐａｒｔｓｆｏｒｔｈｅＣｒｅａｔｉｏｎｏｆａｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｔｏｓｏｍｅｅｘｔｅｎｔ，ｉｔｃｏｎｔｒｏｌｓｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｔｉｅｓ，ｅｆｆｅｃｔｏｆｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔｓｐｅｅｄｏｆｔｈｅｗｈｏｌｅｐｌｏｔ．Ｆｏｒｖａｒｉｏｕｓａｉｍｓ，ｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｃｈｏｏｓｅｓｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｃａｒｄｅｒｓｏｆｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ａｎｄｃｏｎｔｅｎｔｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ，ｉ．ｅ．，ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｗａｙｓｏｆｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓ．Ｈｅｎｃｅｂｏｔｈｔｈｅｆｏｒｍｏｆｓｐｅｅｃｈｎｅｅｄｓｅｒｉｏｕｓｓｅｌｅｃｔｉｏｎｉｎｏｒｄｅｒｔｏｃｏｏｒｄｉｎａｔｅｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｅｎｔｉｒｅｓｔｏｒｙ．Ｉｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ２ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｒｅｑｕｉｒｅｓｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｍｅａｎｉｎｇ，ｂｕｔａｌｓｏｔｒｕｅｖａｌｕｅｏｆｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｔｅｘｔ，ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓｗｏｕｌｄｎｅｖｅｒｎｅｇｌｅｃｔｆｏｒｍｓ－ｏｆｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓ．Ｔｈｅｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｍａｙｈａｖｅｄｉｒｅｃｔｅｆｆｅｃｔｏｎｒｅａｄｅｒ’Ｓｆｅｅｌｉｎｇ．Ｗｈｅｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔｓａｒｅｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｚｅｄｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｖａｌｕｅ，ａｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｆｒａｍｅｉｓｐｕｔｆｏｒｗａｒｄｆｏｒｄｅｅｐｅｘｐｌｏｒａｔｉｏｎｂｙｌｅａｄｉｎｇｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｉａｎｓ，ｓｕｃｈａｓＲｉｍｍｏｎ－Ｋｅｎｎａｎ，ＢａｎｆｉｅｌｄＡｎｎ，ＬｅｅｃｈＧｅｏｆｆｒｅｙ，ＭｉｃｈａｅｌＳｈｏｒｔａｎｄＮｏｒｍａｎＰａｇｅ，ｐｅｏｐｌｅｗｈｏｈａｖｅｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈｐｒｏｆｏｕｎｄｌｙｆｏｒｄｅｃａｄｅｓ．Ｔｈｅｙｃｌａｓｓｉｆｙｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｎｄａｎａｌｙｚｅｔｈｅｓｔｙｌｅｏｆｔｅｘｔｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｄｒｉｖｅｈｏｍｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｆｏｒｍｓ．Ｔｈｕｓｔｈｅｙｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｔｏａｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃｗａｙｏｆｓｔｙｌｅａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｌｅｓｓｅｎｔｈｅｏｂｊｅｃｔｉｖｅｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍｔｏｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔｓ．Ｂａｓｅｄｏｎｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｖａｌｕｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅｕｐｏｎｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ，ｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｍａｉｎｌｙｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｏｓｅｓｐｅｅｃｈｆｏｒｍｎｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｏｒｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ（ＦＩＳ／Ｔ），ａｉｍｉｎｇｔｏｉｎｔｅｒｐｒｅｔｅｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌｌｙｎｏｎ—ｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｓｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｏｒｍ．ＴｏｆｕｌｌｙｅｘｈｉｂｉｔｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆＦＩＳ，ａｃｌａｓｓｉｃｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ＦｏｒｔｒｅｓｓＢｅｓｉｅｇｅｄ，ｉｓｃｈｏｓｅｎ，ｃｒｅａｔｅｄｂｙＱｉａｎＺｈｏｎｇｓｈｕ，ａｗｅｌｌ－ｋｎｏｗｎＣｈｉｎｅｓｅａｕｔｈｏｒ．Ｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｉｎｔｅｎｄｓｔｏｒｅｖｅａｌｔｈｅｎａｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｃｅｓｉｍｐｒｉｎｔｅｄｂｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓ’ｉｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔａｎｄｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｓｈｏｗｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｆｅｅｌｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｓｃｈａｎｇｅｄｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｎｇｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆＦＩＳ．１．３ＯｒｇａｎｉｚａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅＴｈｅｓｉｓＴｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｓｏｆｆｉｖｅｃｈａｐｔｅｒｓｗｈｉｃｈｗｉｌｌｂｅｅｌａｂｏｒａｔｅｄｒｅｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙａｓｆｏｌｌｏｗｓ：ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＯｎｅｓｅｒｖｅｓａｓａｌｅａｄ－ｉｎｔｏｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｓｏｍｅｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌｉｓｓｕｅｓ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇｔｈｅｒａｔｉｏｎａｌｅａｎｄｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓａｎｄｔｈｅｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓ．ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＴｗｏｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｌｙｒｅｖｉｅｗｓｓｏｍｅｏｆｔｈｅｍｏｓｔｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｂｏｕｎｄｕｐｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｔｏｐｉｃｗｈｉｃｈｃｏｎｔａｉｎｓｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｎｅｃｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｎｄｎａｌｌｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｏｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ａｔｔｈｅｖｅｒｙｅｎｄｏｆｔｈｅｃｈａｐｔｅｒ，ｓｏｍｅｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｓｗｉｌｌｂｅｓｕｍｍａｒｉｚｅｄｔｏｊｕｓｔｉｆｙｔｈｅｎｅｃｅｓｓｉｔｙｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ．ｆｒａｍｅｗｏｒｋｆｏｒｔｈｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔＣｈａｐｔｅｒＴｈｒｅｅｉｓｄｅｄｉｃａｔｅｄｔｏｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｔｈｅｓｉｓ．ＴｈｉｓｓｅｃｔｉｏｎｗｉｌｌｆｉｒｓｔｌｏｏｋｔｈｅｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎｏｆＦＩＳ，ｆｏｌｌｏｗｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｏｆＦＩＳｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓａｎｄｔｈｅｌａｓｔｉｓｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｎｄＦＩＳ．ａｎｄｉｔｓＣｈａｐｔｅｒＦｏｕｒｃｏｎｃｅｎｔｒａｔｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｓｔｕｄｙｏｎＦＩＳｉｎＦｏｒｔｒｅｓｓＢｅｓｉｅｇｅｄＥｎｇｌｉｓｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅｉｎｄｉｃａｔｏｒｓｏｆｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈａｒｅｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｅｄｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌｌｙａｎｄａｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｔｗｏｐａｒｔｓ（４．３ａｎｄ４．４）ｉｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄ．Ｔｈｅｔｗｏｐａｒｔｓａｒｅｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｖｅｏｆｔｈｅｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｈｉｇｈｌｉｇｈｔｅｄｆｏｒｅａｃｈｉｎｄｉｃａｔｏｒ．Ａｎｄｉｎｔｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒ，ｔｈｅｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｃａｓｅａｎｄｃｏｍｍｅｎｔｅｄｕｐｏｎ．ｓｔｕｄｙｏｎｔｈｅｔｒｅａｔｍｅｎｔｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄＴｈｅｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎ，ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＦｉｖｅ，ｃｏｎｃｅｎｔｒａｔｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇｍａｊｏｒｆｉｎｄｉｎｇｓａｎｓｗｅｒｉｎｇｔｈｅｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓ，ｉｍｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｓａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｌｉｍｉｔａｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ａｔｔｈｅｅｎｄｏｆｔｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒ，ｓｏｍｅｓｕｇｇｅｓｔｉｏｎｓｆｏｒｆｕｔｕｒｅｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｗｉｌｌｂｅｐｕｔｆｏｒｗａｒｄ．４ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＴｗｏＬｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅＲｅｖｉｅｗＴｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒｇｉｖｅｓａｌｌｅｘｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｏｆｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ａｎｄｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｏｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｆｉｎａｌｌｙｉｔｇｉｖｅｓａｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎｏｆｓｏｍｅｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｏｖｅｉｌｆｙｔｈｅｎｅｃｅｓｓｉｔｙｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓ．２．１ＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎＦｏｗｌｅｒ（１９７５：１０）ｈｏｌｄｓｔｈａｔｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｒｅｉｎｃｏｍｐｌｅｍｅｎｔａｒｙｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎ．ＦａｎｇＫａｉｒｕｉ（２００７）ｓｔａｔｅｓｔｈａｔａｎａｌｙｔｉｃａｌｍｅｔｈｏｄｓｉｎｂｏｔｈｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｇｉｖｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｒｉｇｈｔａｃｃｅｓｓｔｏｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆｔｅｘｔｓａｎｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ，ｗｈｉｃｈＣａｎａｌｓｏｂｅｕｓｅｄｆｏｒｅｘａｍｉｎｉｎｇｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｓｐｅｅｄ．Ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｅｍｐｈａｓｉｚｅｓｍｉｃｒｏｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｅｘｔｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｔｅｘｔｓｗｉｔｈｖａｒｉｏｕｓｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｓｐｅｅｄ．ＩｔｈａｓｒｅｃｅｉｖｅｄｗｉｄｅｓｅｎｓｅｔｈａｔｔｈｅｂｏｔｈｉｎｔｅｇｒａｔｉｎｇｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｉｓｏｆｇｒｅａｔｈｅｌｐｔｏｔｈｅａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｅｘｔｓａｎｄＣａｎｓｅｒｖｅｔｏｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｓｉｖｅｌｙｈｏｗｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｓａｒｅｒｅｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｅｄｉｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ．ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｅＴｈｅｒｅａｒｅｔｈｒｅｅａｒｅａｓｉｎｔｈｅｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｘｔ，ｎａｍｅｌｙｔｅｎｓｅ，ｍｏｄｅａｎｄｖｏｉｃｅ，ａｓｐｒｏｐｏｓｅｄｂｙＧｅｎｅａｅ（１９８０）ｉｎａｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒａｌａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｍｏｄｅｌｆｏｒｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｔｅｎｓｅｒｅｌａｔｅｓｔｏｉｎｔｅｒａｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｉｍｅａｎｄｓｔｏｒｙｔｉｍｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｍｏｏｄｉｓｕｓｅｄｔｏｍｏｄｕｌａｔｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｄｉｓｔａｎｃｅａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｉ．ｅ．ｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ．Ａｎｄｖｏｉｃｅｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｓｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｒａｎｄｐｏｔｅｎｔｉａｌｒｅａｄｅｒ．Ｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｉｎｇｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒａｌｐｒｏｂｌｅｍａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｓｋｉｌｌｐｒｏｂｌｅｍ（ｉｂｉｄ），ａｌｌｔｈｅｔｈｒｅｅａｒｅａｓａｔｔｒａｃｔａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｂｏｔｈｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌａｎｄｐｏｓｔｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ．Ｔｈｅｙｃａｎｂｅｒｅａｄｉｌｙｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ａｓｔｈｅｔｈｒｅｅｅｌｅｍｅｎｔｓａｒｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｃｏｍｐｏｎｅｎｔｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍｓｉｎａｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｗｈａｔ’Ｓｍｏｒｅ，Ｇｅｎｅｔｔｅ’Ｓｐｒｏｐｏｓａｌｏｆｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉａｔｅｄｆｒｏｍｖｏｉｃｅｃａｔｌｂｅｓｅｅｎａｓａｎｅｗ－ｒｉｓｉｎｇｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｗｈｉｃｈｂｒｉｎｇｓｎｅｗｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｓｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｍｏｒｅａｂｏｕｔｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｗｉｌｌｂｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄｌａｔｅｒ．ＺｈｅｎｇＭｉｎｙｕ（２００１）ｄｒａｗｓｕｐｏｎｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ５ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｈｅｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｓｔｈａｔａｋｅｙｔｏｔｈｅｓｕｃｃｅｓｓｏｆｆｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｃａｎｂｅａｔｔａｃｈｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｔｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｙｐｅ．Ａｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓｈｏｕｌｄｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｓｔｒｉｖｅｆｏｒｔｈｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅａｔｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｓｔｏｒｙ，ｂｕｔａｌｓｏｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｓｔｙｌｅｏｆａｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｉｓｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｄ．ＢａｓｅｄｏｎＧｅｎｅｔｔｅ’Ｓ（１９７２：７１—７６）ｃｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｎａｍｅｌｙ，ｈｉｓｔｏｉｒｅ，ｒ＆ｉｔａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ，Ｒｉｍｍｏｎ－Ｋｅｎａｎ（２００２：３）ｐｕｔｓｆｏｒｗａｒｄａｓｉｍｉｌａｒｔａｘｏｎｏｍｙ：ｓｔｏｒｙ，ｔｅｘｔａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ｓｈｅｆｕｌｌｙａｎａｌｙｚｅｓｅｖｅｎｔｓａｎｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓｉｎａｓｔｏｒｙ，ｔｉｍｅ，ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｚａｔｉｏｎ，ｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ，ｌｅｖｅｌｓｏｆａｔｅｘｔａｎｄｓｐｅｅｃｈｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｖｏｉｃｅｓｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ａｓｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍｓｏｃｃｕｐｙｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｏｕｔｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙ．ＴｈｕｓＫｅｎａｎ’Ｓｗｏｒｋｓｌａｙａｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｆｏｒｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ，Ｇｅｎｅｔｔｅ’Ｓｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉａｔｉｏｎｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｓｃｏｐｅｉｓｂｒｏａｄｅｎｅｄｂｙａｄｄｉｎｇｖｉｓｕａｌ，ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅ，ｅｍｏｔｉｖｅａｎｄｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｏｒｉｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｌｉｇｈｔｏｆＫｅｎａｎ’Ｓｅｘｅｒｔｉｏｎ，ｗｈｉｃｈｂｒｉｎｇｍｏｒｅｃｏｎｔｅｘｔｕａｌｉｚｅｄａｎｄｅｘｔｒａ－ｔｅｘｔｕａｌｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．ＦａｎｇＫａｉｒｕｉ（２００３）ａｔｔａｃｈｅｓｇｒｅａｔｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｃｅｔｏｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｈｅｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｓｔｈａｔｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ａｓａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｍｏｄｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｉｓａｌｍｏｓｔｈａｒｄｔｏｄｉｓｃｅｒｎ．Ａｎｄｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｒｅｇｕｌａｒｌｙｃｏｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｅｓｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ．Ｓｏｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｈａｓｔｏ“ｐａｙａｄｅｑｕａｔｅａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏａｇｒｅａｔｃｈａｌｌｅｎｇｅｔｏｔｈｅｖｉｅｗ’ａｎｄａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｌｙｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｏｒｍｓｉｎｔｈｅｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｅｍｂｅｄｄｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ．ｒｅｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｉｔｓＡｓｉｓｋｎｏｗｎｔｏａｌｌ，ｆｒｏｍ１９６０ｓｔｏ１９８０ｓｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｉｎｔｈｅｗｅｓｔｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｇｒｏｗｉｎｇｏｆｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｅｄａｇｒｅａｔｄｅａｌｂｅｆｏｒｅｐｏｓｔｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｅｍｅｒｇｅｄｆｅｍｉｎｉｓｍｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｒｈｅｔｏｒｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｅｔｃ．Ｔｈｅｓｅｓｃｈｏｏｌｓｂｒｉｎｇｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｃ·ｓｏｃｉａｌａｎｄｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌｃｏｍｐｏｎｅｎｔｓｉｎｔｏｔｈｅｉｎｎｅｒｆｏｒｍａｎｄｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎｔｈａｔｎｅｗｌｙ－ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｅｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｉｓｃｏｍｂｉｎｅｄｗｉｔｈｏｆａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ．ｂｏｕｎｄｔｅｘｔｐｕｓｈｅｓｔｈｅｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｅｘｐｌａｉｎｓｔｈｅ‘ｒｅｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ’ｏｕｔｏｆｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌａｎｄｓｏｃｉａｌｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｒｅａｌｍ．２．２ＳｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ６Ｏｎｅｉｎｔｒｉｎｓｉｃｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｓｈｏｗｔｏｍａｋｅｐｒｏｐｅｒｃｈｏｉｃｅｉｎｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｖａｒｉａｎｔｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔａｎｄｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ，ｅｖｅｎｉｆｔｈｅｙｆｉｒｅｇｒａｍｍａｔｉｃａｌｌｙｃｏｒｒｅｃｔ．Ｉｓｓｕｅｓｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｉｎｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｄｓｅｌｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙｂｙｎｕｍｅｒｏｕｓｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ．ＬｅｅｃｈａｎｄＳｈｏｒｔｐａｙｇｒｅａｔａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏｔｈｅｎｅｃｅｓｓｉｔｙｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｅｍｐｈａｓｉｚｉｎｇｔｈａｔ“ｅｘａｍｉｎｉｎｇｔｈｅｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｏｆａｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｅｘｔｃａｎｂｅａｍｅａｎｓｔｏａｆｕｌｌｅｒｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇａｎｄａｐｐｒｅｃｉａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｗｒｉｔｅｒ’Ｓａｒｔｉｓｔｉｃａｃｈｉｅｖｅｍｅｎｔ”（２００１）．Ｂｙａｐｐｌｙｉｎｇｍｏｄｅｍｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｓａｎｄｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅ，ｔｈｅｙｓｕｍｕｐｍｅｔｈｏｄｓｏｆｓｔｙｌｅａｎａｌｙｓｉｓａｎｄｍｉｃｒｏｃｏｓｍｉｃａｌｌｙｓｈｏｗｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｓｔｙｌｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ：ｗｏｒｄｓ，ｇｒａｍｍａｒ，ｒｈｅｔｏｒｉｃ，ｃｏｈｅｒｅｎｃｅａｎｄｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ，ｗｈｉｃｈｐｒｏｖｉｄｅａｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔａｐｐｒｏａｃｈｆｏｒｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ．Ａｎｄｍｅａｎｗｈｉｌｅｔｈｅｙｍｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｈｒｅｅｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｏｒｄｅｒｓ：‘‘ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｏｒｄｅｒ’’‘＇ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｏｒｄｅｒ’’ａｎｄ‘‘ｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｏｒｄｅｒ＇’（ｉｂｉｄ）．Ｔｈｅｙｌａｙａｓｏｌｉｄｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｆｏｒｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．ＱｉｎＸｉｕｂａｉ（２００１）ｈａｓａｌｓｏｔｏｕｃｈｅｄｕｐｏｎｔｈｅｉｓｓｕｅｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．ＩｎｈｉｓＥｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌｓｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＳｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｈｅｏｕｔｌｉｎｅｓｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｍａｉｎｌｙｉｎｔｈｒｅｅｆｉｅｌｄｓ：ｐｒｏｎｏｕｎａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅ／ｄｅｓｃｒｉｐｔｉｏｎａｎｇｌｅ，ｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｌｄｉａｌｏｇｕｅ，ａｎｄｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈ．Ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｓｅａｓｐｅｃｔｓａｒｅｉｎｃａｒｎａｔｅｄｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｉｎｇｉｎｖａｒｉａｂｌｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓ，ｈｅｍａｋｅｓｓｏｍｅｒｅｆｅｒｅｎｃｅａｖａｉｌａｂｌｅｆｏｒｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｗｈｏｍａｙｅｘａｍｉｎｅｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｆｒｏｍｔｈｏｓｅａｓｐｅｃｔｓ．Ｆｅｗｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓｈａｖｅｍａｄｅｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｉｎｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｆｓｔｙｌｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｈａｖｅａｃｈｉｅｖｅｄｆｒｕｉｔｆｕｌｒｅｓｕｌｔｓ．Ｎｅｖｅｒｔｈｅｌｅｓｓ，ｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｈａｓｂｅｅｎｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｉｖｅｌｙａｐｐｌｉｃａｂｌｅｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓａｎｄｈａｓｄｒａｗｎｐｅｏｐｌｅ’Ｓａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎ．Ｆｏｒｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ＺｈａｎｇＭｉｎ（２０１０：２１６—２１７）ａｐｐｌｉｅｓｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｔｏｎｏｎ—ｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｈａｓｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｄａｐｐｒｏａｃｈｔｏｍｏｄｉｆｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｉｎｓｐｉｒｉｎｇｆｏｒｉｎｔｅｇｒａｔｉｎｇｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｗｉｔｈｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．ＮｏｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｉｎｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｗｅｒｅｐｒｏｆｏｕｎｄｅｎｏｕｇｈｕｎｔｉｌＳｈｅｎＤａｎｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄＬｉｔｅｒａｒｙＳｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄＦｉｃｔｉｏｎａｌＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｎ１９９５．Ｓｈｅ（１９９５：７）ｈｏｌｄｓｔｈａｔ“ｂｙｓｈａｒｐｅｎｉｎｇｏｎｅ’Ｓｓｅｎｓｉｔｉｖｉｔｙｔｏｔｈｅｗｏｒｋｉｎｇｓｏｆｔｈｅｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｓｙｓｔｅｍ，ｂｙｉｍｐｒｏｖｉｎｇｏｎｅ’Ｓｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｏｆｔｈｅｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｎｏｒｍｓ，ａｎｄｂｙｅｎｈａｎｃｉｎｇａｎｄｔｈｅｗｒｉｔｅｒ’Ｓｃｒｅａｔｉｖｅａｃｔｓｃｏｍｂｉｎｅｔｏｏｎｅ’Ｓａｗａｒｅｎｅｓｓｏｆｈｏｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓ７ｍａｋｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｏｒｍｔａｋｅｏｎａｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅ，ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｐｅｒａｔｅｓｔｏｈｅｌｐｔｈｅｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｔｏａｃｈｉｅｖｅｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｌｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅｏｒｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｖｅｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ．”Ｓｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｂｙｅｘｐｌｉｃａｔｅｓｗｈｙａｎｄｈｏｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｃａｎｂ氐ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎａｎｄｖａｌｉｄｉｔｙｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｄｅｔａｉｌｓｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏａｎａｌｙｚｉｎｇｔｈｅｎａｔｕｒｅ，ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｌｅｘｉｃａｌｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎ，ｓｙｎｔａｘ，ａｎｄｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎａｒｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄａｉｍｉｎｇｔｏｅｆｆｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙｓｏｌｖｅｔｈｅｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｏｆ“ｄｅｃｅｐｔｉｖｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅ”．