Movements, mobilities and the politics of hazardous waste
美国英语介绍 第五部
3. A mushroom growth of cities (urbanization of America)
Social reform
1. The Muckrakers's exposure of the dark sides of the seeming prosperous society and the Progressive Movemen进t [步主义 运动 ]
The Big Four
With the war over, Americans wished to forget Europe's troubles and return to he good old days.
Congress rejected Wilson's call for participation in the League of Nations. The nation turned inward again.
Theodore Roosevelt Mount Rushmore National Memorial
WWI and the United States President Wilson's proclaimed neutrality and the actual proAlly policy
美国青年反战运动
Anti-war movement
Anti-war movement
The conflict in Vietnam resulted in over 55,producd a large-scale antiwar movement in the United States. Students became a powerful and disruptive force and university campuses sparked a national debate over the war.
The social movements in 1960s
The civil rights movement
The youth movement /anti-war movement
The women’s liberation movements
Why did the social movement begin?
The youth anti--war
“Hell, no ,we won’t go,” anti—war demonstrators chanted, refusing government orders to be drafted into the army and fight in Vietnam.
As the movement's ideals spread beyond college campuses, doubts about the war also began to appear within the administration itself.
美国1960年青年反战运动
These social issues included support for civil rights, women's rights, and gay rights movements, and a rejection of the Vietnam War. Hippies became the largest countercultural group in the United States.
As the movement's ideals spread beyond college campuses, doubts about the war also began to appear within the administration itself. A mass movement began rising in opposition to the Vietnam War, ending in the massive Moratorium protests in 1969, as well as the movement of resistance to conscription ("the Draft") for the war.
The social movements in 1960s
The civil rights movement
The youth movement /anti-war movement
The women’s liberation movements
Why did the social movement begin?
Move on …
One kind of protest was called a "sit-in". Other terms heard in the United States included "the Draft", "draft dodger", "conscientious objector", and "Vietnam vet". As the US government sent more troops to Vietnam and the number of war death grew, public feeling against government policy grew so strong that President Johnson decided not to run for re-election in 1968.
美国民权运动历史
represent person 代表人物
• 马丁·路德·金 • 著名的美国民权运动 领袖。 • 1963年8月28日，在 林肯纪念堂前，发表 了《我有一个梦想》 的演说。 • 1964年度诺贝尔和平 奖的获得者。
Seeking the real equality 寻求真正的平等
• time：1970-2013 • Since the 1970 s, the American black political participation has entered a new era of enhanced black political consciousness, political base to expand, significant achievements. According to incomplete statistics, since the 1970 s, became the black increased 6 times of government officials in the United States, 9000 people. • 上世纪70年代以来，美国黑人的参政进入了一个全新的时 代，黑人政治意识增强，参政基础扩大，成就显著。据不 完全统计，自上世纪70年代以来，就任美国政府官员的黑 人增加了6倍，达9000人。
介绍美国民权运动英语作文
介绍美国民权运动英语作文The civil rights movement in the United States was a pivotal moment in history. It was a time when people from all walks of life came together to fight for equality and justice. It was a time when brave individuals stood up against oppression and discrimination. The civil rights movement was a powerful force for change, and it paved the way for a more inclusive and just society.The leaders of the civil rights movement were courageous and determined. They faced violence, intimidation, and even death, but they never wavered in their commitment to justice. Their actions inspired millions of people to join the fight for civil rights. The civil rights movement was a grassroots movement, driven by ordinary people who were tired of being treated as second-class citizens. It was a movement that brought together people of all races, backgrounds, and beliefs, united in their desire for a better world.The civil rights movement was marked by powerful acts of resistance and protest. From sit-ins to marches to boycotts, people across the country took a stand against injustice. They demanded an end to segregation, discrimination, and violence. They demanded equal rights and equal opportunities for all. The civil rights movement was a loud and clear message to the world that change was coming, and that justice would prevail.The legacy of the civil rights movement is still felt today. It paved the way for landmark legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. It inspired future generations to continue the fight for justice and equality. The civil rights movement was a turning point in American history, and its impact can still be seen in the ongoing struggle for civil rights and social justice.In conclusion, the civil rights movement was a defining moment in American history. It was a time of courage, determination, and unity. It was a time when people came together to fight for a better future for all. The civilrights movement was a powerful force for change, and its legacy continues to inspire us to this day.。
专四专八常用政治术语的英文翻译
