武汉大学硕士英语-文学要素-literary elements
武汉大学研究生英语教材全文翻译of_unit_1_3_4_5_7
Final V ersion of T ranslationUnit two1．为什么我们与来自其它文化的人们的交流总是充满了误会、让人感到沮丧呢？令很多人奇怪的是，即使怀着良好的愿望、使用自己认为是友好的方式，甚至有互利的可能性，也似乎都不足以保证交流的成功。
有时候，出现排斥现象正是因为一方所属的文化群体团体是“不同”的。
在这个国际舞台发生重大变化的时刻，探讨为什么尝试交流的结果却令人失望的原因是必要的，这些原因实际上是跨文化交流中的绊脚石。
2．相似性的假设为什么误解或反对会产生呢？这个问题的一个回答就是，大部分的人天真地认为世界上的人有足够的相似之处，可以让我们成功地交流信息或感受，解决共同关注的一些问题，加强商业关系，或者只是产生我们所希望产生的印象。
所有的人都会生儿育女，组成家庭或社会，发展一种语言以及适应他们周围环境的这种倾向特别具有欺骗性，因为它带来了一种期望，这种期望就是这些行为的形式以及围绕这些行动的态度与价值观念将是相似的。
相信“人就是人”和“我们内在本质是相似的，”这让人感到心安理得，但是下定决心去寻找证据却只会令人失望。
3．力求证明达尔文关于面部表情是共同的这一理论的跨文化研究给人极大的希望，研究者发现脸部的某些看得见的形状，即因愤怒、恐惧、惊讶、悲伤、厌恶、幸福而紧缩的肌肉组合,我们人类各成员都是一样的。
但是这似乎无济于事，只要我们意识到一个人生长的文化决定了这种情感是否会表露或压抑,决定了在何种场合和多大的程度上会表露或压抑。
带来这种情绪感受的情形也因文化而异，例如：由于崇拜的文化信仰不同，一个心爱的人死亡可能带来欢乐、悲哀或其他情感。
4．因为似乎没有普遍的人性可以作为自动理解的基础，所以我们必须把每交往当作个别案例来处理，寻求任何共同的认知和交流方法并以此作为出发点。
如果我们认识到我们受文化的约束，受文化的改变，那么我们就会受这一现实：因为各自不同，我们确实不太清楚其他人“是”什么样的。
武汉大学研究生英语summary写作范文(原文及范文)
WritingDirections: For this part, you are to write a summary of either of two articles that are presented to you in the following. Your summary should be 150-200 words. Remember to write neatly.Science and HumanityThe twentieth century saw more momentous change than any previous century: change for better, change for worse; change that brought enormous benefits to human beings, change that threatens the very existence of the human species. Many factors contributed to this change but—in my opinion—the most important factor was the progress in science.Academic research in the physical and biological sciences has vastly broadened our horizons; it has given us a deep insight into the structure of matter and of the universe; it has brought better understanding of the nature of life and of its continuous evolution. Technology—the application of science—has made fantastic advances that have affected us beneficially in nearly every aspect of life: better health, more wealth, less drudgery (单调沉闷的工作), greater access to information.Sadly, however, there is another side to the picture. The creativity of science has been employed to the detriment(损害) of mankind. The application of science and technology to the development and manufacture of weapons of mass destruction has created a real threat to the continued existence of the human race on this planet. We have seen this happen in the case of nuclear weapons. Although their actual use in combat has so far occurred only in 1945—when two Japanese cities were destroyed—during the four decades of the Cold War, obscenely huge arsenals(武器库) of nuclear weapons were accumulated and made ready for use. The arsenals were so large that if the weapons had actually been detonated (爆炸) the result could have been the complete extinction of the human species, as well as of many animal species.William Shakespeare said: "The web of our life is of a mingled (混合的) yarn, good and ill together. " The above brief review of the application of only one strand of human activities—science—seems to bear out this adage (格言). But does it have to be so? Must ill always accompany good deeds? Are we biologically programmed for aggression and war?I am not an authority in genetics, but from my readings and life-long observation I do not see any evidence that we are genetically condemned to commit evil. On the contrary, on very general grounds I would say that genetically we are destined to do things that are of benefit to the human species, and that the negative aspects are mistakes, transient errors in the process of evolution. In other words, I believe in the inherent goodness of Man.We are thus faced with a daunting (威吓，使胆怯) dilemma. As a process of natural evolution, science should be allowed to develop freely, without restrictions. But can we afford the luxury of uninhibited research in the natural sciences, with its awesome (可怕的) potential of total destruction, in a world in which war is still a recognized social institution?The preservation of the human species and its continuing enhancement demand that we learn to live with one another in peace and harmony. But this learning process has been slow and arduous (费力的), and is not yet complete. Due to the harsh conditions under which primitive man lived, he often had to fight with other human beings for survival. Individual killing and, later, collective killing—war—thus began to be seen as a natural phenomenon.We are still not organized for a war-free world. But in the meantime, the human species may be brought to an end by the use of the tools of destruction, themselves the product of science and technology.In my opinion, the problem has to a large extent arisen from the uneven rate of advance in thedifferent areas of human activities, in particular, between the progress in the natural sciences—which include the physical and biological disciplines, and the various social sciences—economics, sociology, politics (with psychology perhaps at the interface between the two major groups). Undoubtedly, there has been much faster progress in the natural sciences than in the social ones.Why have the natural sciences, especially the physical sciences, advanced so much faster than the social sciences? It is not because physicists are wiser or cleverer than, say, economists. The explanation is simply that physics is easier to master than economics. Although the material world is a highly complex system, for