ＣｈｅｎＳｈｕｋｕｎ（２０１０）ｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｓｔｈｅｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｏｆｂｒｉｎｇｉｎｇｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｔｏｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｃｌａｉｍｉｎｇｔｈａｔｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｉｎＳＴｓｈｏｕｌｄｂｅｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｇｒｅａｔｅｓｔｅｘｔｅｎｔｆｏｒｔｒａｎｓｍｉｔｔｉｎｇｒｈｙｔｈｍｔｏＴＴ．ＤｕｅｔｏｔｈｅｉｎｔｒｉｎｓｉｃｔｒａｉｔｓｏｆｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｍａｋｅｕｐｕｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔａｂｉｌｉｔｙｂｙｃｒｅａｔｉｏｎＳＯｔｈａｔｔａｒｇｅｔｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｓ，ｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｈａｓｔｏｒｅａｄｅｒｓｈａｖｅｔｈｅｓｉｍｉｌａｒｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｆｅｅｌｉｎｇｔｏｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｒｅａｄｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌ．２．３ＴｈｒｅｅＣａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓｏｆＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＩｎｔｈｉｓｓｅｃｔｉｏｎ，ｔｈｅｎｏｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｃｌａｒｉｆｉｅｄｉｎｍａｉｎｌｙｔｈｒｅｅｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓ，ａｎｄａｄｅｔａｉｌｅｄｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｉｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄ．Ｔｈｅｔｅｒｍ“ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ＇’ｈａｓｂｅｅｎｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｓｔｕｄｙｂｙｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ，ｔｈｕｓｉｔｉｓｅｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌｔｏｂｒｉｎｇｏｕｔｔｈｒｅｅｓｅｎｓｅｓｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｂｅｆｏｒｅｔｈｅｃｏｒｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｉｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄＳＯｔｈａｔｔｈｅｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎｓａｐｐｌｉｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓａｒｅｃｌａｒｉｆｉｅｄ．Ｓｉｍｐｓｏｎ（１９９３）ｉｄｅｎｔｉｆｉｅｓｆｏｕｒｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ：ｔｈｅｓｐａｔｉａｌ，ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌ，ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌａｎｄｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｔｈｅｓｐａｔｉａｌａｎｄｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｒｅｍｅｒｇｅｄａｓｔｈｅｆｉｒｓｔｃａｔｅｇｏｒｙ，ａｎｄｔｈｅｌｅｆｔｔｗｏａｎｄｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｒｅｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙ．ｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓａｒｅｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ２．３．１Ｓｐａｔｉｏ－ＴｅｍｐｏｒａｌＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＬａｎｇｕａｇｅｉｓｃｏｎｎｅｃｔｅｄｔｏｍｅａｎｉｎｇａｎｄｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎｓ．Ａｎｄｔｈｅｍｅａｎｉｎｇｉｓａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄ谢ｔｈｔｈｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎｓ，ｗｈｅｒｅｍｅｎｔａｌｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｓａｒｅｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｄ．Ｉｎｏｒｄｅｒｔｏｄｒａｗｐｅｏｐｌｅ’Ｓａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏｏｂｊｅｃｔｓｆｒｏｍａｎｙｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔ，ｒｅｆｅｒｒｉｎｇａｎｄｐｏｉｎｔｉｎｇｆｏｒｍｏｆｄｅｉｘｉｓ．Ｔｈｅｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔｉｓａｒｅｕｓｅｄｔｏｓｅｌｅｃｔｔｈｅｍ；ｔｈｅｓｅｎｅｅｄｔｈｅｅｘｐｅｒｉｅｎｔｉａｌａｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｏｆｉｍｍｅｄｉａｔｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎａｒｏｕｎｄｓｐｅａｋｅｒｓｏｒｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｉｍａｇｉｎａｔｉｏｎｏｒｍｅｍｏｒｙｏｆｔｈｅｓｐｅａｋｅｒｓ．Ｈｅｎｃｅｄｅｉｘｉｓｄｅａｌｓｍａｉｎｌｙｗｉｔｈｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｔｉｍｅａｎｄｓｐａｃｅ８ａｎｄｉｓｏｆｔｅｎｓｅｅｎｆｒｏｍａｎｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌ’ｓｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ，ｔｈｕｓｉｔｉｓｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏｓｐａｔｉｏ—ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．Ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓｏｆｄｅｉｘｉｓ：ｐｅｒｓｏｎｄｅｉｘｉｓ（ｅ．ｇ．磊ｙｏｕ，ｓｈｅａｎｄｈｅ），ｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｅａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ，ｄｅｍｏｎｓｔｒａｔｉｖｅｐｒｏｎｏｕｎｓａｎｄａｄｊｅｃｔｉｖｅｓ（ｅ．ｇ．ｔｈｉｓａｎｄｔｈａｔ，ｈｅｒｅａｎｄｔｈｅｒｅ，ｎＯＷａｎｄｔｈｅｎ），ｌｏｃａｔｉｖｅｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｓ，ｓｐａｔｉａｌａｄｖｅｒｂｓ，ａｎｄｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌａｎｄｔｅｎｓｅｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓ．Ｕｓｕａｌｌｙｄｅｉｘｉｓｉｓｕｔｔｅｒｅｄｂｙａｐｅｒｓｏｎ，ａｓｐｅａｋｅｒ，ａｎｄｉｓａｄｄｒｅｓｓｅｄｔｏａｎｏｔｈｅｒｐｅｒｓｏｎ，ｔｈｅｈｅａｒｅｒ．Ｉｔｒｅｌａｔｅｓｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅｓｔｏｔｈｅｔｉｍｅａｎｄｓｐａｃｅｃｏｏｒｄｉｎａｔｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｐｅｅｃｈａｃｔ．Ｄｅｉｘｉｓｐｌａｙｓａｑｕｉｔｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｒｏｌｅｉｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｍｏｒｅｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｌｙ，ｏｆｔｈｅｓｐａｔｉｏ－ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．２．３．２ＩｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＳｔｙｌｅｉｎｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅａｎｄｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｈａｓｂｅｅｎａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓ．Ｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｗａｙｓｔｏｄｅｆｉｎｅｉｔｉｓｔｏｗｅｉｇｈ“ｓｏｍｅｏｒａｌｌｏｆｔｈｅｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｈａｂｉｔｓｏｆｏｎｅｐｅｒｓｏｎ…ｗｈｅｎｗｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｄａｕｔｈｏｒｓｈｉｐ’’（ＣｒｙｓｔａｌａｎｄＤａｖｙ１９６９：９）．Ｉｔｉｓｗｉｄｅｌｙａｓｓｕｍｅｄｔｈａｔｔｈｅｗａｙｗｒｉｔｅｒｓｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｅｎｔｌｙｄｒａｗｏｎｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｓｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｓｔｙｌｅ．Ｔｈａｔｉｓｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｍｏｄａｌｗｏｒｄｓａｒｅｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｅｄ．Ｔｏｐｕｔｉｔａｎｏｔｈｅｒｗａｙ，ｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙｉｓｃｒｕｃｉａｌｉｎｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｂｙｗｈｉｃｈａｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｏｒａｎａｒｒａｔｏｒｍａｙｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｈｉｓｊｕｄｇｍｅｎｔｓａｓｔｏｔｈｅｔｒｕｔｈｏｒｐｏｓｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙ，ｖａｌｕｅａｎｄｄｅｓｉｒａｂｉｌｉｔｙｉｎａｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｖｅｎｔａｎｄｏｆｐｅｏｐｌｅｒｅｆｅｒｒｅｄｔｏ．Ｔｈｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｏｆｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙｕｎｄｅｒｐｉｎｓｔｈｅｎｏｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔ．ＡｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇｔｏＳｉｍｐｓｏｎ（１９９３：４７），ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｆｏｕｒｔｙｐｅｓｏｆｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ：１）ｍｏｄａｌａｕｘｉｌｉａｒｉｅｓ（ｄｅｏｎｔｉｃｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ）ｓｕｃｈａｓｓｈｏｕｌｄ，ｍｕｓｔａｎｄｍａｙｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｎｇｄｕｔｙａｎｄｃｏｍｍｉｔｍｅｎｔ２）ｍｏｄａｌｖｅｒｂｓ（ｂｏｕｌｏｍａｉｃｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ），ｌｉｋｅｈｏｐｅ，ｗｉｓｈａｎｄｒｅｇｒｅｔｄｅｎｏｔｉｎｇｄｅｓｉｒｅｓ，３）ｍｏｄａｌｏｐｅｒａｔｏｒｓ（ｅｐｉｓｔｅｍｉｃｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ）ｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｓｐｅａｋｅｒ’Ｓｃｏｎｆｉｄｅｎｃｅｏｒｌａｃｋｏｆｃｏｎｆｉｄｅｎｃｅｉｎｔｈｅｔｒｕｔｈｏｆａｐｒｏｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｅｄ，ｆｏｒｅｘａｍｐｌｅ，ｓｕｒｅ，ｐｒｏｂａｂ砂ａｎｄｃｏｕｌｄｎ｝ａｎｄ４）ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｉｏｎａｄｊｅｃｔｉｖｅｓｏｒａｄｖｅｒｂｓ（ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｉｏｎｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ）ｒｅｇａｒｄｅｄａｓａｓｕｂｓｅｔｏｆｍｏｄａｌｏｐｅｒａｔｏｒ，ｌｉｋｅａｐｐａｒｅｎｔ（１ｙ），ｏｂｖｉｏｕｓ（１ｙ）ａｎｄｃｌｅａｒ（１ｙ）．Ｏｎｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｓｙｎｔａｘ，ＬｅｅｃｈａｎｄＳｈｏｒｔｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｓｔｈａｔ“ｄｉｆｆｅｒｉｎｇｃｈｏｉｃｅｓａｔｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｐａｒｔｉｃｉｐａｎｔｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｏｎｅｃｌａｕｓｅｃａｎｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｖａｒｙｉｎｇｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｕａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｔｈｅｓａｍｅｅｖｅｎｔ”．Ｔｈｅｒｅｆｏｒｅｃｏｎｔｅｘｔｕｒｅｏｆｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｃｈｏｉｃｅｉｎｓｅｎｔｅｎｃｅｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｓａｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｅｎｔｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｗｏｒｌｄ，ｇｉｖｉｎｇｒｉｓｅｔｏａｎｅｎｔｉｒｅｔｙｏｆｍｉｎｄ—ｓｔｙｌｅ，ａｓｎａｍｅｄ９ｂｙＦｏｗｌｅｒ（１９８６：１５０）．２．３．３ＰｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＴｈｅｔｈｉｒｄｍａｊｏｒｓｅｎｓｅｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｎａｍｅｄｂｙＦｏｌｗｅｒ（１９８６：１３４），ｏｒｗｈｉｃｈＵｓｐｅｎｓｋｙｐｒｅｆｅｒｓｔｏｎａｍｅｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ（１９７３：８０）．ＡｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇｔｏＳｉｍｐｓｏｎ（１９９３），ｉｔｉｓｄｅｆｉｎｅｄａｓｔｈｅｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｗｈｉｃｈａｓｔｏｒｙｉｓｔｏｌｄ．Ｉｔａｃｃｏｕｎｔｓｆｏｒｔｈｅｄｏｍｉｎａｎｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎａｄｏｐｔｅｄｉｎａｓｔｏｒｙ，ｎｏｍａｔｔｅｒｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙｉｓｎａｒｒａｔｅｄｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｆｉｒｓｔ－ｐｅｒｓｏｎｏｒｔｈｉｒｄ－ｐｅｒｓｏｎ，ｒｅｓｔｒｉｃｔｅｄｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｏｒｏｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｔｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ．ＵｓｉｎｇｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆＶ论ｗｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ，ｎａｒｒａｔｏｒｓｃａｎｍａｎｉｐｕｌａｔｅｔｈｅｒｏｌｅｔｏｒｅｐｏｒｔｏｒｔｏｃｏｍｍｅｎｔ．Ｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｔｉｍｅ－ｈｏｎｏｒｅｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｔｈａｔｄｒａｗｓＨｅｎｒｙＪａｍｅｓ’ｏｖｅｒｄｕｅｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｉｎｈｉｓｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ．Ａｓａｓｕｂｓｅｔｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｈｅｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｈａｓｃｏｎｔｒｏｖｅｒｓｉａｌｔｙｐｏｌｏｇｉｅｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｈａｖｅｔｏｂｅｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄｉｎｓｅｃｔｉｏｎ２．５．２．４ＳｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｆＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗｉｎＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙＰｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓａｔｅｒｍｉｎｏｌｏｇｙｆｒｅｑｕｅｎｔｌｙａｐｐｌｉｅｄｔｏｒｈｅｔｏｒｉｃａｎｄｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍ．Ｉｎｔｈｅｌａｔｔｅｒ，ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｍａｉｎｌｙｒｅｆｅｒｓｔｏｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｍｅｔｈｏｄ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇ“ｔｈｅｖｉｓｕａｌ（ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌ）ａｎｇｌｅｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ”ａｎｄ“ｌｉｔｅｒａｌｌｙｒｅｖｅａｌｅｄｓｔａｎｄｐｏｉｎｔ，ｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅａｎｄｍａｎｎｅｒｏｆｓｐｅａｋｉｎｇ”（ＳｈｅｎＤａｎ，２００４：２０５）．Ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｂｅｇｉｎｎｉｎｇｏｆｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙｗｅｓｔｅｒｎｎｏｖｅｌ，ｔｈｅｖｉｅｗｐｏｉｎｔｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎｈａｓｌｏｎｇｂｅｅｎｎｏｔｉｃｅｄ．Ｓｈｏｒｔ（１９９９：１７２—１８６）ＵｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇＴｅｘｔｓ：ＰｏＲｔｏｆＨｅｗｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｓｔｈａｔｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｃｏｒｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍｉｎｔｗｅｎｔｉｅｔｈｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ，ｗｈｉｃｈｒｅｌａｔｅｓｔｏａｎｙｆｏｒｍｏｆｔｅｘｔ．Ｔｈｅｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒ’Ｓｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｉｎｍｏｄｅｍｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｉｓｃｌｏｓｅｌｙｂｏｕｎｄｕｐｗｉｔｈｔｈｅａｂｕｎｄａｎｔａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈ．Ｉｎ１９７０ｓａｎｄ１９８０ｓ，ｔｈｅｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｇｏｔｔＯｉｔｓｕｎｐｒｅｃｅｄｅｎｔｅｄｃｌｉｍａｘ．Ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｂｅｉｎｇａｔｔａｃｋｅｄｂｙｂｏｔｈｓｉｄｅｓｏｆｄｅｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍ，ｉｔｔｈｅｎｗｅｎｔｄｏｗｎｔｏａｌｏｗｐｏｉｎｔ．Ｉｎｒｅｃｅｎｔｙｅａｒｓ，ｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｏｆｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｌｙｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｌｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃ，ｈｏｌｄｓｇｒｅａｔｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｉｎｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ａｎｄＳＯｉｓｔｈａｔｏｆｐｒａｇｍａｔｉｃｓ．ＶａｎＤｉｊｋ（１９８１：３１１）ｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｓｔｈｉｓｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｔｈｏｒｏｕｇｈｌｙａｎｄｅｎｌａｒｇｅｓｔｈｅｃｏｎｎｏｔａｔｉｏｎｏｆｉｔｆｏｒｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｒａｇｍａｔｉｃｓ，ｓｕｃｈａｓｍｅａｎｉｎｇａｎｄｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｔｈｅｔｅｘｔ．ＴｈｅＲｕｓｓｉａｎＦｏｒｍａｌｉｓｔｓＳｈｋｌｏｖｓｋｙｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｅｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｔｈｅｗａｙｉｔｉｓｔｏｌｄ，ｕｓｉｎｇｔｈｅｔｅｒｍｓ４，ａ６ｙ．７ａａｎｄｃｔｏ．）ｌｃｅｍ，ｗｈｉｃｈｅｑｕａｔｅｔｏｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｉｎＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ．Ｔｈｅｓｅ‘ｔｗｏｍａｊｏｒｄｏｍａｉｎｓｏｆｉｎｑｕｉｒｙｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｄｉｖｉｄｅｄｉｎｔｏｔｈｒｅｅｌｅｖｅｌｓ．Ｆｏｒｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ＭｉｅｋｅＢａｌ（１９８５）ｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｅｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｒｅｅｔｅｘｔｌｅｖｅｌｓ：ｆａｂｕｌａ，ｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｔｅｘｔ，ａｎｄＲｉｍｍｏｎ—Ｋｅｎａｎ（１９８３）ｏｆｆｅｒｓｓｔｏｒｙ，ｔｅｘｔａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｔｈｉｓｄｉｓｐａｒｉｔｙｏｆｔｅｒｍｉｎｏｌｏｇｙｉｓｎｏｔｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｔｏｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｂｅｃａｕｓｅｉｔｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｂａｓｉｃｄｉｖｉｓｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅａｎｄｂｏｔｈｂｉｎａｒｙａｎｄｔｒｉａｄｉｃｄｉｖｉｓｉｏｎｓｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｓｅｔｗｏｍａｉｎｌｅｖｅｌｓ．Ｔｈｉｓｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｏｎｔｈｕｓｅｍｐｈａｓｉｚｅｓｔｈｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌｅｖｅｎｔｓｏｆａｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｉｔｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ，ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｓａｍｅｅｌｅｍｅｎｔｓｏｆａｓｔｏｒｙｍａｙｂｅｔｒｅａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｏｒｄｅｒｉｎｇｓａｎｄｓｅｅｎｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｏｆｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｎａｒｒａｔｉｎｇｖｏｉｃｅ（ｉｂｉｄ．