胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解-第6~12章【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(现代语言学理论与流派)【圣才出品】
第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)布拉格学派与功能句子观2. The London School and context of situation伦敦学派与语境观3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar韩礼德与系统——功能语法4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法常考考点：各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。
本章内容索引：I. Saussure and modern linguisticsII. The Prague School1. Main points and contribution2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)3. Communicative Dynamism (CD)III. The London School1. Introduction2. Malinowski’s theories3. Firth’s theories4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar(1) Systemic grammar(2) Functional grammarIV. American Structuralism1. Introduction2. Three stages of the developmentV. Transformational-Generative Grammar1. Introduction2. The Innateness Hypothesis3. Generative Grammar4. Stage of development of TG Grammar5. Main features of TG GrammarI. Saussure and modern linguistics (索绪尔和现代语言学)Modern linguistics has started from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) , who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” and “a master of a discipline which he made modern”.According to Saussure, language is a system of signs which uses sounds to express and exchange ideas. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, i.e. the signifier and the signified. The sign is the central fact of language, and therefore the study of language must start from the nature of the sign itself.Saussure identifies several groups of important concepts: signifier and signified, langue and parole, synchronic and diachronic research, etc.现代语言学始于瑞士语言学家索绪尔，他被称为“现代语言学之父”和一位“使语言学走向现代的大师”。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第12章
Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics常考点：各学派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为的关系。
1. 索绪尔和现代语言学1.1. 观点语言是用声音表达交流思想的符号系统；符号是形式和意义的结合；符号是语言事实的核心。
1.2. 概念能指&所指语言&言语共时研究&历时研究2. 布拉格学派2.1. 代表人物V. Mathesius---Firbas2.2. 主要观点和贡献①强调共时研究的合理性，因为它可以提供完整且易掌控的研究材料。
②强调语言的系统性，语言单位处于功能对比、对立之中。
③它将语言看作是在所属语言群体中发挥一系列功能的工具。
2.3. 功能句子观（FSP）功能句子观是一套语言学分析理论，它是指用信息论的原理来分析话语或文本。
其基本原则就是一句话中各部分起的作用取决于它对全句意义的贡献。
2.4. 主位&述位主位：话语的出发点，它是说话人和听话人都知道的信息。
述位：话语的目的，是说话人要向听话人传递的信息。
2.5. 交际能力（communicative dynamism）费尔巴斯用交际能力表示句子成分对交际发展所起的作用。
他把功能句子观解释为不同程度的交际力的分布。
3. 伦敦学派3.1. 代表人物B. Malinovski---Firth---M. A. K. Halliday3.2. B. Malinovski 的理论①语言是一种行为模式。
②话语意义来源于话语发生的上下义之间的关系。
3.3. Firth的理论弗斯认为语言是种社会过程。
语言是参与社会生活的工具，是自己做事和使他人做事的手段，是一种行为和生活手段。
3.4. M. A. K. Halliday与系统-功能语法韩礼德的系统-功能语法是一种具有社会学倾向的功能语言学方法。
①系统语法系统就是存在于语法中的一系列选择。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第3、4版)笔记和考研真题详解(1-6章)【圣才出品】
第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与特征2.The origin and the function of language语言的起源和功能3.Main branches of linguistics study语言学研究的范围和内容4.Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分本章考点：1.有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、文化传递和互换性)；语言的功能(提供信息、人际交往、施为、表达情感、寒暄、娱乐、元语言)；语言的起源(神授说，人造说(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“哟-嘿-吼”理论)，进化说)等。
2.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别。
(2)语言学研究的四个原则及其简要说明。
语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
本章内容索引：I.Definition of languageII.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Creativity4.Displacement5.Cultural Transmission6.InterchangeabilityIII.Origin of language1.The Biblical account2.The bow-wow theory3.The pooh-pooh theory4.The yo-he-ho theory5.The evolution theoryIV.Functions of languagermative function2.Interpersonal function3.Performative function4.Emotive function5.Phatic function6.Recreational function7.Metalingual functionV.Definition of linguisticsVI.Branches of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsVII.Important concepts and their distinctions1.Descriptive vs.Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs.Diachronicngue vs.Parolepetence vs.Performance5.Etic vs.Emic6.Traditional Grammar vs.Modern Grammar7.Linguistic Potential vs.Actual Linguistic BehaviorI.The definition of language(语言的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has revealed five essential factors of language:systematic,arbitrary,vocal,symbolic语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(语言与认知)【圣才出品】
第6章语言与认知6.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Psycholinguistics心理语言学2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成3. First language acquisition第一语言习得4. Cognitive linguistics认知语言学常考考点：语言习得；第一语言习得；语言的理解和生成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitionII. Definition of PsycholinguisticsIII. Language acquisition1. The Behaviorist Approach2. The Innateness HypothesisIV. Language comprehension1. Sound Comprehension2. Word recognition3. Comprehension of sentences4. Comprehension of textV. Language Production1. Access to words2. Generation of sentences3. Written language productionVI. Cognitive Linguistics1. Definition2. Construal and Construal Operations(1) Attention/ Salience(2) Judgment/ Comparison(3) Perspective/ Situatedness3. Categorization(1) Basic level(2) Superordinate level(3) Subordinate level4. Image Schemas5. Metaphor(1) Ontological metaphors(2) Structural metaphors(3) Orientional metaphors6. Metonymy7. Blending TheoryI. Definition of cognition (认知的定义)Cognition is used in several different loosely related disciplines. In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states (such as beliefs, desires and intentions) and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.“认知”一词既可用于不同学科也可用于相关学科。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)笔记和考研真题详解