专四专八常用政治术语的英文翻译2006-6-14 2:42页面功能【字体：大中小】【打印】【关闭】马列主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论、*****“三个代表”重要思想Marxism-Leninism， Mao Zedong Thought， Deng Xiao-ping Theory，Jiang Zemin “Three Represent's” important Thought新民主主义革命new-democratic revolution民族独立和人民解放national independence and the liberation of the people经济体制改革和政治体制改革reforms in the economic and political structure社会主义制度socialist system社会变革social transformation建设有中国特色的社会主义事业the cause of building socialism with Chinese characteristics中华民族的伟大复兴the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation党在社会主义初级阶段的基本理论、基本路线、基本纲领the basic theory， line and program of our Party in the primary stage of socialism改革开放政策the policies of reform and opening to the outside中国共产党十一届三中全会The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China马克思主义政党Marxist political Party党的第一（第二、第三）代中央领导集体the collective leadership of the Party Central Committee of the first （second\third）generation人民民主专政the people's democratic dictatorship国民经济体系national economic system综合国力aggregate national strength国内生产总值the annual gross domestic product（GDP）独立自主的和平外交政策an independent foreign policy of peace马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合the fundamental principles of Marxism with the specific situation in China加强和改进党的建设，不断增强党的创造力、凝聚力和战斗力，永葆党的生机与活力strengthen and improve Party building， continuously enhance the creativity， rallying power and combat capability of the Party， and always maintain its vigor and vitality“三个代表”就是必须代表中国先进生产力的发展要求，代表中国先进文化的前进方向，代表中国最广大人民的根本利益，是我们党的立党之本、执政之基、力量之源，是我们党始终站在时代前列，保持先进性的根本体现和根本要求。
RalphWaldoEmerson拉尔夫·沃尔多·爱默生
He continued his speeches against slavery, but never with the fire of Theodore Parker. In 1857 he wrote an essay on “Memory” but ironically, in his later years, his own memory would falter, especially after his beloved house burned in 1872. He died quietly of pneumonia （ 肺 炎 ） in 1882.
Henry David Thoreau (July 12, 1817 – May 6, 1862) was an American author, poet, abolitionist(废奴主义者), naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay, Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state.
In 1835, Emerson married Lydia Jackson; they lived in Concord and had four children while he settled into his life of conversations, reading and writing, and lecturing, which furnished a comfortable income.
民权运动的英语作文
民权运动的英语作文The Civil Rights Movement。
The Civil Rights Movement was a major social and political movement in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. It sought to end racial discrimination and segregation against African Americans and other minority groups, and to secure their basic civil and political rights.The movement was sparked by a series of events, including the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision in 1954, which declared segregation in public schools to be unconstitutional. This decision was followed by a series of protests, sit-ins, and boycotts, led by civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, and Malcolm X.The movement faced significant opposition from white supremacists and other groups who sought to maintain thestatus quo of racial inequality and segregation. Many civil rights activists were met with violence and intimidation, and some were even killed for their efforts.Despite these challenges, the Civil Rights Movement achieved many important victories. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were landmark pieces of legislation that outlawed racial discrimination and secured voting rights for African Americans. These laws helped to dismantle many of the legal barriers that had long prevented African Americans from fully participating in American society.The legacy of the Civil Rights Movement continues to be felt today, as the fight for racial equality and social justice remains an ongoing struggle. While progress has been made, there is still much work to be done to ensure that all Americans are treated equally and have access to the same opportunities.In conclusion, the Civil Rights Movement was a pivotal moment in American history, one that brought aboutsignificant social and political change. It was a time of great courage and sacrifice, as ordinary people stood up against injustice and fought for their rights. The movement serves as a reminder that, even in the face of adversity, it is possible to effect positive change and create abetter world for all.。
The Men’s Movement
The men's movement is made up of a variety of groups and individuals who focus on numerous social issues (including family law, parenting, reproduction, domestic violence) and government services (including education, compulsory military service, social safety nets, and health policies), which men's rights advocates say discriminate against men.
Feminazi is a term used pejoratively to describe either feminists who are perceived as extreme or radical, women who are perceived as seeking superiority over men, rather than equality, or to describe all feminists. It is a portmanteau of the nouns feminist and Nazi. The online version of the Merriam-Webster dictionary defines the term as used in a "usually disparaging" manner, to describe "an extreme or militant feminist". In oppression of feminazi, men began to defend their own rights.
