毕业设计英文翻译资料(中文)

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毕业设计中英文翻译【范本模板】

毕业设计中英文翻译【范本模板】

英文The road (highway)The road is one kind of linear construction used for travel。

It is made of the roadbed,the road surface, the bridge, the culvert and the tunnel. In addition, it also has the crossing of lines, the protective project and the traffic engineering and the route facility。

The roadbed is the base of road surface, road shoulder,side slope, side ditch foundations. It is stone material structure, which is designed according to route's plane position .The roadbed, as the base of travel, must guarantee that it has the enough intensity and the stability that can prevent the water and other natural disaster from corroding.The road surface is the surface of road. It is single or complex structure built with mixture。

The road surface require being smooth,having enough intensity,good stability and anti—slippery function. The quality of road surface directly affects the safe, comfort and the traffic。

毕业论文(设计)外文文献翻译及原文

毕业论文(设计)外文文献翻译及原文

金融体制、融资约束与投资——来自OECD的实证分析R.SemenovDepartment of Economics,University of Nijmegen,Nijmegen(荷兰内梅亨大学,经济学院)这篇论文考查了OECD的11个国家中现金流量对企业投资的影响.我们发现不同国家之间投资对企业内部可获取资金的敏感性具有显著差异,并且银企之间具有明显的紧密关系的国家的敏感性比银企之间具有公平关系的国家的低.同时,我们发现融资约束与整体金融发展指标不存在关系.我们的结论与资本市场信息和激励问题对企业投资具有重要作用这种观点一致,并且紧密的银企关系会减少这些问题从而增加企业获取外部融资的渠道。

一、引言各个国家的企业在显著不同的金融体制下运行。

金融发展水平的差别(例如,相对GDP的信用额度和相对GDP的相应股票市场的资本化程度),在所有者和管理者关系、企业和债权人的模式中,企业控制的市场活动水平可以很好地被记录.在完美资本市场,对于具有正的净现值投资机会的企业将一直获得资金。

然而,经济理论表明市场摩擦,诸如信息不对称和激励问题会使获得外部资本更加昂贵,并且具有盈利投资机会的企业不一定能够获取所需资本.这表明融资要素,例如内部产生资金数量、新债务和权益的可得性,共同决定了企业的投资决策.现今已经有大量考查外部资金可得性对投资决策的影响的实证资料(可参考,例如Fazzari(1998)、 Hoshi(1991)、 Chapman(1996)、Samuel(1998)).大多数研究结果表明金融变量例如现金流量有助于解释企业的投资水平。

这项研究结果解释表明企业投资受限于外部资金的可得性。

很多模型强调运行正常的金融中介和金融市场有助于改善信息不对称和交易成本,减缓不对称问题,从而促使储蓄资金投着长期和高回报的项目,并且提高资源的有效配置(参看Levine(1997)的评论文章)。

因而我们预期用于更加发达的金融体制的国家的企业将更容易获得外部融资.几位学者已经指出建立企业和金融中介机构可进一步缓解金融市场摩擦。

毕业设计外文翻译译文

毕业设计外文翻译译文

1 工程概论1.1 工程专业1.2 工业和技术1.3 现代制造业工程专业1 工程行业是历史上最古老的行业之一。

如果没有在广阔工程领域中应用的那些技术,我们现在的文明绝不会前进。

第一位把岩石凿削成箭和矛的工具匠是现代机械工程师的鼻祖。

那些发现地球上的金属并找到冶炼和使用金属的方法的工匠们是采矿和冶金工程师的先祖。

那些发明了灌溉系统并建造了远古世纪非凡的建筑物的技师是他们那个时代的土木工程师。

2 工程一般被定义为理论科学的实际应用,例如物理和数学。

许多早期的工程设计分支不是基于科学而是经验信息,这些经验信息取决于观察和经历,而不是理论知识。

这是一个倾斜面实际应用的例子,虽然这个概念没有被确切的理解,但是它可以被量化或者数字化的表达出来。

3 从16、17世纪当代初期,量化就已经成为科学知识大爆炸的首要原因之一。

另外一个重要因素是实验法验证理论的发展。

量化包含了把来源于实验的数据和信息转变成确切的数学术语。

这更加强调了数学是现代工程学的语言。

4 从19世纪开始,它的结果的实际而科学的应用已经逐步上升。

机械工程师现在有精确的能力去计算来源于许多不同机构之间错综复杂的相互作用的机械优势。

他拥有能一起工作的既新型又强硬的材料和巨大的新能源。

工业革命开始于使用水和蒸汽一起工作。

从此使用电、汽油和其他能源作动力的机器变得如此广泛以至于它们承担了世界上很大比例的工作。

5 科学知识迅速膨胀的结果之一就是科学和工程专业的数量的增加。

到19世纪末不仅机械、土木、矿业、冶金工程被建立而且更新的化学和电气工程专业出现了。

这种膨胀现象一直持续到现在。

我们现在拥有了核能、石油、航天航空空间以及电气工程等。

每种工程领域之内都有细分。

6 例如,土木工程自身领域之内有如下细分:涉及永久性结构的建筑工程、涉及水或其他液体流动与控制系统的水利工程、涉及供水、净化、排水系统的研究的环境工程。

机械工程主要的细分是工业工程,它涉及的是错综复杂的机械系统,这些系统是工业上的,而非单独的机器。

本科毕业设计外文翻译(中文)

本科毕业设计外文翻译(中文)

本科生毕业设计(论文)外文翻译外文原文题目:Real-time interactive optical micromanipulation of a mixture of high- and low-index particles中文翻译题目:高低折射率微粒混合物的实时交互式光学微操作毕业设计(论文)题目:阵列光镊软件控制系统设计姓名:任有健学院:生命学院班级:06210501指导教师:李勤高低折射率微粒混合物的实时交互式光学微操作Peter John Rodrigo Vincent Ricardo Daria Jesper Glückstad丹麦罗斯基勒DK-4000号,Risø国家实验室光学和等离子研究系jesper.gluckstad@risoe.dkhttp://www.risoe.dk/ofd/competence/ppo.htm摘要:本文论证一种对于胶体的实时交互式光学微操作的方法,胶体中包含两种折射率的微粒,与悬浮介质(0n )相比,分别低于(0L n n <)、高于(0H n n >)悬浮介质的折射率。