practical purposes it can be described by a few general laws. The laws of physics are immutable (不可改变的). They apply everywhere, on this planet as well as everywhere else in the universe, and are not affected by human reactions and emotions, as the social sciences are.How can we tackle this unevenness in the rate of progress of different.areas of science? Two ways come to mind:one, by accelerating the rate of progress in the social sciences; two, by slowing down the rate of advancement of the natural sciences in some areas, for example, by the imposition of ethical codes of conduct.Clearly, the former is by far the preferable way. What we would like to see is faster progress in the social sciences, leading to the establishment of a social system which would make war not only unnecessary but unthinkable; a system in which the existence of old, or the invention of new, weapons of mass destruction, would not matter, because nobody would dream of using them; a system in which people will be able to say: “nuclear weapons: who cares?”Responsibility for one's actions is, of course, a basic requirement of every citizen, not just of scientists. Each of us must be accountable for our deeds. But the need for such responsibility is particularly imperative for scientists, if only because scientists understand the technical problems better than the average citizen or politician. And knowledge brings responsibility.In any case, scientists do not have a completely free hand. The general public, through elected governments, have the means to control science, either by withholding (抑制) the purse, or by imposing restrictive regulations harmful to science. Clearly it is far better that any control should be exercised by the scientists themselves, through a self-imposed code of conduct. The establishment of an ethical code of conduct for scientists is an idea whose time has come.Summary：Science and HumanityThe twentieth century has made greater change to the world, which was brought by the progress in science, than any previous century. Unfortunately, not all these changes did good to the human society. Some of them have done serious damage to mankind and have been even predicted to destroy the whole world someday if out of control. In fact, mankind is not biologically programmed for violent behaviors like war. People are faced with a dilemma in which we would like to see science develop freely, but cannot afford the result of that. It is a basic instinct that man tends to protect oneself by fighting with others. The progress in the nautral sciences is much faster than that in social sciences because laws in natural sciences are immutable and apply everywhere and are not affected by human reactions and emotions. For even developmemt and for a better future of mankind, imposition of ethical codes is necessary. Everyone should be responsible for his behavior, especially the scientists. (166 words)China Sees Opportunities in Climate ChangeUNLIKE America’s leaders, China’s bosses are not much troubled by recalcitrant（顽强的）legislatures. The government has therefore had no difficulty in executing a smart volte face（完全改变）on climate change. Around three years ago its fierce resistance to the notion of any limit on its greenhouse-gas emissions started to soften. It now seems to be making serious efforts to control them.One reason for this change is the country’s growing awareness of its vulnerability to a warming world. The monsoon（季风）seems to be weakening, travelling less far inland and dumping its rainfall on the coasts. As a result China is seeing floods in the south-east and droughts in the north-west. At the same time the country’s leaders are deeply concerned about the melting of the glaciers on the Tibetan plateau, which feed not just the Ganges, the Indus, the Brahmaputra and the Mekong but also the Yangzi and Yellow rivers .A second reason is China’s growing sense of global responsibility. The country is not only the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases; it now regards itself, and is regarded, as one of the w orld’s leading powers, and therefore expects to work with the other big powers to tackle global problems such as the economic crisis, nuclear proliferation（核扩散）and climate change.A third reason is energy security. Although China has large coal reserves, it is also a big importer. Concerns about excessive dependence on foreign fossil fuels sharpened when China’s oil imports rocketed and, in 2005, the attempt by CNOOC（China National Offshore Oil Corporation), China’s largest offshore oil and gas company, to buy America’s Unocal was rebuffed. China’s push into nuclear and renewable energy has been driven by its need to diversify its energy sources.The fourth reason is economic. The Kyoto protocol has given China an incentive to clean up its act. China has received $2 billion through the CDM（Clean Development Mechanism) for cleaning up its industrial processes and building clean-energy capacity—half the money that has flowed through the CDM. That is expected to rise to $8 billion by 2012.But a longer-term economic motive springs from a shift in the way China thinks about growth. In the past, its all-out drive for growth has led it to rebuff pressure to cut emissions. Attempts to control pollution foundered on the performance-assessment system for officials at all