介绍历史与社会的英语作文
History and society are interwoven in a complex tapestry, where each thread represents a significant event or development that has shaped the world we live in today. Writing an essay on this subject allows one to explore the intricate relationship between the past and the present, and how historical events continue to influence our social structures and cultural norms.Title: The Interplay of History and SocietyIntroduction:The essay begins with an introduction that sets the stage for the discussion. It might include a brief overview of how history has been a driving force in shaping societal norms, values, and behaviors.Paragraph 1: The Role of Historical Events in Shaping SocietyThe first paragraph delves into specific historical events that have had a profound impact on society. For example, the Industrial Revolution transformed economies and labor practices, leading to urbanization and the rise of the working class. This paragraph could also discuss how the fall of empires or the outcomes of wars have reshaped political landscapes and societal structures.Paragraph 2: The Influence of Cultural MovementsThis section examines cultural movements and how they have influenced societal values and norms. The Renaissance, for instance, sparked a renewed interest in art, science, and humanism, which in turn affected education and the way people viewed themselves and the world around them.Paragraph 3: The Impact of Technological AdvancementsTechnological advancements have always been a catalyst for change in society. This paragraph could explore how the invention of the printing press democratized information, the internet revolutionized communication, or how modern medical breakthroughs have transformed healthcare and life expectancy.Paragraph 4: The Legacy of Social Reforms and RevolutionsSocial reforms and revolutions have been pivotal in shaping the rights and freedoms we enjoy today. This section might discuss the Civil Rights Movement, womens suffrage, or the impact of the French Revolution on democratic ideals and human rights. Paragraph 5: The Ongoing Dialogue Between History and SocietyThe essay concludes with a reflection on how history continues to shape society in realtime. It could touch on current events, such as the global impact of the COVID19pandemic, and how they will be remembered and analyzed in the future.Conclusion:The conclusion summarizes the main points of the essay, emphasizing the undeniable connection between history and society. It might end with a thoughtprovoking statement about the responsibility each generation has to learn from the past to shape a better future. Final Thoughts:When writing an essay on history and society, its essential to provide concrete examples and evidence to support your arguments. This not only strengthens your essay but also engages the reader in the conversation about how the past continues to influence our present and future. Remember to maintain a clear and logical flow of ideas, and ensure that your writing style is both informative and engaging.。
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SPECIAL FEATURE:REVIEW3R International,Kyoto Workshopon3R and Waste Management,2009 International comparative study of3R and waste managementpolicy developmentsShin-ichi Sakai·Hideto Yoshida·Yasuhiro Hirai·Misuzu Asari·Hidetaka Takigami·Shin Takahashi·Keijirou Tomoda·Maria Victoria Peeler·Jakub Wejchert·Thomas Schmid-Unterseh·Aldo Ravazzi Douvan·Roy Hathaway·Lars D.Hylander·Christian Fischer·Gil Jong Oh·Li Jinhui·Ngo Kim ChiReceived:25May2010/Accepted:7February2011/Published online:18May2011©The Author(s)2011.This article is published with open access at Abstract Reduce,reuse,and recycle(3R)policies form the basis of waste management and global warming countermeasures globally,so we conducted a comparative study of3R and waste management policies in the Euro-pean Union(EU),USA,Korea,Japan,China,and Vietnam.An international workshop for3R and waste management policymakers was held in Kyoto,Japan,and a biblio-graphic survey was also conducted to collect data.3R policies are clearly given priority in the hierarchy of waste management in every country studied.Thermal recovery,The views expressed herein are those of the authors and not necessarily the official view of the organizations with which the authors are affiliated.S.Sakai(&)·Y.Hirai·M.AsariEnvironment Preservation Research Center,Kyoto University, Kyoto606-8501,Japane-mail:sakai@eprc.kyoto-u.ac.jpH.YoshidaJapan Environmental Safety Corporation,Tokyo,JapanH.TakigamiResearch Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management, National Institute for Environmental Studies,Tsukuba,Japan S.TakahashiCenter for Marine Environmental Studies,Ehime University, Matsuyama,JapanK.TomodaTowa Technology,Hiroshima,JapanM.V.PeelerHazardous Waste and Toxics Reduction,Washington State Department of Ecology,Olympia,WA,USAJ.WejchertSector in Unit G.4,Sustainable Production and Consumption, DG Environment,European Commission,Brussels,Belgium T.Schmid-UntersehDivision of Product Responsibility,Avoidance,Recovery and Utilization of Product Waste,Federal Ministry for the Environment,Berlin,Germany A.R.DouvanItalian Environmental Authority for EU Structural Funds, Ministry for the Environment Land and Sea,Rome,Italy R.HathawayWaste Management Division,Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs,London,UKL.D.HylanderDepartment of Earth Sciences,Air and Water Science, Uppsala University,Uppsala,SwedenC.FischerEuropean Topic Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production,Copenhagen,DenmarkG.J.OhResource Recirculation Center,National Institute