ｐ１５）．Ｉｔｉｓｖｅｒｙｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｔｏｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｗｈｅｎａｎａｌｙｚｉｎｇａｗｏｒｋｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｎｏｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｌｏｃａｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅａｒｅａｓｏｆｖａｒｉａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｔｅｌｌｉｎｇｏｆａｓｔｏｒｙ．Ａｎｏｔｈｅｒｃｒｕｃｉａｌｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｉｎｔｈｅｓｔｕｄｙｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｔｈｅｃｏｎｆｕｓｉｏｎｏｆ‘＇ｗｈｏｓｅｅｓ？’’ａｎｄ‘‘ｗｈｏｓｐｅａｋｓ？’’ｓｕｓｔａｉｎｅｄｆｏｒｑｕｉｔｅａｌｏｎｇｔｉｍｅ．Ｓｏｉｔｉｓｎｅｃｅｓｓａｒｙｔｏｐｕｔｉｔｈｅｒｅ，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ｇｅｎｅｔｔｅ（１９９０：７４）ｉｎｈｉｓｂｏｏｋＮａｒｒａｔｉｖｅＤｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅＲｅｖｉｓｉｔｅｄｔａｋｅｓｔｈｅｔｅｒｍ‘‘ｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ’’ｉｎｓｔｅａｄｏｆ‘‘ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ＇’ｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｍｅａｎｉｎｇｏｆ‘＇ｖｉｅｗｉｎｇｐｏｉｎｔ”ｆｒｏｍｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｏｂｊｅｃｔｓａｒｅｓｅｅｎ．Ｈｅａｓｓｕｍｅｓｔｈａｔｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ，ｗｉｔｈａｄｅｇｒｅｅｏｆａｂｓｔｒａｃｔｎｅｓｓ，ｉｓｔｈｅｉｎｓｔｒｕｍｅｎｔｏｆｔｈｅｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｓｅｌｅｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ，ａｓｏｒｔｏｆｐｉｐｅｔｈａｔａｌｌｏｗｓｐａｓｓａｇｅｏｎｌｙｏｆａｕｔｈｏｒｉｚｅｄｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｕｓｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｍｅａｎｓｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ．２．５ＣｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＮａｒｒａｔｉｖｅＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＴｈｉｓｉｓａｓｅｃｔｉｏｎｔｈａｔＣａｎｏｂｔａｉｎａｃｌｅａｒｅｒｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅ．Ａｎｄｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ’ｔａｘｏｎｏｍｉｅｓｗｉｌｌｂｅｓｈｏｗｎｂｅｆｏｒｅａｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎｉｓｒｅａｃｈｅｄａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｌｙｆｏｒｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ．２．５．１Ｆｒｉｅｄｍａｎ’ＳＥｉｇｈｔ－ｔｅｒｍＴａｘｏｎｏｍｙＮｏｒｍａｎＦｒｉｅｄｍａｎ（１９５５）ｐｒｏｐｏｓｅｓａｖｅｒｙｃｏｍｐｌｅｘａｎｄｄｅｔａｉｌｅｄｃｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｗｉｔｈｅｉｇｈｔｔｙｐｅｓ：ＥｄｉｔｏｒｉａｌＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ＮｅｕｔｒａｌＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，Ｉ－ａｓ—ｗｉｔｎｅｓｓ，Ｉ－ａｓ－ｐｒｏｔａｇｏｎｉｓｔ，ＭｕｌｔｉｐｌｅＳｅｌｅｃｔｉｖｅＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ＳｅｌｅｃｔｉｖｅＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ＴｈｅＤｒａｍａｔｉｃＭｏｄｅ，ａｎｄＴｈｅＣａｍｅｒａ．Ｔｈｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｏｆｆｉｒｓｔｔｗｏ。
《瓦尔登湖》的文体学分析
英语文体学结课论文对梭罗的《瓦尔登湖》的文体学分析班级：英语07-2班姓名：李晓璐学号：310714010207AbstractThis paper will introduce the background of Henry David Thoreau. His masterpiece Walden, or Life in the Woods is honored to be as Green Bible. The book embodies his philosophy and reflects his independent character. The paper will adopt stylistic analysis, which will be helpful for us to better understand the theme and aesthetic effect of the book and at the same time the stylistic analysis of the book also has strong social influence. At present, our Chinese modern construction comes to a new step, it has some similarities with America at the time of Henry David Thoreau, so how to keep balance between the economic growth and the natural protection is not the desire of citizens, but also the demands of harmonious society. So the analysis of the book can benefit us a lot.Key Words: Thoreau H.D; Walden, or Life in the Woods; Stylistic AnalysisChapter 1 Introduction1.1The significant Place of Henry David Thoreau inAmerican LiteratureHenry David Thoreau, American writer, philosopher, and naturalist who believed in the importance of individualism. When he was young, he heard a speech of Ralph Waldo Emerson which was called The American Scholar and this speech was thought to be the guide for young Thoreau, it led him to the transcendentalism. He showed great interest in transcendentalism and oriental books which were full of mysterious philosophy. In a commercial, conservative, expedient society that was rapidly becoming urban and industrial, he upheld the right to self-culture, to an individual life shaped by inner principle. He demanded for all men the freedom to follow unique lifestyles, to make poems of their lives and living itself an art. In a restless, expanding society dedicated to practical action, he demonstrated the uses and values of leisure, contemplation, and a harmonious appreciation of and coexistence with nature. Because of his prolific talents in literature, he was honored to be as American environmental pioneer and mental master of philosophy.Chapter 2 The Stylistic Analysis ofWalden, or Life in the Woods2.1 A General Overview of the BookWalden was published in 1854, seven years after Henry David Thoreau ended his stay in a small cabin near Walden Pond. In Walden, Thoreau condensed events of his twenty-six month sojourn into one year, for literary purposes. The eighteen chapters celebrate the unity of nature, humanity, and divinity-a central idea of transcendentalism-and portray Thoreau’s life at Walden Pond as an ideal model for enjoying that unity. Thoreau was very critical of modern civilization. He felt that man should seek truth directly by himself and not through imitation of others. This book does not attract the corresponding attention at that time: As time goes by, it becomes hotter and hotter. Walden, or Life in the Woods was honored one of the 25 masterpieces which shape people’s life; In 1985, it was bestowed one of 10 books which had the ability to construct American’s character.2.2 Stylistic AnalysisStylistic analysis of Walden, or Life in the Woods will be divided into four parts. They are lexical level, grammatical level, figures and speech, cohesion and context.2.21 Lexical LevelGeoffrey N. Leech and Michael H. Short in Style in Fiction (2001) have explain such theory that the words are the bases of a paragraph, a chapter, even a book. Special employment of special words can get special effect, for example, they can enhance the descriptions and protrude the theme. Thoreau is a special man, so his thoughts, such as his affection for nature and life, his independent style, his positive ideas, his innocent and naughty characteristics often appear in his book. Let us appreciate them one by one.A.Employment of AdjectivesExample 1: “Bread I at first made of pure Indian meal and salt, genuine home cakes, whichI baked before my fire out of doors on a shingle or the end of a stick of timber sawed off inbuilding my house, but it was won’t to get smoked and to have a pine flavor” (2004:52). In the passage, he tries his best to make pure