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解目录第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记1.2考研真题与典型题详解第2章语音2.1复习笔记2.2考研真题与典型题详解第3章词和形态学3.1复习笔记3.2考研真题与典型题详解第4章句法：从语词到篇章4.1复习笔记4.2考研真题与典型题详解第5章意义5.1复习笔记5.2考研真题与典型题详解第6章语言与认知6.1复习笔记6.2考研真题与典型题详解第7章语言文化社会7.1复习笔记7.2考研真题与典型题详解第8章语言的使用8.1复习笔记8.2考研真题与典型题详解第9章语言与文学9.1复习笔记9.2考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言和计算机10.1复习笔记10.2考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言和外语教学11.1复习笔记11.2考研真题与典型题详解第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1复习笔记12.2考研真题与典型题详解内容简介作为《语言学教程》（第5版）（胡壮麟主编，北京大学出版社）的学习辅导书，全书完全遵循该教材的章目编排，共分12章，每章由两部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记（中英文对照），总结本章的重点难点；第二部分是考研真题与典型题详解，精选名校经典考研真题及相关习题，并提供了详细的参考答案。
本书具有以下几个方面的特点：1．梳理章节脉络，浓缩内容精华。
每章的复习笔记以该教材为主并结合其他教材对本章的重难点知识进行了整理，并参考了国内名校名师讲授该教材的课堂笔记，因此，本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。
2．中英双语对照，凸显难点要点。
本书章节笔记采用了中英文对照的形式，强化对重要难点知识的理解和运用。
3．精选考研真题，补充难点习题。
本书精选名校考研真题及相关习题，并提供答案和详解。
所选真题和习题基本体现了各个章节的考点和难点，但又不完全局限于教材内容，是对教材内容极好的补充。
另外，在笔记部分，对于在《语言学教程》第三版或第四版提到而第五版删减的知识点我们也予以保留，并用“＊”标明，部分院校考研真题依旧会涉及这些知识点的考查。
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟语言学教程笔记精华 - 副本 (2)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》学习指导目录目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon (14)Chapter 4 Syntax (21)Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind (29)Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society (35)Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer (49)Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (53)Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics (59)第二部分重点章节测试题 (67)Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology (70)Test Three Morphology (73)Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics (79)Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics (88)第三部分测试题参考答案 (91)参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the twolevels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly withoutany definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for thepossibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment ofconversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wildenvironment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that isunknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personalrelationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretchof spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a livingpassage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children,the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone orsomething.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., tomaintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “theword book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in languageand society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actuallyconform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be anddescribing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages werestudied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because thenature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description insteadof prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point ofobservation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through thecourse of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’stime would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since thenwould be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoypriority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a languageare successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have takenplace in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable andsystematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spokenby an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do,according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discoverthe regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject oflinguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the systemof rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[] are stops and []are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[],CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel[] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel[] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by onlyone distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak//, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occurs in theword like speak//, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated.Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the samephonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; theyare both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless /__________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification ofthe word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raisedvertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.End of Chapter 2Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a completeutterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential forrearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituentsof sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If themorphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is oneallowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”thelatter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those wordssuch as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore,pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives andmany adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here aresome of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negativemarker “not,”and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “getby,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of theirunique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguiststoday tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements fordifferent elements in a sentence. For example, in the followingconversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语音）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语音）【圣才出品】第2章语音2.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Speech Organs发音器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则3. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions协同发音和语音转写4. Phonemes and Allophones音位和音位变体5. Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features音系过程、音系规则和区别特征6. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation音节结构、重音和语调常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。