of Environmental Research,Incheon,KoreaL.JinhuiDepartment of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University,Beijing,ChinaN.K.ChiUnion for Scientific Research and Production on Chemical Engineering,Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST),Hanoi,VietnamJ Mater Cycles Waste Manag(2011)13:86–102 DOI10.1007/s10163-011-0009-xwhich includes power generation from waste heat and methane gas collected from organic waste,is also a prior-ity;this is consistent with the increased use of countermeasures to reduce greenhouse gas(GHG)emis-sions.In the EU,waste management is characterized by practical and effective3R policies through the develop-ment of realistic regulations and by the policymakers’desire to simplify management systems.The policy ideal in China,however,is the development of a circular economy that targets reductions in the amount and hazardousness of waste.Limits on the number offinal disposal sites,strat-egies for procuring resources,and GHG emission countermeasures are closely linked with3R policies,and further development of3R policies in parallel with such issues is expected.Keywords3R·Recycling·Waste management·International comparison·Policy developments IntroductionIt is generally recognized that reduce,reuse,and recycle (3R)and waste management policies form the basis of developing a material cycles society.However,3R and waste management policies differ among countries owing to each country’s particular circumstances or political strategies.In this study,therefore,our aim was to compare the current situation,historical background,and effective-ness of3R policies within one region[the European Union (EU)]andfive countries(USA,Korea,Japan,China,and Vietnam).The characteristics and effectiveness of3R policies in each country and within the EU are examined, and the future directions of developments for a material cycles society are discussed.MethodsThe Kyoto workshop on3R and waste management was held in Kyoto,Japan,on29–30October2009.The aim was to collect comparative data on institutional schemes of3R and waste management.The participants were policymak-ers and researchers from the European Commission, Germany,England,Italy,Denmark,Sweden,USA,Korea, China,Vietnam,and Japan.EU Member States are gener-ally considered to have developed integrated and advanced waste management systems,whereas Asian countries have been importing recyclable resources in recent years, essentially playing the role of global recycling facilities. Given these circumstances,the purpose of the workshop was to compare and discuss3R and waste management policies in these different regions and to clarify their char-acteristics and effectiveness.As a means of collecting more information,copies of Japan’s national report on3R and waste management were distributed to participants in advance and similar reports were obtained from partici-pating countries.In addition,afield survey was carried out in several countries to confirm the condition of treatment facilities and waste management systems and to better understand the countries’policies and their effectiveness. Results and discussionTrends in3R and waste management policiesCharacteristics and constitution of waste management policiesTable1shows the waste management policy frameworks in the EU and thefive countries.Driven by global envi-ronmental problems and the depletion of natural resources, the major focus of waste management policies changed during the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Formerly,the focus was on promoting environmentally sound waste treatment to avoid local environmental pol-lution,whereas policies have shifted to pursue the concept of sustainability by introducing and promoting3R policies.USA Enactment of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act(RCRA,significantly amended in1984), Pollution Prevention Act(amended in2002),and Resource Conservation Challenge(2004)has led to the development of a waste management policy centering on resource con-servation and pollution prevention in the USA.The RCRA states the fundamental principles for the treatment of solid waste and for the reduction and management of hazardous wastes,but municipal solid waste(MSW)is managed under the regulations of each state.Under the Pollution Prevention Act,the2010–2014 Strategic Plan is currently being drawn up.According to a draft,the purposes of the plan are to(1)reduce greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions,(2)reduce the manufacture and use of hazardous substances,(3)decrease the use of water, (4)create effective business activities,and(5)develop institutions and integrate established practices for pollution protection.The draft also states that achievement of the first four goals will result in co-benefits[1].The Resource Conservation Challenge is a program complementary to the RCRA and Pollution Prevention Act. It aims to prevent pollution and promote reuse and recy-cling,reduce the use of hazardous chemicals,and conserve energy and resources.Its action plan sets MSW recycling targets[2].The US Environmental Protection Agency(EPA)is also currently working on amending the EPA Strategic Plan. According to the draft,they will shift the political priorityTable1Waste management frameworksTable1continuedfrom waste management to resource management as a strategy to reduce GHG emissions[3].Waste management policy in the USA is currently integrated and includes measures to reduce GHG emis-sions,manage hazardous chemicals,and conserve natural resources.EU In the EU,the Waste Framework Directive(2008) [4]has been established as the basic waste management legislation,and