Indian meal and salt, genuine home cakes, there are two adjectives “pure” and “genuine”, which can fully make us imagine that “how does the writer do? Where does he do? What he would use?” and so a series of interesting questions which can largely enhance our appreciation.Example 2: “I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not ,when I came to die, discover that I had not lived”(2004:77). Let us pay special attention to the adjectives“deliberately, essential”, from which we can see the hard life of Thoreau, though when he meets his difficult days, he does not give up. In our Chinese history, there are some people who would like to give up their money, their lands, even their lives in order to achieve their pursuits. Just as a Chinese man has once said that if a people wants to have a position in history, he must know what should be given up and what should be stuck to. Henry David Thoreau has a firm belief in transcendentalism, he think that the people can have direct connection with the nature, so in order to complete his belief, in order to experience the nature, he leaves noisy world for the hug of nature, so these sentences express his purist for the reality of life.Example 3: “My residence was more favorable, not only to thought, but to a series of reading, than a university, and though I was beyond the range of the ordinary circulating library. I had more than ever come within the influence of those books which circulating round the world, whose sentences were first written on bark, and are now merely copied from time to time on to linen paper” (2004:85). As we know, when Thoreau lives in Walden, he comes into his land which he expects a lot before. He likes his house, even it is only a hut, because as far as Henry David Thoreau concerned, this hut provides an ideal place for him to listen to the nature, When he puts himself in the nature, he finds that he comes into a huge library, the nature will tell people when to give seeds to land and how to work with the land in order to get a good harvest. The nature never advises people to copy because everyday for itself is fresh and everyone has the ability to achieve himself. I think this passage also reflects the bad habit of copying in American literature at that time. Though he has to suffer the poverty of life and “solitude”of spirit, though he only lives in a simple hut, but in the eyes of him, the life is “favorable” and he is absorbed in the reading of nature. This adjective exhibits a positive man.B.Employment of VerbsAccording to Geoffrey N. Leech, Style in Fiction(2001), verbs have strong expression to show the state and atmosphere, the adoptions of definite verbs can make the descriptions more impressive. Of course, Thoreau is good at composition, he has good ability to handle the verbs.Example 1: At the beginning of the book, he writes:” when I wrote the following papers, or rather the bulk of them, I lived alone, in the woods, a mile from any neighbor, in a house which I had built myself, on the shore of Walden pond, in Concord, Massachusetts, and earned my living by the labor of my hands only. I lived there two years and two months. At present, I am a sojourner in civilized life again. I see young men, my town men, whose misfortune is to have inherited farms, houses, barns, cattle, and farming tools, for these are more easily acquired than got rid of some of you, we all know, are poor, find it hard to live, are some times, as it were, gasping for breath”(2004:21). From the sentences, we can see the words “wrote, lived, had built, earned”, which clearly show us two Thoreau: one is the present and the other is the past. The present Thoreau lives in a hut and he has to do everything by himself, but he is happy；The past Thoreau lives in city, he needs not to do everything by himself, but he is unhappy. So from the words we can see the independent and compassionate characteristics of him.Example 2: “I have thus surveyed the country on every side within a dozen miles of where I live, in imagination I have bought all the farms in succession, for all were to be bought, and I know their price. I walked over each farmer, tasted his wild apples,discoursed on husbandry with him, took his farm at his price on it. I took every, but him to some extent, I trust, and withdraw when I had enjoyed it long enough, leaving him to carry it on”(2004:69). In the sentences, “surveyed, tasted, discoursed” exhibit his affection for his residence strongly, when he goes into the nature, he finds all things belongs to him, the lands, the farms, the fruits, so these words deepen our understanding of Thoreau.C. Employment of Colloquial wordsBecause when the writer wrote the book, he lived in concord, a village, so it is apparent for us to see a lot of colloquial words, which make the language style fresh. Let us see some examples.Example 1: “ When I return to my house I find that visitors have been there and left their cards, either a bunch of flowers, or a wreath of evergreen, or a name in pencil on a yellow want leaf or a chip”(2004:93).Example 2: “I planted about two acre sand a half of upland, and it was only about fifteen years since the land was cleared, and I myself had got out two or three cords of stumps, I did not give it any manure”(2004:138).From the two examples, the colloquial words “ I, evergreen acre” make the description of the passage more rustic, from the whole book, the adoption of local language is very often and the style makes the features of the language fresher, more accessible.2.2.2 Grammatical LevelThis part is divided into two parts, which are employment of parallelism sentences and question sentences.A.Employment of Parallelism Sentences and the OtherGeoffrey N. Leech and Michael H. Short have once said in Style in Fiction(2001) that some structures can exhibit strange effects. In the book, we can see a lot of parallelism sentences, which stress the tone a lot. Let us see some examples.Example 1: “Some have asked what I got to eat. If I did not feel lonesome, if I was not, and the like. Others have been curious to learn what portion of my income I devoted to charitable purpose, and some, who have large families, how many poor children I maintained”[2004:32]. In the paragraph, the parallelism sentence “ if I did not feel lonesome, if I was not, and the like” expresses the curiosity of the local people.Example 2: “I have traveled a good deal in concord, and everywhere in shops, and offices, and fields, the inhabitants have appeared to me to be doing penance in a thousand remarkable way. What I have heard of sitting exposed to four fires and looking in the face of the sun, or hanging suspended shoulders until it becomes impossible for them to resume their natural position, while from the twist of the neck nothing but liquids can pass in to the stomach, or dwelling chained