球形的高低折射率微粒在横平板上被一批捕获激光束生成的约束光势能捕获,捕获激光束的横剖面可以分为“礼帽形”和“圆环形”两种光强剖面。

这种应用方法在光学捕获的空间分布和个体几何学方面提供了广泛的可重构性。

我们以实验为基础证实了同时捕获又独立操作悬浮于水(0 1.33n =)中不同尺寸的球形碳酸钠微壳( 1.2L n ≈)和聚苯乙烯微珠( 1.57H n =)的独特性质。

©2004 美国光学学会光学分类与标引体系编码:(140.7010)捕获、(170.4520)光学限制与操作和(230.6120)空间光调制器。

1 引言光带有动量和角动量。

伴随于光与物质相互作用的动量转移为我们提供了在介观量级捕获和操作微粒的方法。

过去数十年中的巨大发展已经导致了在生物和物理领域常规光学捕获的各种应用以及下一代光学微操作体系的出现[1-5]。

本科毕业设计的英文资料与中文翻译

本科毕业设计的英文资料与中文翻译

英文资料与中文翻译IEEE 802.11 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROLThe IEEE 802.11 MAC layer covers three functional areas:reliable data delivery, medium access control, and security. This section covers the first two topics.Reliable Data DeliveryAs with any wireless network, a wireless LAN using the IEEE 802.11 physical and MAC layers is subject to considerable unreliability. Noise, interference, and other propagation effects result in the loss of a significant number of frames. Even with error-correction codes, a number of MAC frames may not successfully be received. This situation can be dealt with by reliability mechanisms at a higher layer. such as TCP. However, timers used for retransmission at higher layers are typically on the order of seconds. It is therefore more efficient to deal with errors at the MAC level. For this purpose, IEEE 802.11 includes a frame exchange protocol. When a station receives a data frame from another station. It returns an acknowledgment (ACK) frame to the source station. This exchange is treated as an atomic unit, not to be interrupted by a transmission from any other station. If the source does not receive an ACK within a short period of time, either because its data frame was damaged or because the returning ACK was damaged, the source retransmits the frame.Thus, the basic data transfer mechanism in IEEE802.11 involves an exchange of two frames. To further enhance reliability, a four-frame exchange may be used. In this scheme, a source first issues a request to send (RTS) frame to the destination. The destination then responds with a clear to send (CTS). After receiving the CTS, the source transmits the data frame, and the destination responds with an ACK. The RTS alerts all stations that are within reception range of the source that an exchange is under way; these stations refrain from transmission in order to avoid a collision between two frames transmitted at the same time. Similarly, the CTS alerts all stations that are within reception range of the destination that an exchange is under way. The RTS/CTS portion of the exchange is a required function of the MAC but may be disabled.Medium Access ControlThe 802.11 working group considered two types of proposals for a MAC algorithm: distributed access protocols, which, like Ethernet, distribute the decision to transmit over all the nodes using a carrier-sense mechanism; and centralized access protocols, which involve regulation of transmission by a centralized decision maker. A distributed access protocol makes sense for an ad hoc network of peer workstations (typically an IBSS) and may also be attractive in other wireless LAN configurations that consist primarily of burst traffic. A centralized access protocol is natural for configurations in which a umber of wireless stations are interconnected with each other and some sort of base station that attaches to a backbone wired LAN: it is especially useful if some of the data is time sensitive or high priority.The end result for 802.11 is a MAC algorithm called DFWMAC (distributed foundation wireless MAC) that provides a distributed access control mechanism with an optional centralized control built on top of that. Figure 14.5 illustrates the architecture. The lower sub-layer of the MAC layer is the distributed coordination function (DCF). DCF uses a contention algorithm to provide access to all traffic. Ordinary asynchronous traffic directly uses DCE. The point coordination function (PCF) is a centralized MAC algorithm used to provide contention-free service. PCF is built on top of DCF and exploits features of DCF to assure access for its users. Let us consider these two sub-layers in turn.MAClayerFigure 14.5 IEEE 802.11 Protocol ArchitectureDistributed Coordination FunctionThe DCF sub-layer makes use of a simple CSMA (carrier sense multiple access) algorithm, which functions as follows. If a station has a MAC frame to transmit, it listens to the medium. If the medium is idle, the station may transmit; otherwise the station must wait until the current transmission is complete before transmitting. The DCF does not include a collision detection function (i.e. CSMA/CD) because collision detection is not practical on a wireless network. The dynamic range of the signals on the medium is very large, so that a transmitting station cannot effectively distinguish incoming weak signals from noise and the effects of its own transmission.To ensure the smooth and fair functioning of this algorithm, DCF includes a set of delays that amounts to a priority scheme. Let us start by considering a single delay known as an inter-frame space (IFS). In fact, there are three different IFS values, but the algorithm is best explained by initially ignoring this detail. Using an IFS, the rules for CSMA access are as follows (Figure 14.6):Figure 14.6 IEEE 802.11 Medium Access Control Logic1. A station with a frame to transmit senses the medium. If the medium is idle. It waits to see if the medium remains idle for a time equal to IFS. If so , the station may transmit immediately.2. If the medium is busy (either because the station initially finds the medium busy or because the medium becomes busy during the IFS idle time), the station defers transmission and continues to monitor the medium until the current transmission is over.3. Once the current transmission is over, the station delays another IFS. If the medium remains idle for this period, then the station backs off a random amount of time and again senses the medium. If the medium is still idle, the station may transmit. During the back-off time, if the medium becomes busy, the back-off timer is halted and resumes when the medium becomes idle.4. If the transmission is unsuccessful, which is determined by the absence of an acknowledgement, then it is assumed that a collision has occurred.To ensure that back-off maintains stability, a technique known as binary exponential back-off is used. A station will attempt to transmit repeatedly in the face of repeated collisions, but after each collision, the mean value of the random delay is doubled up to some maximum value. The binary exponential back-off provides a means of handling a heavy load. Repeated failed attempts to transmit result in longer and longer back-off times, which helps to smooth out the load. Without such a back-off, the following situation could occur. Two or more stations attempt to transmit at the same time, causing a collision. These stations then immediately attempt to retransmit, causing a new collision.The preceding scheme is refined for DCF to provide priority-based access by the simple expedient of using three values for IFS:●SIFS (short IFS):The shortest IFS, used for all immediate responseactions,as explained in the following discussion●PIFS (point coordination function IFS):A mid-length IFS, used by thecentralized controller in the PCF scheme when issuing polls●DIFS (distributed coordination function IFS): The longest IFS, used as aminimum delay for asynchronous frames contending for access Figure 14.7a illustrates the use of these time values. Consider first the SIFS.Any station using SIFS to determine transmission opportunity has, in effect, the highest priority, because it will always gain access in preference to a stationwaiting an amount of time equal to PIFS or DIFS. The SIFS is used in the following circumstances:●Acknowledgment (ACK): When a station receives a frame addressed onlyto itself (not multicast or broadcast) it responds with an ACK frame after, waiting on1y for an SIFS gap. This has two desirable effects. First, because collision detection IS not used, the likelihood of collisions is greater than with CSMA/CD, and the MAC-level ACK provides for efficient collision recovery. Second, the SIFS can be used to provide efficient delivery of an LLC protocol data unit (PDU) that requires multiple MAC frames. In this case, the following scenario occurs. A station with a multi-frame LLC PDU to transmit sends out the MAC frames one at a time. Each frame is acknowledged after SIFS by the recipient. When the source receives an ACK, it immediately (after SIFS) sends the next frame in the sequence. The result is that once a station has contended for the channel, it will maintain control of the channel until it has sent all of the fragments of an LLC PDU.●Clear to Send (CTS):A station can ensure that its data frame will getthrough by first issuing a small. Request to Send (RTS) frame. The station to which this frame is addressed should immediately respond with a CTS frame if it is ready to receive. All other stations receive the RTS and defer using the medium.