EU Member States have implemented domestic laws on waste management under this directive. The most notable characteristic of the EU’s waste man-agement system is the promotion of3R policies in parallel with waste management regulations.The Directive on the Incineration of Waste(2000)and the Directive on the Landfill of Waste(1999)concern waste management.The Directive on the Incineration of Waste primarily sets standards for the application of best available techniques/ best environmental practice(BAT/BEP)for environmental conservation,and it has had a notable effect in reducing dioxin emissions.The Directive on the Landfill of Waste sets standards for a tiered reduction of the disposal of wastes containing organic materials atfinal disposal sites (i.e.,landfills).To reduce the amount of wastes forfinal disposal,the directive has promoted the introduction of3R policies[5,6].The Directive on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment(WEEE)and the Directive on Restriction of Hazardous Substances(RoHS)were estab-lished in2002for the purpose of promoting sound material recycling and preventing pollution from the hazardous chemicals contained in such wastes.WEEE recycling has been promoted through the introduction and use of WEEE collection points.The extended producer responsibility (EPR),which requires that a producer of products manages them through reuse,recycling,and disposal even after their useful life and must develop and produce products that are easy to reuse and recycle,was applied to the basic concepts for the development of3R policies for WEEE and pack-aging.Germany was thefirst country within the EU to apply EPR to packaging waste,in1992[7],and that was followed by legislation on collecting and recycling of end-of-life vehicles(ELV)and waste batteries.Although EPR is recognized as an important concept in the UK,its waste management policy is based on the principle of shared responsibility which presupposes that the responsibility for production of a product,circulation, consumption,disposal,and recycling is shared by everyone [8].The government has signed a voluntary agreement with industry to reduce wastes and promote recycling of pack-aging materials,food,and paper.The UK introduced a landfill tax,which is currently40GBP/t and will increase by8GBP annually to72GBP/t in2013.Italy has intro-duced economic measures through a unit-based fee system whereby a management fee in paid according to the quantity of waste to discharge to encourage better waste management,and about15%of municipalities,or29%of Italy’s population,currently are covered by this type of system[9].Japan The basic law for establishing a Material Cycles Society(2000)defines recyclable resources and states the principles for their utilization[10].The law has the goal of a society wherein the consumption of natural resources is restrained and the environmental load is reduced as far as possible,through promotion of the3R as well as the environmentally sound waste management.The law set quantitative targets for three indicators:resource produc-tivity,cyclical use rate,andfinal disposal amount.These goals have also been pursued on a global scale through the Group of Eight(G8)process known as the3R initiative. The basic legislation concerning waste management in Japan consists of the Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law(amended in2010),which is the basic law of waste management,and the Law for the Promotion of Effective Utilities of Resources(2001),which is the basic law for recycling of used resources.The laws for recycling specific items such as containers and packaging,WEEE,food waste,construction waste,and ELV were established in these laws.In addition,the Law on Promoting Green Purchasing was enacted in2001,with the purpose of pro-moting government procurement of recycled products. Japan’s waste management system is characterized by the existence of two independent basic acts on waste man-agement as well as on material recycling,under which the laws concerning recycling of specific items are laid down. The legislative framework is similar to those of the EU and Korea.Korea The basic legislative framework on waste management in Korea consists of the Waste Management Act(amended in2007)and the Act on Promotion of Resources Saving and Recycling(amended in2008)[11]. The full-text amendment of the Waste Management Act was implemented in1991to introduce waste recycling,a deposit system,and standards for incineration and landfill [12].The Act on Promotion of Resources Saving and Recycling is a revision of the Act on Promotion of Resource Recycling enacted in2002,and it lays out the basic plan for material reuse,the fee system for waste treatment,regulations on the use of one-way packaging and goods,and EPR[13].EPR was also included in the Act on Resource Recycling of Electrical and Electronic Equip-ment and Vehicles,which was enacted in2008[14].The initial driving force for the promotion of3R policies in Korea was a strong campaign by neighborhoods against the construction of waste treatment facilities[14].The Promotion of Installation of Waste Disposal Facilities and Assistance to Adjacent Areas Act[15]was enacted in1995 to ensure that facilities were adequately established.At thesame time,a fee system for waste generation was intro-duced as a strict economic measure against increases in the amount of waste,in addition to other measures such as separated collection and regulations on the use of one-way packaging.From2005,organic wastes were no longer accepted at landfills and had to be recycled[16].China The basic environmental legislation in China is the Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China(1989),under which other laws were established.The Environmental Pollution Prevention and Control Law by Solid Waste was enacted in1996and amended in2005.It introduced the application of3R policies for solid municipal,industrial,and hazardous wastes and required not only a reduction in the amount of waste but also in its hazardousness[17].Treatment consists mainly of detoxification of wastes,but the law does not establish a priority in terms of treatment methods(e.g., incineration or landfill).The inventory on hazardous wastes was also established in this act.The Circular Economy Promotion Law,enacted in2008, is the basic law concerning material cycles and waste management in China[18].Several factors are said to be behind the enactment of the Circular Economy Promotion Law,including a lack of resources,insufficient use of recycled materials,and a national strategy of tackling the problem of resource depletion,accompanied by the desire for sustainable economic growth.In other words,the sub-stantial lack of resources in the face of a rapidly growing economy caused China to expand its use of recycled materials.At the same time,China’s economic growth was accompanied by a massive increase in the amount of waste generated;this produced serious social and environmental problems and an urgent need to improve China’s waste management systems.Consequently,the integrated use of recycled resources and the promotion of zero emissions at production facilities were considered to be essential, especially in the circular economic zone where many industrial facilities are located.The Circular Economy Promotion Law thus emphasizes the promotion and man-agement of3R activities in the industrial sector and includes economic incentives,such as a reduction in,or exemption from,the value-added tax,for the integrated and circulative use of resources[19].In order for the Circular Economy Promotion Law to have substantive effects,WEEE and MSW management systems needed to be enhanced through improving recy-cling and waste treatment techniques and strengthening the financial base of companies utilizing recycled resources. Although the focus of waste management policies in China has been on the problem of resource depletion and main-taining rapid economic growth,the environmental protection system with regard to imported recycling mate-rials also needed improvements.Furthermore,measures also had to be taken against increased MSW caused by population expansion and economic development in urban areas.To this end,the ELV Recycling Law(2001)and Management Ordinance on WEEE(2009)were established [19].The production of automobiles is increasing dramat-ically in China and is predicted to result in a massive increase in ELV in the near future.Nevertheless,rather than ensuring sound waste management of ELV,the ELV Recycling Law emphasizes the prevention of illegal remodeling,ensures car safety,and promotes the purchase of new models with environmentally friendly features. Furthermore,existing recycling facilities lack the capacity to meet the predicted demand for ELV recycling[20,21].Vietnam The basic legislation for environmental man-agement in Vietnam is the Environmental Protection Law (amended in2005),which takes precedence over other laws concerning waste management.The waste management system was established under the Decree on Solid Waste Management(2007),which establishes environmental protection measures for solid waste treatment[22].The Decree covers the overall waste management policy and prioritizes recycling,reutilization,and treatment and recovery,to prevent land consumption by landfills[23].The collection,transport,and treatment of waste are subject to fees of40,000VND/t for MSW and as much as 6,000,000VND/t for hazardous wastes[24].Hazardous and medical waste categories are defined under the decision[25, 26].The former regulation on the control of hazardous wastes(decision no.155/1999/QD)was incorporated in the Decree regulations on solid waste management as articles 70–75at the time of its amendment.The targets for waste management in Vietnam are determined under The National Strategy on Integrated SWM for the years of2025and2050(2009)[27].The mid-term strategic targets for2025are to have separated MSW. Solid wastes from business activities in urban areas and hazardous and non-hazardous wastes from industrial sec-tors are to be managed completely(100%)in an environmentally sound manner,and90%of all construc-tion wastes in urban areas and municipal solid wastes in the suburbs are to be collected.In addition,the strategy calls for minimizing the amount offinal disposal by2050 through the collection of all solid wastes,promotion of3R policies,and employment of advanced and environmen-tally sound techniques.In Vietnam’s case,the incentive for the promotion of3R activities in urban areas seems to arise from a sense of crisis about the upcoming depletion of land available for use as landfills[28].Waste management targetsThe EU and other countries employ a common hierar-chical approach in their3R and waste managementTable2Recycling targets in the USA[2,32]2001MSW Proposed2008recovery goalsGeneration (Mt)Generation rate a(%)Recovery(Mt)Recovery rate(%)%Mt Increase(%)Increase(Mt)Organic wasteFood,other26.211.40.7 2.85 1.28 2.20.58Yard waste28.012.215.856.56016.8 3.5 1.0PaperPaper and paperboardproducts81.8537.236.744.953.844.18.97.32 Packaging and containersWood packaging8.17 3.6 1.25152429.20.75 Plastic wrap 2.58 1.10.17 6.6190.512.80.33 Beverage containers11.3 5.0 2.932639 4.3612.7 1.43Total158.168.957.5536.443.769.047.311.5Other targets were