levels of government, which prioritises growth. But that has been adjusted to encourage energy efficiency, and at the same time the leadership has started to argue that growth and greenery are compatible.Since Wen Jiabao took over as prime minister, the leadership has tried to define economic growth as something broader and longer-term than GDP figures imply: the emphasis has been on a “harmonious society” and “scientific development”. Nobody was sure what the latter meant, but Mr Wen has recently been talking about a more “resource-efficient environmentally friendly society” and Hu Jintao, the president, has referred several times to a “low-carbon economy” and a “green economy”.Local pollution may help to explain the shift. Residents are infuriated by filthy air and water that kills people and damages unborn children. Policies to cut carbon-dioxide emissions—through reducing the energy used to produce goods—can help clean up China’s cities at the same time.More interesting is the idea that clean energy might be a source of growth rather than a constraint on it. China, so the argument goes, missed out on the computer revolution. It makes hardware, but American firms own most of the valuable stuff—the intellectual property for the software. “You can’t get rich making socks and toys,” explains Lin Jiang, director of the China Sustainable Energy Programme at the Energy Foundation in San Francisco. “They’re looking for the next growth industry. Clean energy clearly has huge potential. And no country dominates the industry yet. It’s a wide-open field.” Hu Angang, an economist at Tsinghua University, calls this “a huge opportunity for China. The country will become the largest renewable-energy market, bio-energy market, clean-coal market, nuclear-power market, carbon-exchange market, environmental-technology market, low-carbon economy, exporter of low-carbon products and low-carbon-technology innovator.”The government is giving the economy a shove in that direction. In 2006 the five-year plan set a target for a 20% cut in the energy intensity of GDP by the end of 2010. The start was slow, but by the end of last year it had managed 10% and it now looks on track for its target. According to Mr Lin, that would mean a reduction in carbon emissions of 1.5 billion tonnes per year by 2010, more than the Waxman-Markey bill’s caps for domestic industry would take out of America’s economy by 2020. China has relatively tight vehicle fuel-efficiency standards . Electric vehicles are being generously subsidised ($8,800 for a car and $73,500 for a bus) and the government plans to build the capacity to produce half a million a year by 2012.The most visible changes have come in renewable energy. In 2005 the National People’s Congress passed legislation to offer subsidies for renewable energy—around twice the amount for coal. For wind energy, the target was set at 20GW of capacity by 2020. The subsidy generated so much building that China now expects to hit that target by the end of this year and is aiming for 150GW by 2020. “It’s like a gold rush right now,” says Mr Lin. The target for solar energy, similarly, has been raised from 1.8GW to 20GW by 2020.To put this in context, wind currently generates only 0.4% of Chinese electricity. Coal generates 80%. And, although China’s government does not have to jump the legislative hurdles faced by America’s president, it sometimes struggles to get policy implemented on the ground. Yet if China’s many layers of government can be persuaded that green means growth, they will cleave （坚持）to this policy; and the leadership seems keen to make that happen.China, thus, is after the same “green jobs” that Americans have been promised as part of their road to economic recovery. America has huge advantages in terms of technology and capital, but China has a couple of things going for it too: cheaper labour and a leadership unconstrained by the need to get re-elected every four years. China can play a long game, which helps when dealing with climate change.SummaryChina Sees Opportunities in Climate ChangeIn order to help deal with climate change, Chinese government made a smart change and will make serious efforts to control its greenhouse gas emissions. As a big importer of energy resources, with the raising awareness of its vulnerability to a warming world and the growing sense of global responsibility, with the incentive given by the Kyoto Protocol and $2 billion provided by the CDM for cleaning up its industry processes and building clean-energy capacity, this change is justified for China. Since China's leadership realized that growth and greenery are compatible and advocated to have a "low-carbon" and "green" economy, the government set a target of a reduction in carbon emissions of 1.5 billion tons per year by 2010 by tightening vehicle-efficiency standards and diversifying its energy sources, such as wind energy. Actually, the practice of "green jobs" is a great opportunity for China to clean up its cities and build clean-energy capacity. In the long run, China will become the largest renewable energy market in the world. With cheaper labours and a stronger leadership, China can play a long game in dealing with climate change. (187 words)。
武汉大学研究生英语unit1、3、4、5、7原文及译文.doc