●Poll response: This is explained in the following discussion of PCF.longer than DIFS(a) Basic access methodasynchronous trafficdefers(b) PCF super-frame constructionFigure 14.7 IEEE 802.11 MAC TimingThe next longest IFS interval is the: PIFS. This is used by the centralized controller in issuing polls and takes precedence over normal contention traffic. However, those frames transmitted using SIFS have precedence over a PCF poll.Finally, the DIFS interval is used for all ordinary asynchronous traffic.Point C00rdination Function PCF is an alternative access method implemented on top of the DCE. The operation consists of polling by the centralized polling master (point coordinator). The point coordinator makes use of PIFS when issuing polls. Because PI FS is smaller than DIFS, the point coordinator call seize the medium and lock out all asynchronous traffic while it issues polls and receives responses.As an extreme, consider the following possible scenario. A wireless network is configured so that a number of stations with time, sensitive traffic are controlled by the point coordinator while remaining traffic contends for access using CSMA. The point coordinator could issue polls in a round—robin fashion to all stations configured for polling. When a poll is issued, the polled station may respond using SIFS. If the point coordinator receives a response, it issues another poll using PIFS. If no response is received during the expected turnaround time, the coordinator issues a poll.If the discipline of the preceding paragraph were implemented, the point coordinator would lock out all asynchronous traffic by repeatedly issuing polls. To prevent this, an interval known as the super-frame is defined. During the first part of this interval, the point coordinator issues polls in a round, robin fashion to all stations configured for polling. The point coordinator then idles for the remainder of the super-frame, allowing a contention period for asynchronous access.Figure l4.7 b illustrates the use of the super-frame. At the beginning of a super-frame, the point coordinator may optionally seize control and issues polls for a give period of time. This interval varies because of the variable frame size issued by responding stations. The remainder of the super-frame is available for contention based access. At the end of the super-frame interval, the point coordinator contends for access to the medium using PIFS. If the medium is idle. the point coordinator gains immediate access and a full super-frame period follows. However, the medium may be busy at the end of a super-frame. In this case, the point coordinator must wait until the medium is idle to gain access: this result in a foreshortened super-frame period for the next cycle.OctetsFC=frame control SC=sequence controlD/I=duration/connection ID FCS=frame check sequence(a ) MAC frameBitsDS=distribution systemMD=more data MF=more fragmentsW=wired equivalent privacy RT=retryO=orderPM=power management (b) Frame control filedFigure 14.8 IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame FormatMAC FrameFigure 14.8a shows the 802.11 frame format when no security features are used. This general format is used for all data and control frames, but not all fields are used in all contexts. The fields are as follows:● Frame Control: Indicates the type of frame and provides contr01information, as explained presently.● Duration/Connection ID: If used as a duration field, indicates the time(in-microseconds) the channel will be allocated for successful transmission of a MAC frame. In some control frames, this field contains an association, or connection, identifier.●Addresses: The number and meaning of the 48-bit address fields dependon context. The transmitter address and receiver address are the MAC addresses of stations joined to the BSS that are transmitting and receiving frames over the wireless LAN. The service set ID (SSID) identifies the wireless LAN over which a frame is transmitted. For an IBSS, the SSID isa random number generated at the time the network is formed. For awireless LAN that is part of a larger configuration the SSID identifies the BSS over which the frame is transmitted: specifically, the SSID is the MAC-level address of the AP for this BSS (Figure 14.4). Finally the source address and destination address are the MAC addresses of stations, wireless or otherwise, that are the ultimate source and destination of this frame. The source address may be identical to the transmitter address and the destination address may be identical to the receiver address.●Sequence Control: Contains a 4-bit fragment number subfield used forfragmentation and reassembly, and a l2-bit sequence number used to number frames sent between a given transmitter and receiver.●Frame Body: Contains an MSDU or a fragment of an MSDU. The MSDUis a LLC protocol data unit or MAC control information.●Frame Check Sequence: A 32-bit cyclic redundancy check. The framecontrol filed, shown in Figure 14.8b, consists of the following fields.●Protocol Version: 802.11 version, current version 0.●Type: Identifies the frame as control, management, or data.●Subtype: Further identifies the function of frame. Table 14.4 defines thevalid combinations of type and subtype.●To DS: The MAC coordination sets this bit to 1 in a frame destined to thedistribution system.●From DS: The MAC coordination sets this bit to 1 in a frame leaving thedistribution system.●More Fragments: Set to 1 if more fragments follow this one.●Retry: Set to 1 if this is a retransmission of a previous frame.●Power Management: Set to]if the transmitting station is in a sleep mode.●More Data: Indicates that a station has additional data to send. Each blockof data may be sent as one frame or a group of fragments in multiple frames.●WEP:Set to 1 if the optional wired equivalent protocol is implemented.WEP is used in the exchange of encryption keys for secure data exchange.This bit also is set if the newer WPA security mechanism is employed, as described in Section 14.6.●Order:Set to 1 in any data frame sent using the Strictly Ordered service,which tells the receiving station that frames must be processed in order. We now look at the various MAC frame types.Control Frames Control frames assist in the reliable delivery of data frames. There are six control frame subtypes:●Power Save-Poll (PS-Poll): This frame is sent by any station to the stationthat includes the AP (access point). Its purpose is to request that the AP transmit a frame that has been buffered for this station while the station was in power saving mode.●Request to Send (RTS):This is the first frame in the four-way frameexchange discussed under the subsection on reliable data delivery at the beginning of Section 14.3.The station sending this message is alerting a potential destination, and all other stations within reception range, that it intends to send a data frame to that destination.●Clear to Send (CTS): This is the second frame in the four-way exchange.It is sent by the destination station to the source station to grant permission to send a data frame.●Acknowledgment:Provides an acknowledgment from the destination tothe source that the immediately preceding data, management, or PS-Poll frame was received correctly.●Contention-Free (CF)-End: Announces the end of a contention-freeperiod that is part of the point coordination function.●CF-End+CF-Ack:Acknowledges the CF-End. This frame ends thecontention-free period and releases stations from the restrictions associated with that period.Data Frames There are eight data frame subtypes, organized into two groups. The first four subtypes define frames that carry upper-level data from the source station to the destination station. The four data-carrying frames are as follows: ●Data: This is the simplest data frame. It may be used in both a contentionperiod and a contention-free period.●Data+CF-Ack: May only be sent during a contention-free period. Inaddition to carrying data, this frame acknowledges previously received data.●Data+CF-Poll: Used by a point coordinator to deliver data to a mobilestation and also to request that the mobile station send a data frame that it may have buffered.●Data+CF-Ack+CF-Poll: Combines the functions of the Data+CF-Ack andData+CF-Poll into a single frame.The remaining four subtypes of data frames do not in fact carry any user data. The Null Function data frame carries no data, polls, or acknowledgments. It is used only to carry the power management bit in the frame control field to the AP, to indicate that the station is changing to a low-power operating state. The remaining three frames (CF-Ack, CF-Poll,CF-Ack+CF-Poll) have the same functionality as the corresponding data frame subtypes in the preceding list (Data+CF-Ack, Data+CF-Poll, Data+CF-Ack+CF-Poll) but withotit the data. Management FramesManagement frames are used to manage communications between stations and APs. The following subtypes are included:●Association Request:Sent by a station to an AP to request an association,with this BSS. This frame includes capability information, such as whether encryption is to be used and whether this station is pollable.●Association Response:Returned by the AP to the station to indicatewhether it is accepting this association request.●Reassociation Request: Sent by a station when it moves from one BSS toanother and needs to make an association with tire AP in the new BSS. The station uses reassociation rather than simply association so that the new AP knows to negotiate with the old AP for the forwarding of data frames.●Reassociation Response:Returned by the AP to the station to indicatewhether it is accepting this reassociation request.●Probe Request: Used by a station to obtain information from anotherstation or AP. This frame is used to locate an IEEE 802.11 BSS.●Probe Response: Response to a probe request.●Beacon: Transmitted periodically to allow mobile stations to locate andidentify a BSS.●Announcement Traffic Indication Message: Sent by a mobile station toalert other mobile stations that may have been in low power mode that this station has frames buffered and waiting to be delivered to the station addressed in this frame.●Dissociation: Used by a station to terminate an association.●Authentication:Multiple authentication frames are used in an exchange toauthenticate one station to another.●Deauthentication:Sent by a station to another station or AP to indicatethat it is terminating secure communications.IEEE802.11 媒体接入控制IEEE 802.11 MAC层覆盖了三个功能区:可靠的数据传送、接入控制以及安全。