to maintain the national average MSW generation rate at not more than4.5lb(about2kg)per person per day each year through2008;and to increase recycling rate of the total annual MSW produced to35%in2008from31%in2002Mt million tona Generation rate;Generation(Mt)/the total2001MSW generation(229.2Mt)9100Table3Waste management targets in the EU[30]Targeted products TargetedperiodMin.recovery Min.recycling Collection ratePackaging200860%55%Cars201595%85%100%Electronics200670%50%Min,4kg per inhabitant per year Batteries201150–75%201225%201645%Tires2006Zero landfill of tiresBiowaste diverted from landfills2006Reduction to75%of the1995level2009Reduction to50%of the1995level2016Reduction to35%of the1995levelNew targets2015Separate collection of paper,metal,plastic,and glassWaste framework directive202050%of household waste202070%of construction and demolition wasteTable4Waste management targets in Japan[10,37]Fiscal year2000 (base year)Fiscal year2006(performance)Fiscal year2015(target)Resource productivity260,000yen/t350,000yen/t420,000yen/t Circulation use ratio10%12.5%14–15% MSW,per person per day(decrease)1,185g1,116g(−5.8%)1,070g(−10%) Household waste,per person per day(decrease)654g601g(−8.1%)520g(−20%) MSW from business sectors17.99Mt15.82Mt(−8.1%)14.40Mt(−20%) Recycling amount(increase) 5.9Mt(~11%)10Mt(~20%)12Mt(~24%) Final disposal56Mt29Mt23Mtpolicies.However,there are also unique approaches within the various countries.For example,in China, where the concept of the circular economy is promoted as a policy ideal,Article3of the Solid Waste Pollution Prevention and Control Law clearly states that reduction (thefirst priority in the3R management hierarchy)should be achieved not only in the amount of wastes but also in the waste’s level of hazardousness[29].The EU’s waste management system is characterized by concerns about the practicality and effectiveness of its3R policies,the development of a realistic legal framework,and the underlying attitude of policymakers toward simplifying the bewildering expansion of waste management systems [30].Table5Recycling targets for individual items in Japan[10]Classification Item Target rate(%)Definition of target TargetfiscalyearContainers and packaging Glass bottles91Percentage of cullet use relative to the amount ofglass bottles manufactured in Japan2010PET bottles–––Plastics containers andpackaging–––Paper containers andpackaging–––Steel cans–––Aluminum cans–––Paper cartons–––Cardboard–––Paper62Percentage of recycled paper use relative to theamount of paper manufactured in Japan2010 Home appliances Air conditioners70Recycling/disposal–Cathode-ray tube TVs55Same as above–Refrigerators and freezers60Same as above–Washing machines65Same as above–Liquid-crystal TVs,plasma TVs50Same as aboveConstruction waste Asphalt and concretelumps 98Percentage of recycled material weight relative tothe weight of specific construction waste2012Concrete lumps98Same as above2012Construction wastetimber95Same as above2012Food waste Food manufacturers85[(Generating prevention amount)+(recyclingamount)+(heat recoveryamount)90.95+(treatment amount)]/[(generating prevention amount)+(generatingamount)]–Food retailers45Same as above–Food wholesale business70Same as above–Food service industry40Same as above–Personal computers and peripherals devices Desktop computers50Resource recycling/recovered–Notebook personalcomputers20Same as above–Cathode-ray tube displays55Same as above–Liquid crystal displays55Same as above–Small,secondary batteries Nickel-cadmium batteries60Recycling/disposal–Nickel-hydride batteries55Same as above–Lithium batteries30Same as above–Sealed lead acid batteries50Same as above–PET poly(ethylene terephthalate)Most of the countries are also setting concrete quanti-tative targets.The waste management targets are summarized in Table2(for the USA),Table3(the EU), Tables4and5(Japan),and Table6(Korea).A new waste management strategy is currently being drawn up in the USA,so the targets in Table2may soon be subject to revision.Waste management targets serve as the progress benchmarks of3R policies,and the targets are determined at the same time as the waste management hierarchy.The targets for reduction of overall wastes have the highest priority,followed by the targets for specific recycled items and targets for specific waste management measures.The USA,Japan,and Korea all set targets for waste generation.In the USA,the maximum target for waste generation,which was to be achieved by2008,is 4.5lb person−1day−1or approximately2kg person−1day−1 [2].The target is under revision and discussion.In Japan, the target for non-industrial waste generation in2015is 1,070,or520g person−1day−1for household solid waste [10].If achieved,these targets would bring about a10% (total MSW)and20%(household waste)reduction relative to the base year of2000for the USA and Japan,respec-tively.In Korea,however,the reduction rate relative to the estimated MSW amount in the target year is applied as a target index.The MSW amount of waste for2012is esti-mated to be47,975t/day,and the reduction target is 45,177t/day or5.8%[31].Targets for waste management measures are also used in the USA,EU,Japan,and Korea.In the USA,the target recycling rate in2008was35wt%,relative to31wt%in 2002[2].In terms of the amount of material recovery,thisTable63R policy targets in Korea[16,31]Municipal waste management goalsCategory2005200820102012Expected generation(t/day)48,00347,98947,975 Reduction rate relative to2005 2.5% 4.2% 5.8% Waste generation(t/day)48,39846,08345,99045,177 Recycling amount(t/day)27,24326,67827,13427,558 Recycling rate(wt%)56.357.059.061.0Regulations on packaging