Unit One stumbling blocks in interculturalcommunication跨文化交流中的绊脚石1．为什么我们与来自其它文化的人们的交流总是充满了误会、让人感到沮丧呢？令很多人奇怪的是，即使怀着良好的愿望、使用自己认为是友好的方式，甚至有互利的可能性，也似乎都不足以保证交流的成功。
有时候，出现排斥现象正是因为一方所属的文化群体团体是“不同” 的。
在这个国际舞台发生重大变化的时刻，探讨为什么尝试交流的结果却令人失望的原因是必要的，这些原因实际上是跨文化交流中的绊脚石。
2．相似性的假设为什么误解或反对会产生呢？这个问题的一个回答就是，大部分的人天真地认为世界上的人有足够的相似之处，可以让我们成功地交流信息或感受，解决共同关注的一些问题，加强商业关系，或者只是产生我们所希望产生的印象。
所有的人都会生儿育女，组成家庭或社会，发展一种语言以及适应他们周围环境的这种倾向特别具有欺骗性，因为它带来了一种期望，这种期望就是这些行为的形式以及围绕这些行动的态度与价值观念将是相似的。
相信“人就是人”和“我们在本质是相似的，”这让人感到心安理得，但是下定决心去寻找证据却只会令人失望。
3．力求证明达尔文关于面部表情是共同的这一理论的跨文化研究给人极大的希望，研究者发现脸部的某些看得见的形状，即因愤怒、恐惧、惊讶、悲伤、厌恶、幸福而紧缩的肌肉组合 ,我们人类各成员都是一样的。
但是这似乎无济于事，只要我们意识到一个人生长的文化决定了这种情感是否会表露或压抑,决定了在何种场合和多大的程度上会表露或压抑。
带来这种情绪感受的情形也因文化而异，例如：由于崇拜的文化信仰不同，一个心爱的人死亡可能带来欢乐、悲哀或其他情感。
4．因为似乎没有普遍的人性可以作为自动理解的基础，所以我们必须把每交往当作个别案例来处理，寻求任何共同的认知和交流方法并以此作为出发点。
如果我们认识到我们受文化的约束，受文化的改变，那么我们就会受这一现实：因为各自不同，我们确实不太清楚其他人“是”什么样的。
武汉大学翻译硕士(MTI)基础科目英汉互译真题
武汉大学翻译硕士（MTI）基础科目英汉互译真题1.APEC 亚太经合组织2.CAT 计算机辅助翻译(Computer Aided Translation) ; （结合：CAD 计算机辅助设计）3.NATO 北大西洋公约组织（North Atlantic Treaty Organization）4.FIT 国外个人旅行（Foreign Independent Tour）5.GPS 全球定位系统（Global Position System）；6.IMF 国际货币基金组织(International Monetary Fund)7.subtitling 字幕8.Morse code 摩尔斯电码9.Translation studies 翻译研究10.Jerusalem 耶路撒冷11.General Assembly 联合国大会12.Gallup poll盖洛普民意测验13.money order汇款单14.Think-Aloud Protocols有声思维15.translation norms翻译规范汉译英：16.双赢Win-win17.三国Three Kingdoms18.直译Literal translation19.信达雅faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance20.民族政策Ethnic policies21.科学发展观Scientific Outlook on Development；22.节约型社会conservation-oriented society23.节能减排Energy conservation and emission reduction24.次贷危机Sub-prime mortgage crisis25.服务型政府Service-oriented government26.扫黄打非Eliminate pornography and illegal publications27.灾害救助制度the natural disaster relief system28.和谐社会harmonious society29.职业翻译者professional translator30.国际关系民主化practice democracy in international relations1 ASEAN:东南亚国家联盟（东盟）（Association of Southeast Asian Nations)2 CPI:消费者物价指数（Consumer Price Index）；3 EQ:情商（Emotional Quotient）4 GMT:格林威治标准时间（Greenwich Mean Time）5 GNP：国民生产总值（gross national product）6 OPEC：石油输出国家组织（Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries）7 UNCF:联合国儿童基金会（the United Children's Fund ）8 UNESCO:联合国教科文组织（United Nations Educational，Scientific，and Cultural Organization)9 NGO:民间组织；非政府组织（Non-Governmental Organization）10 Dynamic Equivalence 动态对等11 Foreignizing Method 异化12 Intersemiotic Translation 符际翻译【扩展：翻译可从5种不同的角度来分类：从译出语和译入语的角度来分类，翻译可分为本族语译为外语、外语译为本族语；1）从涉及到的语言符号来分类，翻译分为语内翻译（intralingual translation）、语际翻译（interlingual translation）和符际翻译（intersemiotic translation）；2）从翻译的手段来分类，翻译可分为口译（oral interlingual translation）、笔译（written interlingual translation）和机器翻译（machine translation）；3）从翻译的题材来分类，翻译可分为专业文献翻译（translation of English for science and technology）、文学翻译（literary translation）和一般性翻译（practical writing translation）；4）从翻译的处理方式来分类，翻译可分为全译（full translation）、摘译（partial translation）和编译（translation plus editing）】13 Lingua Franca 通用语14 Polysystems Theory 多元系统理论15 Department of Homeland Security 国土安全局汉译英：1 即席翻译unseen translation2 稀土rare earth3 产品导向product-driven4 民族的先知prophet of a nation5 操纵汇率Exchange Rate Manipulation6 第三产业The tertiary industry7 宏观调控macro-control efforts8 虚拟经济Virtonomics9 生态补偿机制ecological compensation mechanism10 西部大开发largescale development of the western region11 抑制流动性curb liquidity12 可持续发展sustainable development13 全面战略伙伴关系the comprehensive strategic partnership14 转变政府职能The transformation of governmental functions15 国际金融新秩序a new international financial order凯程教育：凯程考研成立于2005年，国内首家全日制集训机构考研，一直从事高端全日制辅导，由李海洋教授、张鑫教授、卢营教授、王洋教授、杨武金教授、张释然教授、索玉柱教授、方浩教授等一批高级考研教研队伍组成，为学员全程高质量授课、答疑、测试、督导、报考指导、方法指导、联系导师、复试等全方位的考研服务。
英语文学考研知识点总结
英语文学考研知识点总结IntroductionThe study of English literature is a comprehensive process that covers a wide range of knowledge, from the history of literature to literary genres, writers, and their works. For those who are preparing for the English literature postgraduate entrance examination, it is crucial to have a good understanding of the key knowledge points in order to achieve success. In this summary, we will cover the major areas of study in English literature and provide an overview of the key knowledge points that candidates should focus on.1. Literary PeriodsThe study of English literature is often divided into different literary periods, each characterized by its unique literary styles, themes, and historical background. These periods include:- Old English Literature: This period covers the literature written in Old English, from the7th century to the Norman Conquest in 1066. Key works from this period include "Beowulf" and the "Exeter Book."- Middle English Literature: This period includes the literature written in Middle English, from the Norman Conquest to the beginning of the Renaissance. Major works from this period include "The Canterbury Tales" by Geoffrey Chaucer and "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight."- Renaissance Literature: This period encompasses the literature of the 16th and early 17th centuries, marked by a renewed interest in classical learning, humanism, and the rise of English drama. Key writers from this period include William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson.- 17th Century Literature: This period is characterized by the emergence of metaphysical poetry and the Civil War in England. Major figures of this period include John Donne, Andrew Marvell, and John Milton.