2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布与互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音）；音高和语调。
本章内容索引：I. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology1. Phonetics2. Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics3. PhonologyII. Speech Organs1. Speech organs2. Voiceless sounds3. Voiced sounds4. IPAIII. Consonants and Vowels1. Definition2. Consonants(1) Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation(2) Classification of Consonants3. Vowel(1) Cardinal vowels(2) Criteria of vowel description(3) Monophthongs, Diphthongs and TriphthongsIV. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions1. Coarticulation2. Phonetic TranscriptionV. Phonemes and Allophones1. Phoneme2. AllophonesVI. Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features1. Phonological processes2. Assimilation3. Distinctive featuresVII. Suprasegmentals1. Suprasegmental features2. The Syllable Structure3. Stress4. Intonation and ToneI. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology (语音学和音系学的定义)1. Phonetics (语音学)Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
第6章语言与认知6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Psycholinguistics心理语言学2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成3. First language acquisition第一语言习得4. Cognitive linguistics认知语言学常考考点：语言习得；第一语言习得；语言的理解和生成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitionII. Definition of PsycholinguisticsIII. Language acquisition1. The Behaviorist Approach2. The Innateness HypothesisIV. Language comprehension1. Sound Comprehension2. Word recognition3. Comprehension of sentences4. Comprehension of textV. Language Production1. Access to words2. Generation of sentences3. Written language productionVI. Cognitive Linguistics1. Definition2. Construal and Construal Operations(1) Attention/ Salience(2) Judgment/ Comparison(3) Perspective/ Situatedness3. Categorization(1) Basic level(2) Superordinate level(3) Subordinate level4. Image Schemas5. Metaphor(1) Ontological metaphors(2) Structural metaphors(3) Orientional metaphors6. Metonymy7. Blending TheoryI. Definition of cognition (认知的定义)Cognition is used in several different loosely related disciplines. In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states (such as beliefs, desires and intentions) and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.“认知”一词既可用于不同学科也可用于相关学科。
在心理学中，“认知”是指个人的心理过程，即心智具有内部心理状态（比如信念、意志和意愿）。
特别是在许多具象和抽象交织在一起时，如知识、技能和学习共同作用时，采用信息处理的方法可以理解心理过程。
另外一种对“认知”的定义是指心理过程或知识的能力，包括意识、知觉、推理和判断等。
II. Definition of Psycholinguistics (心理语言学的定义)Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it mainly studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious use of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences. Psycholinguists investigate the relationship between language and thought, Psycholinguistics is also concerned with how languages are learned, and the roles they play in our thinking.心理语言学是对语言心理方面的研究，通常研究的是与语言行为相关的心理状态和思维活动。
心理语言学的一个重点是研究能够使人理解和产出可理解句子的语法规则的无意识运用。
心理语言学家研究语言与思维的关系，心理语言学同时也还关注语言是如何习得的以及语言在思维运用中所发挥的作用。
III. Language acquisition (语言习得)Language acquisition refers to the learning and development of a person’s language. The learning of a native or first language refers to first language acquisition (FLA), and the learning of a second or foreign language is called second language acquisition (SLA). Language acquisition is not only studied by linguists but also psychologists and applied linguists to enable them to understand the process, and to give a better understanding of the nature of language. There are basically two approaches to the question of first language acquisition: behaviorist approach and innateness approach.语言习得指的是一个人语言的学习和发展。
第一语言习得即一个人母语的学习和发展。
语言学家、心理语言学家和应用语言学家通过研究语言习得来理解其形成和发展的全过程，更好的理解语言的本质。
对于第一语言习得的问题存在两种说法：行为主义方法和天赋论。
1.The Behaviorist Approach (行为主义方法)Language is a learned behavior, learned by a process of habit-formation. This view of language learning is called behaviorism or behaviorist view. According to which, the language acquisition of children is a process of “stimulus-response-imitation-reinforcement”. The internal linguistic knowledge of the individual is the direct outcome of combing the linguistic event that the individual has observed.语言是一个学习的行为，是一个通过学习形成习惯的过程。
对语言学习的这种观点称作行为主义或行为主义观点。
根据这种观点，孩子的语言习得是一个“刺激——反映——模仿——强化”的过程。
个人的内部语言知识是其对所观察的语言事件进行结合的直接结果。
2.The Innateness Hypothesis (天赋理论)The innateness hypothesis says that the ability to acquire a human language is part of the biologically innate equipment of the human being, and that an infant is born with this ability.天赋论是说获取人类语言的能力是人类自身内在的机能之一，刚出生的婴儿就具备这种能力。
IV. Language comprehension (语言的理解)1.Sound Comprehension (发音理解)Sound comprehension is not a passive process. It often counts on the context from which listeners expect to hear. People understand the meaning as a whole, not in isolation. They do not listen to each word individually. The successful comprehension of speech sounds is a combination of the innate ability of humans to distinguish minor differences between speech sounds, and the ability to adjust to the acoustic categories of the language they are exposed to.发音的理解不是一个被动的过程。