毕业设计中英文翻译

毕业设计中英文翻译

本科生毕业设计(论文)外文翻译毕业设计(论文)题目:电力系统检测与计算外文题目:The development of the single chipmicrocomputer译文题目:单片机技术的发展与应用学生姓名: XXX专业: XXX指导教师姓名: XXX评阅日期:单片机技术的发展与应用从无线电世界到单片机世界现代计算机技术的产业革命,将世界经济从资本经济带入到知识经济时代。

在电子世界领域,从 20 世纪中的无线电时代也进入到 21 世纪以计算机技术为中心的智能化现代电子系统时代。

现代电子系统的基本核心是嵌入式计算机系统(简称嵌入式系统),而单片机是最典型、最广泛、最普及的嵌入式系统。

一、无线电世界造就了几代英才。

在 20 世纪五六十年代,最具代表的先进的电子技术就是无线电技术,包括无线电广播,收音,无线通信(电报),业余无线电台,无线电定位,导航等遥测、遥控、遥信技术。

早期就是这些电子技术带领着许多青少年步入了奇妙的电子世界,无线电技术展示了当时科技生活美妙的前景。

电子科学开始形成了一门新兴学科。

无线电电子学,无线通信开始了电子世界的历程。

无线电技术不仅成为了当时先进科学技术的代表,而且从普及到专业的科学领域,吸引了广大青少年,并使他们从中找到了无穷的乐趣。

从床头的矿石收音机到超外差收音机;从无线电发报到业余无线电台;从电话,电铃到无线电操纵模型。

无线电技术成为当时青少年科普、科技教育最普及,最广泛的内容。

至今,许多老一辈的工程师、专家、教授当年都是无线电爱好者。

无线电技术的无穷乐趣,无线电技术的全面训练,从电子学基本原理,电子元器件基础到无线电遥控、遥测、遥信电子系统制作,培养出了几代科技英才。

二、从无线电时代到电子技术普及时代。

早期的无线电技术推动了电子技术的发展,其中最主要的是真空管电子技术向半导体电子技术的发展。

半导体电子技术使有源器件实现了微小型化和低成本,使无线电技术有了更大普及和创新,并大大地开阔了许多非无线电的控制领域。

毕业设计中英文翻译

毕业设计中英文翻译

Bridge Waterway OpeningsIn a majority of cases the height and length of a bridge depend solely upon the amount of clear waterway opening that must be provided to accommodate the floodwaters of the stream. Actually, the problem goes beyond that of merely accommodating the floodwaters and requires prediction of the various magnitudes of floods for given time intervals. It would be impossible to state that some given magnitude is the maximum that will ever occur, and it is therefore impossible to design for the maximum, since it cannot be ascertained. It seems more logical to design for a predicted flood of some selected interval ---a flood magnitude that could reasonably be expected to occur once within a given number of years. For example, a bridge may be designed for a 50-year flood interval; that is, for a flood which is expected (according to the laws of probability) to occur on the average of one time in 50 years. Once this design flood frequency, or interval of expected occurrence, has been decided, the analysis to determine a magnitude is made. Whenever possible, this analysis is based upon gauged stream records. In areas and for streams where flood frequency and magnitude records are not available, an analysis can still be made. With data from gauged streams in the vicinity, regional flood frequencies can be worked out; with a correlation between the computed discharge for the ungauged stream and the regional flood frequency, a flood frequency curve can be computed for the stream in question. Highway CulvertsAny closed conduit used to conduct surface runoff from one side of a roadway to the other is referred to as a culvert. Culverts vary in size from large multiple installations used in lieu of a bridge to small circular or elliptical pipe, and their design varies in significance. Accepted practice treats conduits under the roadway as culverts. Although the unit cost of culverts is much less than that of bridges, they are far more numerous, normally averaging about eight to the mile, and represent a greater cost in highway. Statistics show that about 15 cents of the highway construction dollar goes to culverts, as compared with 10 cents for bridge. Culvert design then is equally as important as that of bridges or other phases of highway and should be treated accordingly.Municipal Storm DrainageIn urban and suburban areas, runoff waters are handled through a system of drainage structures referred to as storm sewers and their appurtenances. The drainage problem is increased in these areas primarily for two reasons: the impervious nature of the area creates a very high runoff; and there is little room for natural water courses. It is often necessary to collect the entire storm water into a system of pipes and transmit it over considerable distances before it can be loosed again as surface runoff. This collection and transmission further increase the problem, since all of the water must be collected with virtually no ponding, thus eliminating any natural storage; and though increased velocity the peak runoffs are reached more quickly. Also, the shorter times of peaks cause the system to be more sensitive to short-duration, high-intensity rainfall. Storm sewers, like culverts and bridges, are designed for storms of various intensity –return-period relationship, depending upon the economy and amount of ponding that can be tolerated.Airport DrainageThe problem of providing proper drainage facilities for airports is similar in many ways to that of highways and streets. However, because of the large and relatively flat surface involved the varying soil conditions, the absence of natural water courses and possible side ditches, and the greater concentration of discharge at the terminus of the construction area, some phases of the problem are more complex. For the average airport the overall area to be drained is relatively large and an extensive drainage system is required. The magnitude of such a system makes it even more imperative that sound engineeringprinciples based on all of the best available data be used to ensure the most economical design. Overdesign of facilities results in excessive money investment with no return, and underdesign can result in conditions hazardous to the air traffic using the airport.In other to ensure surfaces that are smooth, firm, stable, and reasonably free from flooding, it is necessary to provide a system which will do several things. It must collect and remove the surface water from the airport surface; intercept and remove surface water flowing toward the airport from adjacent areas; collect and remove any excessive subsurface water beneath the surface of the airport facilities and in many cases lower the ground-water table; and provide protection against erosion of the sloping areas. Ditches and Cut-slope DrainageA highway cross section normally includes one and often two ditches paralleling the roadway. Generally referred to as side ditches these serve to intercept the drainage from slopes and to conduct it to where it can be carried under the roadway or away from the highway section, depending upon the natural drainage. To a limited extent they also serve to conduct subsurface drainage from beneath the roadway to points where it can be carried away from the highway section.A second type of ditch, generally referred to as a crown ditch, is often used for the erosion protection of cut slopes. This ditch along the top of the cut slope serves to intercept surface runoff from the slopes above and conduct it to natural water courses on milder slopes, thus preventing the erosion that would be caused by permitting the runoff to spill down the cut faces.12 Construction techniquesThe decision of how a bridge should be built depends mainly on local conditions. These include cost of materials, available equipment, allowable construction time and environmental restriction. Since all these vary with location and time, the best construction technique for a given structure may also vary. Incremental launching or Push-out MethodIn this form of construction the deck is pushed across the span with hydraulic rams or winches. Decks of prestressed post-tensioned precast segments, steel or girders have been