- 18th Century Literature: This period sees the rise of the novel as a major literary form and the flourishing of satire and social commentary. Key writers from this period include Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, and Samuel Richardson.- Romantic Literature: The Romantic period, spanning from the late 18th century to the early 19th century, is marked by a focus on individualism, emotion, and nature. Major figures of this period include William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and John Keats. - Victorian Literature: This period covers the literature of the 19th century, marked by expansive novels, social criticism, and the rise of the novel as a dominant literary form. Key writers from this period include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, and George Eliot.- Modernist Literature: The modernist period, which encompasses the early 20th century, is characterized by experimentation with narrative and form, as well as a response to the upheavals of the modern world. Major figures of this period include T.S. Eliot, Virginia Woolf, and James Joyce.Understanding the key characteristics, themes, and major writers of each literary period is essential for the English literature postgraduate entrance examination.2. Literary GenresIn addition to understanding the different literary periods, candidates should also have a good grasp of the major literary genres in English literature. These genres include:- Poetry: Poetry is a literary form characterized by the use of rhythm, imagery, and language to convey emotions and ideas. Different poetic forms, such as sonnets, odes, and ballads, should be studied in detail, along with the major poets associated with each form.- Prose: Prose refers to the ordinary form of written language, without metrical structure. Candidates should familiarize themselves with the various forms of prose, including novels, short stories, essays, and non-fiction, as well as the major writers within each genre.- Drama: Drama is a literary form designed for performance, characterized by dialogue, action, and often, a focus on conflict and resolution. Candidates should study the different types of drama, including tragedy, comedy, and tragicomedy, as well as the major playwrights associated with each form.Understanding the key characteristics of each literary genre, along with the major writers and works within each genre, is crucial for success in the English literature postgraduate entrance examination.3. Major Writers and WorksA comprehensive knowledge of major writers and their works is essential for success in the English literature postgraduate entrance examination. Candidates should have a good understanding of the major writers and works from each literary period, including their themes, style, and historical significance. This includes:- Old English Literature: Familiarize yourself with the key works of Old English literature, such as "Beowulf," "The Dream of the Rood," and "The Battle of Maldon," as well as the major writers associated with the period.- Middle English Literature: Study the major works of Middle English literature, including "The Canterbury Tales," "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight," and "Piers Plowman," as well as the major writers associated with the period.- Renaissance Literature: Understand the major works of Renaissance literature, such as the plays of William Shakespeare, the poetry of Edmund Spenser, and the essays of Francis Bacon, as well as the major writers associated with the period.- 17th Century Literature: Familiarize yourself with the major works of 17th century literature, including the poetry of John Donne and George Herbert, the prose of Thomas Browne and John Bunyan, and the plays of Ben Jonson and John Webster.- 18th Century Literature: Study the major works of 18th century literature, including the novels of Daniel Defoe and Samuel Richardson, the satire of Jonathan Swift, and the poetry of Alexander Pope and Thomas Gray.- Romantic Literature: Understand the major works of Romantic literature, including the poetry of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the novels of Jane Austen and the Brontë sisters, and the critical essays of William Hazlitt and Leigh Hunt.- Victorian Literature: Familiarize yourself with the major works of Victorian literature, including the novels of Charles Dickens and George Eliot, the poetry of Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning, and the essays of Thomas Carlyle and John Stuart Mill.- Modernist Literature: Study the major works of Modernist literature, including the poetry of T.S. Eliot and W.B. Yeats, the novels of Virginia Woolf and James Joyce, and the essays of Virginia Woolf and E.M. Forster.Having a good grasp of the major writers and works from each literary period is essential for success in the English literature postgraduate entrance examination.4. Literary Criticism and TheoriesIn addition to understanding the major writers and works of English literature, candidates should also have a good understanding of literary criticism and theories. This includes:- Formalist Criticism: Formalist criticism focuses on the literary work itself, analyzing its form, structure, and language to uncover its meaning and significance. Candidates should study the key concepts and approaches of formalist criticism, as well as its major proponents and their works.