methodsCategory Ratio of total packing size(%)Number of packing layersFood stuffs10–20≤2Cosmetics\10≤2Detergents\10≤2Sundries30–35≤2Quasi-drugs\10≤2Miscellaneous products\20≤2Annual reduction targets for synthetic resin packaging materialsItem Ratio of synthetic resin packages(%)Egg holders\40Apple and pear holders\65Instant noodle containers\85Agricultural,livestock,andfishery products\90Electrical appliances ESP packaging for items under20,000cm3in volume is prohibitedTarget recycling ratesItem Target rate(%)Used paper72Used glass71Used glass bottles50Used steel cans65represents an increase from57.55million ton(Mt)in2001 to69.04Mt in2008.In the2010–2014Strategic Plan, which is currently being revised,the target amount of3R materials increases by approximately58Mt by2014[1]. The EU determined that separation and collection should be deployed by2015for paper,metals,plastics,and glass, and it set the long-term recycling target at50wt%of household waste to be recycled by2020.The EU also aims to gradually reduce the amount of total household-gener-ated waste containing organic material in landfills(75%in 2006,50%in2009,and35%in2016)[30].In Japan,the recycling target is12Mt(24wt%of waste generation),and the target forfinal disposal is23Mt(41%relative to the base year of2000)[10].In Korea,the recycling target for 2012is27,558t/day(10Mt/year),or61.0wt%of total waste generated[31].The USA,EU,and Korea also set recycling targets for packaging materials.In the USA,the target recovery amount for each material is defined,and the rate of recovery is calculated relative to the amount of each material as waste in the base year2001[2].The target rates of recovery are24.2%(+9.2%)for wooden packaging, 19.4%(+12.8%)for plastics,and38.7%(+12.7%)for drinks packaging.It is likely that thermal methods are not regarded during the calculation of recovery rates in the USA.In the EU,the targets for material recycling and the targets for recovery,including heat utilization,are defined relative to the waste amount generated in the base year [30].The material recycling target is55wt%,whereas the target rate of recovery is60%.In Korea,the recycling target for each material is set yearly;in2008it was50wt% for glass and65wt%for steel cans[16].The Korean performance report shows that the recycling rates for glass bottles,aluminum cans,and steel cans exceed75wt%[31]; thus,the target recycling rates may be subject to amend-ment.In addition,quantitative targets have also been set for reducing the use of packaging materials,and the selection of materials is also regulated[16].Comparison of the effectiveness of3R and waste management policiesWaste generation and treatment measuresTables7and8show the amounts of waste generated and the methods(recycling,incineration,and landfill)used to treat MSW in the EU,USA,Japan,and Korea.Figure1 shows the distribution of the management methods.In Japan,the total amount of landfilled materials includes incinerated materials that have gone through shredding and sorting processes at treatment facilities,recycled materials, andfinal disposal materials,including incinerated residues. Thus,for comparison,the amount recycled in Japan was calculated as(amount of waste generated)−(directly incinerated amount+direct landfilled amount);this was also done for data from the EU,although the calculated quantities are greater than the amounts in published data. Furthermore,although thermal recovery is not included in recycling in the USA,EU,and Korea,it is included in recycling in Japan.The USA has the highest rate of waste generation (800kg person−1year−1),followed by Japan and Korea (both around400kg person−1year−1).In terms of MSW composition in the USA,the most dominant component is packaging,which accounts for30%,followed by waste containing organic materials(27%),paper(24%),and steel and plastics(18%;percentage by weight in2008)[38].Waste management methods are quite different in Japan from in the EU and the other countries.Waste incineration predominates in Japan and the rate offinal disposal in landfills is extremely low,whereas the rate of incineration is usually low elsewhere(Table7;Fig.1).There are also differences among the EU,USA,and Korea.The landfill rate in the USA and the EU reaches about40–50%of the total amount of waste generated,but it is only about20%in Korea.Korea also has a much higher recycling rate(almost 60wt%)than the EU and USA(about30–40wt%).The yearly changes in management methods shown in Table8 indicate that changes have been relatively gradual in the USA,whereas the landfill rates have drastically decreased as the recycling rates have increased in the EU,Japan,and especially in Korea.Recycling rates in2007were highest in Korea(58wt%), followed by the EU(41wt%),USA(33wt%),and Japan (25wt%)(Fig.2).The rate of recycling in Korea increased rapidly since restrictions were imposed on disposing of organic waste in2005.In Korean statistics,separated and collected organic waste is counted as recycled waste[39]. The ratio of organic waste to total recycled waste was 45wt%in2008,indicating that almost half of recycling material is organic waste.However,although the organic waste is currently subject to composting and utilization asTable7Breakdown of MSW management methods in each countryCountries Recycling Incineration Landfill TotalUSA a268(33.2)102(12.7)438(54.1)808(100.0) EU b215(41.0)102(19.5)207(39.5)524(100.0) Japan c100(25.1)290(72.6)9(2.3)399(100.0) Korea d221(57.8)71(18.6)90(23.6)382(100.0)Data are presented as in kg person−1year−1(%)a2008data;incineration,only with energy recovery[36,40]b2008data[41]c2007data;landfill,not including residue[42]d2007data[43]。