erected. Usually spans are limited to 50~60 m to avoid excessive deflection and cantilever stresses , although greater distances have been bridged by installing temporary support towers . Typically the method is most appropriate for long, multi-span bridges in the range 300 ~ 600 m ,but ,much shorter and longer bridges have been constructed . Unfortunately, this very economical mode of construction can only be applied when both the horizontal and vertical alignments of the deck are perfectly straight, or alternatively of constant radius. Where pushing involves a small downward grade (4% ~ 5%) then a braking system should be installed to prevent the deck slipping away uncontrolled and heavy bracing is then needed at the restraining piers.Bridge launching demands very careful surveying and setting out with continuous and precise checks made of deck deflections. A light aluminum or steel-launching nose forms the head of the deck to provide guidance over the pier. Special teflon or chrome-nickel steel plate bearings are used to reduce sliding friction to about 5% of the weight, thus slender piers would normally be supplemented with braced columns to avoid cracking and other damage. These columns would generally also support the temporary friction bearings and help steer the nose.In the case of precast construction, ideally segments should be cast on beds near the abutments and transferred by rail to the post-tensioning bed, the actual transport distance obviously being kept to the minimum. Usually a segment is cast against the face of the previously concerted unit to ensure a good fit when finally glued in place with an epoxy resin. If this procedure is not adopted , gaps of approximately 500mm shold be left between segments with the reinforcements running through andstressed together to form a complete unit , but when access or space on the embankment is at a premium it may be necessary to launch the deck intermittently to allow sections to be added progressively .The correponding prestressing arrangements , both for the temporary and permanent conditions would be more complicated and careful calculations needed at all positions .The pricipal advantage of the bridge-launching technique is the saving in falsework, especially for high decks. Segments can also be fabricated or precast in a protected environment using highly productive equipment. For concrete segment, typically two segment are laid each week (usually 10 ~ 30 m in length and perhaps 300 to 400 tonnes in weight) and after posttensioning incrementally launched at about 20 m per day depending upon the winching/jacking equipment.Balanced Cantiulever ConstructionDevelopment in box section and prestressed concrete led to short segment being assembled or cast in place on falsework to form a beam of full roadway width. Subsequently the method was refined virtually to eliminate the falsework by using a previously constructed section of the beam to provide the fixing for a subsequently cantilevered section. The principle is demonsrated step-by-step in the example shown in Fig.1.In the simple case illustrated, the bridge consists of three spans in the ratio 1:1:2. First the abutments and piers are constructed independently from the bridge superstructure. The segment immediately above each pier is then either cast in situ or placed as a precast unit .The deck is subsequently formed by adding sections symmetrically either side.Ideally sections either side should be placed simultaneously but this is usually impracticable and some inbalance will result from the extra segment weight, wind forces, construction plant and material. When the cantilever has reached both the abutment and centre span,work can begin from the other pier , and the remainder of the deck completed in a similar manner . Finally the two individual cantilevers are linked at the centre by a key segment to form a single span. The key is normally cast in situ.The procedure initially requires the first sections above the column and perhaps one or two each side to be erected conventionally either in situ concrete or precast and temporarily supported while steel tendons are threaded and post-tensioned . Subsequent pairs of section are added and held in place by post-tensioning followed by grouting of the ducts. During this phase only the cantilever tendons in the upper flange and webs are tensioned. Continuity tendons are stressed after the key section has been cast in place. The final gap left between the two half spans should be wide enough to enable the jacking equipment to be inserted. When the individual cantilevers are completed and the key section inserted the continuity tendons are anchored symmetrically about the centre of the span and serve to resist superimposed loads, live loads, redistribution of dead loads and cantilever prestressing forces.The earlier bridges were designed on the free cantilever principle with an expansion joint incorporated at the center .Unfortunately,settlements , deformations , concrete creep and prestress relaxation tended to produce deflection in each half span , disfiguring the general appearance of the bridge and causing discomfort to drivers .These effects coupled with the difficulties in designing a suitable joint led designers to choose a continuous connection, resulting in a more uniform distribution of the loads and reduced deflection. The natural movements were provided for at the bridge abutments using sliding bearings or in the case of long multi-span bridges, joints at about 500 m centres.Special Requirements in Advanced Construction TechniquesThere are three important areas that the engineering and construction team has to consider:(1) Stress analysis during construction: Because the loadings and support conditions of the bridge are different from the finished bridge, stresses in each construction stage must be calculated to ensurethe safety of the structure .For this purpose, realistic construction loads must be used and site personnel must be informed on all the loading limitations. Wind and temperature are usually significant for construction stage.(2) Camber: In order to obtain a bridge with the right elevation, the required camber of the bridge at each construction stage must be calculated. It is required that due consideration be given to creep and shrinkage of the concrete. This kind of the concrete. This kind of calculation, although cumbersome, has been simplified by the use of the compiters.(3) Quality control: This is important for any method construction, but it is more so for the complicated construction techniques. Curing of concrete, post-tensioning, joint preparation, etc. are detrimental to a successful structure. The site personnel must be made aware of the minimum concrete strengths required for post-tensioning, form removal, falsework removal, launching and other steps of operations.Generally speaking, these advanced construction techniques require more engineering work than the conventional falsework type construction, but the saving could be significant.大桥涵洞在大多数情况中桥梁的高度和跨度完全取决于河流的流量,桥梁的高度和跨度必须能够容纳最大洪水量.事实上,这不仅仅是洪水最大流量的问题,还需要在不同时间间隔预测不同程度的水灾。

毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译(学生用)

毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译(学生用)

毕业设计外文资料翻译学院:信息科学与工程学院专业:软件工程姓名: XXXXX学号: XXXXXXXXX外文出处: Think In Java (用外文写)附件: 1.外文资料翻译译文;2.外文原文。

附件1:外文资料翻译译文网络编程历史上的网络编程都倾向于困难、复杂,而且极易出错。

程序员必须掌握与网络有关的大量细节,有时甚至要对硬件有深刻的认识。

一般地,我们需要理解连网协议中不同的“层”(Layer)。

而且对于每个连网库,一般都包含了数量众多的函数,分别涉及信息块的连接、打包和拆包;这些块的来回运输;以及握手等等。

这是一项令人痛苦的工作。

但是,连网本身的概念并不是很难。

我们想获得位于其他地方某台机器上的信息,并把它们移到这儿;或者相反。

这与读写文件非常相似,只是文件存在于远程机器上,而且远程机器有权决定如何处理我们请求或者发送的数据。

Java最出色的一个地方就是它的“无痛苦连网”概念。

有关连网的基层细节已被尽可能地提取出去,并隐藏在JVM以及Java的本机安装系统里进行控制。

我们使用的编程模型是一个文件的模型;事实上,网络连接(一个“套接字”)已被封装到系统对象里,所以可象对其他数据流那样采用同样的方法调用。

除此以外,在我们处理另一个连网问题——同时控制多个网络连接——的时候,Java内建的多线程机制也是十分方便的。

本章将用一系列易懂的例子解释Java的连网支持。

15.1 机器的标识当然,为了分辨来自别处的一台机器,以及为了保证自己连接的是希望的那台机器,必须有一种机制能独一无二地标识出网络内的每台机器。

早期网络只解决了如何在本地网络环境中为机器提供唯一的名字。

但Java面向的是整个因特网,这要求用一种机制对来自世界各地的机器进行标识。

为达到这个目的,我们采用了IP(互联网地址)的概念。

IP以两种形式存在着:(1) 大家最熟悉的DNS(域名服务)形式。

我自己的域名是。

所以假定我在自己的域内有一台名为Opus的计算机,它的域名就可以是。

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故障概率模型的数控车床摘要:领域的失效分析被计算机数字化控制(CNC)车床描述。