- Psychoanalytic Criticism: Psychoanalytic criticism applies the theories of Sigmund Freud and other psychoanalysts to the study of literature, seeking to uncover the unconscious motives and desires of the characters and authors. Candidates should familiarize themselves with the key concepts and approaches of psychoanalytic criticism, as well as its major proponents and their works.- Feminist Criticism: Feminist criticism focuses on the representation of women in literature, as well as the ways in which gender roles and power dynamics are addressed in literary works. Candidates should understand the key concepts and approaches of feminist criticism, as well as its major proponents and their works.- Marxist Criticism: Marxist criticism applies the theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to the study of literature, analyzing the role of class, power, and ideology in literary works. Candidates should study the key concepts and approaches of Marxist criticism, as well as its major proponents and their works.- Postcolonial Criticism: Postcolonial criticism examines the ways in which literature reflects and responds to the legacy of colonialism and imperialism. Candidates should familiarize themselves with the key concepts and approaches of postcolonial criticism, as well as its major proponents and their works.A good understanding of literary criticism and theories is crucial for success in the English literature postgraduate entrance examination.5. Comparative LiteratureComparative literature involves the study of literature across different languages, cultures, and periods, seeking to understand the connections and differences between literary works from different traditions. Candidates should have a good understanding of the key concepts and approaches of comparative literature, as well as the major writers and works within the field.ConclusionIn conclusion, the study of English literature covers a wide range of knowledge, from literary periods and genres to major writers, works, literary criticism, and comparative literature. For those preparing for the English literature postgraduate entrance examination, it is essential to have a good grasp of these key knowledge points in order to achieve success. By understanding the major areas of study in English literature and familiarizing oneself with the key concepts, approaches, and major figures within each area, candidates can enhance their chances of success in the examination.。
武汉大学研究生英语课文原文 Gender,poverty and environment
Gender, Poverty and EnvironmentGender is rarely considered as a mainstream issue in environmental policies and programmers. However, a better understanding of the different priorities and perceptions of men and women can be used to maximize policy effectiveness.1.In many parts of the world, women tend to be the poorest of the poor in avery literal sense. In addition to being the majority among the poor, they are often denied the most basic rights and access to critical resources such as land, inheritance or credit. Their labour and knowledge are undervalued.Their needs are often overlooked. They are more vulnerable to disease and disasters and the situation is made worse by their poverty. Cultural and social norms sometimes complicate matters further by placing additional expectations, restrictions and limitations on women. Gender gaps are widespread, and in no region of the world are women equal to men in legal, social and economic rights.2.The synergies between the goals of gender equity, poverty alleviation andenvironmental sustainability are explored below in terms of addressing poverty among women--including energy and water poverty, health, climate change, natural disasters and creating sustainable livelihoods by empowering women in the realms of agriculture, forest and biodiversity management.3.Energy, environment and genderThe synergies between gender, environment and the energy sector were first recognized in relation to biomass energy. Women were recognized as users and collectors of fuel wood, and as victims of environmental deterioration that caused energy scarcity.4.The surveys have shown that women spend long hours in fuel collection.The burden increases as deforestation worsens, and this affects the timeavailable to women for other activities including income-generating activities, education and participation in decision making. In Sudan, for instance, deforestation in the last decade led to a quadrupling of the time women spent gathering fuel wood. This stimulated efforts to promote afforestation and design more fuel-efficient stoves. Funding petered out, however, when the improved stoves and forestry projects were not as successful as anticipated.5.Attention to biomass energy and its impact on women's lives has recentlyrevived. Indoor air pollution, mainly from wood fuel smoke, ranked as the fourth largest health problem in developing countries. It is estimated to kill2 million women and children in developing countries every year and alsocauses respiratory and eye diseases. There are differences in exposure according to age and economic status, and in some cultures women tend to undervalue their own health, leading to under-reporting of problems.6.In many developing countries, communal lands