for life, at the foot of a tree; or one leg on the tops of pillars- even these forms of conscious penance are hardly more incredible and astonishing than the scenes which I daily witness”[2004:56]. In the sentence, “and, or” are repeated several times, and from the parallelism sentences, as if we are so curious as well as the author because the anecdotes of the local people are so true, and the pattern causes a tense stress on us, when we hear these things, there is a little of scare besides the curiosity, and it also emphasizes the author’s affection forthe field.B.Employment of Question SentencesThe adoption of question sentences can make us feel that we are with the author and the style can make us think about that why the author has such question? And correspondingly, this will be helpful to deepen our contemplations of the book..Example 1: “Who made them serfs of the soil? Why should they eat their sixty acres, when man is condemned to eat only his peck of dirt? Why should begin digging their graves”(2004:48). In the text, the author uses a series of questions, from which we can see his indignation over the inequality between the rich and the poor, he calls for people to live independently, we should not beg for food from our parents, so it has social influence and the pattern of question sentence impresses us a lot.Example 2: “If we live in the 19th century, why should we not enjoy the advantages which it offers? Why should our life be in any respect the provincial? If we will read newspapers, why not skip the gossip of Boston and take the best newspaper in the world at once? Not be sucking the pap of neutral family paper, or browsing olive branches here in England. Let the reports of all the learned societies come to us, and we will see if they now anything. Why should we leave it to Harper and to select our reading? As the nobleman of cultivated taste surrounds himself with what ever conduces this culture genius learning wit book painting, music philosophical instruments, and the other things”(2004:94). From the passage, the author proposes a good question: the social property becomes more and more, but we do not get corresponding happiness and even our smile becomes less and less, we become to be particular about everything. The author adopts a series of question sentences, this adoption here likes a trumpet which beats our depth of heart. We are largely shocked by these questions and it makes us think about how to live in a good life.2.2.3 Figures of SpeechThis part is divided into two parts, which are employment of simile and metaphor, onomatopoetic device.A.Employment of Simile and MetaphorAccording to Hu Zhuanglin (2007), the employment of simile and metaphor can change the invisible into concrete. It will give us a direct feeling of the abstract and it makes the invisible into visible.Example 1: “For the first week, whenever I looked out on the pond it impressed me like a tarn high up on the side of a mountain, its far above the surface of other lakes, and as the sun, I saw it throwing off its smooth reflecting surface was revealed. While the mists, like ghosts, they were stealthily withdrawing in every direction on to the woods, as at the breaking up of some nocturnal conventicler”(2004:83). In the paragraph, he uses a series of similes and metaphors, for example, he compares the pond to a tarn, and he compares the mists to ghosts, the employment fully exhibits the beauty of the pond and the mists, which gives us a more vivid impression.B.Employment of Onomatopoetic DeviceAccording to Hu Zhuanglin (2007), Semantics examines how meaning is encoded ina language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but alsowith levels of language below the word and above it, based on such theory, we can see that onomatopoetic words transmit special meanings.Example 1: “They give me a new sense of the variety and capacity of that nature which is our common, oh-o-o that I never had been bor-r-r-rn!”（2004:87）.When the writer describes the sound of the birds, he adopts “oh-o-o- bor-r-r-rn” to imitate the sounds of birds, which is very special and vivid.2.2.4 Cohesion and ContextAccording to Hu Zhuanglin (2007), the role of conjunctions and numerals can make the text more coherent, and they are just as a bridge which links the above and the follow. A, Employment of ConjunctionExample 1: “But while we are confined to books, though the most selected classic, and read only particular written languages, which are themselves but dialects and provincial”(2004:95). This sentence appears at the turn of chapter “Reading” and chapter “Sound”, and the conjunction “but, and”as well as “we are confined to books”, which gives us a coherent impression of the text.B, Employment of NumeralsExample 1: “ I had three chairs in my house, one for solitude, two for friendship, three for society”(2004:120). Numerals “one, two, three”make the connection between the above and the follow more natural.Chapter 3 ConclusionWalden, or Life in the Woods is a masterpiece all over the world and everyone can share something from it. By analyzing it from stylistic analysis, we can appreciate it better. As we know, the rhythm of the society becomes faster and faster, so people feel more and more stressful. If the stress is too heavy to control, some tragedies may happen. So how to keep the harmony between the individual growth and the social growth is very important. Walden, or Life in the Woods, the book calls for people to live freely, just relax yourself, go to nature to find your happiness. I think this kind of life provides us with quietness and the space os thinking, so it can slow down the stress effectively. Another challenge for human being is the environmental pollution, we often hear people say that the river is not so clear, the sky is not so blue, the number of the tree is not so much, the air is not so fresh and so on, it is apparent for us to have a beautiful earth, but how to achieve the goal. I think the most important is to waken the awareness of the people, if everyone can share Walden, or Life in the Woods, if everyone can feel the beauty of nature in the book, I think they must feel unhappiness of the pollution of the nature, they must fell guilty of their deeds to the nature, and they will think how to keep a healthy earth, how to live a good life, I think this is what Henry David Thoreau has been expecting.Bibliography[1] Geoffrey N. Leech. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001[2] Henry David Thoreau . Walden , or Life in the Woods [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai foreign Language Education, 2004.[3] Geoffrey N, Leech & Michael H , Short. Style in Fiction [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001.[4] Crystal, D. Investigating English Style [M]. 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