现场收集了为期两年的约80台数控车床的故障数据。

编码系统代码失效数据是制定和失效分析数据库成立的数控车床。

失败的位置和子系统,失效模式及原因进行了分析,以显示薄弱子系统的数控车床。

另外,故障的概率模型,分析了数控车床的模糊多准则综合评价。

作者关键词:数控车床;场失败;概率模型;模糊信息文章概述1.介绍2. CNC车床的概述3.收集和整理数据3.1. 收集数据3.2. 领域失效数据的有效性3.3. 数据核对和数据库4. 失效分析4.1. 对失败位置和子系统的频率分析4.2. 对失败形式的频率分析5.失败机率模型5.1. 方法学5.2. 分布倍之间连续的失败5.3. 修理时间的发行6.结论1.介绍在过去十年中,计算机数字化控制(CNC)车床已经越来越多地被引入到机械加工过程中。

由于其固有的灵活性很大,稳定的加工精度和高生产率,数控车床是能给用户巨大的利益。

然而,作为一个单一的数控车床故障也许会导致整个生产车间被停止,而且维修更加困难和昂贵,当故障发生时[1],数控车床能够给用户带来很多的麻烦。

与此同时,制造商还需要持续改进数控车床的可靠性来提高市场的竞争力。

因此,数控车床的可靠性能使生产商和用户增加显著性和至关重要的意义。

需要改进数控车床的可靠性,使用户和制造商收集和分析领域的故障数据和采取措施减少停机时间。

本文论述了研究失效模式及原因,失效的位置和薄弱的子系统,故障概率模型的数控车床。

图1 系统框图的数控车床机械系统包括主轴及其传动链(固定在主轴箱),两根滑动轴(命名X、Z或者U,W在轮),车床拖板箱,转动架或刀架,尾座,床身等。

主轴持续或加强连续变速,驱动交流或直流主轴电机直接或通过主传动,并有一个光电编码器的主轴车削螺纹。

X和Z 两根轴的驱动交流或直流伺服车削螺纹和控制同时进行。

该转动架或刀架可自动交换工具。

所有这些都是控制的数控系统。

数控系统的核心车床[4],通常是包括电源,主要电路板(PCB)(通常是微型计算机),可编程控制器(PLC)的I/O电路板(连接控制面板,限位开关,按钮,磁铁,刀架等),主轴电路板(控制滑块轴与主轴通过半封闭或闭环电子控制电机驱动器和光电编码器),存电路板(连接额外编码器,显示器/键盘(手动数据输入),手动脉冲发生器(MPG),备用电池和RS-232串行通信设备)。

数控系统和一些电子元件,如接触器开关,继电器,稳压器,按钮等,都固定在一个柜子里。

其他电子元件,如限位开关,接近开关,编码器等,都安装在机器上。

数控系统的基本和可选功能有直线和圆弧插补,间隙补偿,自动协调系统设置,刀具偏移,刀具补偿,编辑后处理,自我诊断,固定循环等,不同于经济全功能模型机床。

3.收集和整理数据3.1收集数据数年前,数控车床很难收集到可靠的领域失效数据,因为用户很少在保修期保持充分和完整的维修记录[1,5, 6,7]。

幸运的是,一个国家行政机构在这个国家对使用数控机床的用户制定了强制性规则,所有数控机床用户必须追踪数控机床的性能和保养和反馈完整的维修报告给在保修期间的制造商和相关研究机构。

维修报告应存放在一台计算机上,或者记录在一个统一的格式里[8],并应包含以下信息:1、产品名称,型号和大小。

2、产品代码。

3、故障的日期和时间。

4、在失效之前累积的工作时间。

5、失效现象。

6、原因分析。

7、修复过程。

8、修理时间。

9、停机。

10、失效元件的型号,尺寸和数量。

11、故障判断(据说或没有失败)。

12、如何防止重复出现的故障。

13、管理工程师或修理工程师的数据。

14、机器的场地。

数据分析是从一些典型代表的军械和汽车厂所提取的维修报告,如一汽(第一汽车制造厂),齿轮厂,汽车齿轮厂,第8号车辆厂,电冰箱厂,中国人民解放军7407厂等。

该调查显示上述工厂所使用的数控车床来自于大陆(66台数控车床),(9台数控车床)和匈牙利(5台数控车床)。

3.2领域失效数据的有效性虽然有一个领域故障判定标准[8],但维修报告随不同的用户而不同。

为了尽量减少差异,我们把领域故障分为两组:故障失效和准确性失效,都受数控车床的在可靠性的影响。

此外,前者通常是受操作条件,如灰尘,湿度,操作者的技能等,后者是受运作要求的主要影响,如表面光洁度,公差等。

3.3整理数据和数据库即使领域失效数据记录在第3.1节和验证在第3.2节,用计算机分析数据也很难的。

因此,编码系统的编码数据,设计失效和故障数据库成立的数控车床,以及数据库的结构如表1所示。

失效模式和失效位置编撰的建议标准[8]和产品代码是被编撰在图2。

图2 例如产品代码 失效数据库可以根据任何专用机器,批量机器,制造商,用户,故障模式,故障状况等被加工和回收,以适应不同的分析目的。

主要任务的可靠性分析下可以根据数据库执行如下:1、可靠性特征的计算,如MTBF (平均故障间隔时间),MTTR (平均修理时间),利用率等,特定机器或批量机器。

2、图形分析技术,如频率失效,分层图,因果系统图解等频率直方图3、失效模式及效应分析(FMEA ),如失效分析子系统,故障模式,故障原因,找出薄弱的子系统。

车间代号车间用户 制造商4、失效的分布格局和维修。

5、故障树分析(FTA )。

4、失效分析4.1故障位置和子系统的频率分析为了找到最薄弱的子系统,我们计数失效数量的每个子系统的检索子系统代码在表2中定义的数据库,然后计算每个子系统的失败频率。