remain a crucial source ofbiomass energy, yet privatization of these lands continues apace--reducing free access to fuel wood, and removing yet another where cooperative decisions could be made on sustainable management of fuel wood sources.7.In developed countries, the links between gender, environment and energyhave been explored mainly in the areas of equal opportunity in the energy professions, decision making in energy policy, pollution and health, preferences for energy production systems, access to scientific and technological education and the division of labour in the home.8.Climate change and genderClimate change is predicted to cause displacement of populations due to sea level rise. In many parts of the developing world it is expected to increase water scarcity, to increase the disease burden, to negatively impact agriculture, and to cause more frequent extreme weather events. The effects of climate change and adaptive capacity are very likely to differ by gender, because of the strong relationship between poverty and vulnerability, andthe fact that women as a group are poorer and less powerful than men.9.The potential value of gender as a factor in deciding on policies andprogrammes to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has received even less attention. For example, as users of household energy, women can play a key role in energy conservation, as well as in promoting renewable energy technologies.10.Both sexes make decisions about the forms of transport they use and howfrequently they travel, and there are gender differences in the choices they make. In developed countries, for example, women tend to use public transport more than men.nd tenure and agricultureDespite women's key role in agriculture, most of the world’s women do not equally own, inherit or control land and other property.Discriminatory inheritance and property ownership laws restrict women's ability to ensure long-term food security for the family, and to get loans using land as collateral. They also have important consequences for soil and land management --it is widely acknowledged that owners of land take more care to ensure soil conservation. Improved access to agricultural support systems, including credit, technology, education, transport, extension and marketing services, is essential to improving agricultural productivity and promoting environmentally sustainable practices--yet often women have no access to these services.12.The division of labour between men and women in agricultural productionvaries considerably between cultures. However, as a broad generalization, It is usually men who are responsible for large-scale cash cropping, especially when it is highly mechanized, while women take care of household food production and some small-scale, low technology cultivation of cash crops. This has important implications for biodiversity.Gender-differentiated local knowledge systems play a decisive role in conserving, managing and improving genetic resources for food andagriculture, In Kenya, men's knowledge of traditional crops and practices is actually declining as a result of formal schooling and migration to urban areas. By contrast, women retain a widely shared level of general knowledge in the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity about wild foods, craft and medicinal plants, and acquire new knowledge about natural resources as their roles and duties change.13.WaterLack of access to clean potable water has been recognized as a factor increasing women's work burdens in those parts of the world where they are responsible for collecting water for basic needs like cooking, cleaning and hygiene. In some cases water collection can take up to 60 percent of their working time.14.In rural Africa, women and girls spend as much as three hours a dayfetching water, using up more than one-third of their daily caloric energy intake. This limits the time available for them to engage in wage-earning economic and social activities and development projects. Lack of clean water is also responsible for waterborne diseases among children--one of the major causes of child disease and mortality. This further adds to women's childcare responsibilities.15.The lack of easily accessible water has health implications for women aswell. Carrying heavy water jars over long distances during pregnancy can result in premature births, prolapsed uterus or back injuries. Constant exposure to water while collecting, washing clothes, cleaning and cooking puts women at greater risk of contracting water-related diseases. For instance, in eastern Tanzania, urinary schistosomiasis, a water-related disease, was most common among boys, and also among girls and women between the ages of 10 and 40. The incidence among boys was associated with swimming. Among women and girls, it was associated with the local practice of washing clothes while standing in schistosomiasis-infest ed water.16.HealthThe link between health and the environment has been widely recognized, if not fully acted upon, in recent years. Unclean water and untreated sewage are responsible for the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera and intestinal parasites. Limited access to water may be responsible for the spread of germs. pollutants in the environment (including air pollutants from transport and