表2失效的频率和失效位置与子系统的代码表2是失效位置和子系统代码和每个子系统的失败频率的数控车床。

图3是失效位置和子系统的直方图。

可以看出主要的故障子系统的电气和电子系统、刀架、数控系统、夹头和夹具,电源,伺服单元等。

电气和电子系统包括接触开关,继电器,磁铁,按钮,限位开关等,都位于机器或在箱子里。

也可以看出机械系统的主要故障子系统是刀架和卡盘。

电气和电子系统夹头或夹具主传动图.3 直方图的失效位置4.2对失效模式的频率分析为了分析失效模式及起因,我们根据数据库计数失效的数量的每种失效模式通过检索被定义的失效模式代码在表3,然后计算每种失效模式的失效频率。

代码 故障模型 失效频率(%) 代码 故障模型 失效频率(%) 53 部件的损坏 33.3 63 保险丝烧毁/大功率 9 61 电路断开或开启 8.8 64 传感器故障 7.6 33 错误输出 7.13 58 电机损坏 6.5 25 疏松的 5.5 69 其他 4.6 28 刀架不动 4.6 49 存储器异常 3.6 68 数控系统参数错误 2.8 35 错误回车 2.1 7 密封或粘冲 1.17 42 油路阻断 0.936 54 浮动 0.7 57 超载 0.7 62 短路 0.58 39 过热 0.234表3是每个失效模型的故障模型代码和失效的频率的数控车床。

图4是故障模型的直方图。

可以看出,主要的失效模型是部件的损坏。

该组件包括电气,电子元件,如继电器,按钮,限位开关等(69%的所有损坏部件),机械部件(26%),液压和气动元件(5%)。

并且大部分是标准组件和购买的部件。

这证据表明,当数控车床被设计和制造时,是缺乏可靠性分配和可靠性筛选。

频 率保险丝烧毁/大功率电源断开或开启刀架数控系统电源主轴装置 伺服驱动器润滑油系统其他 切屑输送冷却系统 Z 进给系统液压系统 不清楚X 进给系统 可编程控制器保护装置图4故障模型的直方图5.失败的概率模型早期工作[1],认为这模型的失效可能是最好的说明使用威布尔[9]或对数分布[10]。

这些参数的分布估计通常用最大似然法(MLM )或最小二乘法(LSM ),和哥洛夫—斯米尔诺夫检验统计Dmax [11]或χ2检验统计[12]通常是用来测试的吻合度。

有一些模糊信息被确定分配来描述观测数据。

通常,当一个分配选为假设分布来描述观测数据时,不仅考虑到错误的累积分布函数,还应考虑到错误的概率密度函数与属性和功能的分配。

因此分配的测定是一个多准则综合评价问题的模糊信息。

在模糊集方法上有大量的出版文献[13-14]。

本文确定了分配的模糊多准则综合评价。

我们可以选择威布尔,对数正态分布,指数分布和伽马等作为选择修建一套方案A =(A 1A 2A 3A 4…)=(威布尔对数伽玛指数...)。

为了隔开一套更可取的解决方案,决策者必须首先对替代率的因素或标准,来反映这主要目标的研究。

对于概率模型,其主要目标是:1、尽量减少哥洛夫一斯米尔诺夫检验统计Dmax ;2、尽量减少错误的累积分布函数;3、尽量减少错误的概率密度函数;4、分配的性质最适合故障数据;5、功能分布最适合故障数据。

这些目标是组建成一组因素F =(F 1F 2F 3F 4F 5)。

5.1方法学评价矩阵:当某一决策小组评估了一套替代方案(A 1A 2…A N )作为对之前一系列因素(F 1F 2…F M )界定之前,评价矩阵可以构造与沿一根轴的另一边选择和因素,如表4所示,频 率部件的损坏电机损坏疏松的错误输出刀架不动 其他的 存储器异常 数控系统参数错误超载 油路阻断 过热短路浮动 密封/粘冲 错误回车传感器故障其中M是若干因素和N是被考虑选择的数量,rij是一个典型的项目评价矩阵。

表4评价矩阵定量因素,导入的评价矩阵,rij可以按照下列相应计算公式。

例如,哥洛夫一斯米尔诺夫检验统计Dmax计算时被使用[11](1)其中,F n(x)是经验累积分布函数,F o(x)是在假设累积分布函数,x i是随着样本,n是样品的数量。

误差的累积分布函数的计算:(2)其中,F(x)是假设累积分布函数,G(x)是采样累积分布函数,[a,b]是间隔变量x,错误概率密度函数的计算:(3)其中,f(x)是假设概率密度函数,g(x)是抽样概率密度函数。

为了计算rij,我们引入降半柯西分布隶属函数:μ(v ij)=1/(1+c i·v ij2) (c>1)(4)其中Ci 是系数并且由余量误差确定,Vij是变量相应误差jth给予分配的ith因素,这是每个给予分配Dmax,δF ,δf。

最后,我们规化隶属度构成前三行的评价矩阵。

(5)定量因素,如F4,F5,点评价的方法可被应用。

一个专家小组是要求每个填写一份他们以前经验调查表,这将使最后两排的评价矩阵发展到每个人。

对于因素F4,专家们都要求根据自身的性质给予评价载体N,如偏度和峰度,每一个替代直方图的采样数据由之前的经验。

例如,评价值最合适的是1.0,更好的是0.75,中等的是0.5等。

以类似的方式,对于因素F5,评级载体可根据功能,如简洁的公式,计算速度快,事先使用每一个替代方案的类似域,。

我们知道,钾专家能给为每个因素的K 评价载体。

我们可以结合各自的评价向量到一个单一的整体评价载体(6) 其中r ′ij 是一个项目的评价载体所给予lth 专家。

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