industry, chemical toxins and heavy metals from industrial processes, and dioxins from waste incineration) pose a constant threat to the human body. Climate change is expected to increase the burden of disease considerably by allowing vectors to breed in latitudes or altitudes where current temperatures prevent them.Men and women are exposed differently to environmental risks, and their bodies may respond differently even to the same threats. For instance, the incidence of respiratory illnesses is considerably higher among women and young children, who are constantly exposed to indoor air pollution, than among men.17.Poor nutritional levels can make people particularly vulnerable toinfectious diseases, and age and gender may exacerbate this risk. Malaria, for example, is more likely to cause serious problems or death in young children or pregnant women. During pregnancy, it can cause severe anemia, and it can also harm the fetus, increasing the chances of abortion, premature birth,still-birth, intrauterine growth retardation and low infant birth weight.18.One of the newest threats to health and social welfare is the spread ofHIV/AIDS. Both sexes are affected, but to different extents in different parts of the world. Globally, men account for 52 percent of infected adults.Lack of information among women on how the disease is transmitted confounds the problem in many regions. In sub-Saharan Africa. 65 per cent of those infected are women. In this region, women grow most of the food, and women's agricultural labour often shows the first signs of widercommunity disruption by HIV/AIDS. For example, in Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe where women are responsible for most food production, there has been a progressive shift from maize production to less labour-intensive, and less nutritious, cassava production to compensate for the labour lost through HIV/ADS.19.UrbanizationUntil recently, the link between gender, the environment and urbanization was mostly seen as rural women being left behind in rural areas to take care of agriculture, while men migrate to cities in search of a better income. This focus has slowly expanded to include the impact of urban environments on women. In many developing countries, people migrating as unskilled labourers to a city face a challenge in accessing even basic necessities such as food, water, and housing, and they are vulnerable to exploitation and economic abuse.20.Air and water pollution can be extreme in urban settings, and sanitationand waste treatment poor or non-existent in low-cost residential areas and slums, Housing tenure patterns in towns and cities ale sometimes gender distorted: it is often harder for women to have secure tenure of their housing or land. In addition, inequitable inheritance practices leave female-headed households extremely vulnerable, especially where land grabbing occurs. Many urban households have female heads, and typically these are poorer and more vulnerable than households with a couple.21.Environmental disastersDisasters do not strike evenly by social class or gender. However, it is well established that the poor are more exposed to environmental and other disasters, and also more vulnerable to them when they occur. They are more likely to live in disaster-prone areas, in vulnerable, badly built and badly sited housing, and with few resources to pay for rescue or rehabilitation.22.Anyone who is located (socially and / or spatially) "out of the loop" ofinformation supplied by early warning systems is likely to suffer more from disasters. In some countries, these individuals are more likely to be women than men. The 1991 cyclone in Bangladesh resulted in a disproportionate number of female deaths (71 per 1, 000 women as against 15 per 1, 000 men). This was partly because warnings of the cyclone were displayed in public places, less frequented by women. Researchers also found that women delayed leaving their houses for much longer, in order to avoid the impropriety of being alone in public. Women were also less likely to have been taught how to swim.23.On the other hand, men sometimes treat disaster warnings less seriously.More men than women died in Florida and the Caribbean during Hurricane Mitch in 1998, in part because they ventured into the storm. The earthquake in Kobe, Japan in 1995 demonstrated clear gender differentiated impacts both during and after the event.24.Challenges for the FutureThe full success of forward-looking strategies for bringing gender into environmental analysis--and vice versa--may hinge on three major areas of activity.25.First, improving and supporting women's capacity to participate and shapeenvironmental policy and action at all levels from grassroots to government. Worldwide, women are still very poorly represented in governments and other decision-making bodies. There has been an improvement in women's participation in development programmes, but their role still falls far short of men's. Part of the solution is to prepare women for greater participation by equalizing education and literacy rates for girls and women with those of boys and men.26.Second, adjusting government priorities so that awareness and promotionof gender equality are integrated into financial planning. In 20 countries so far, UNIFEM has supported the development of gender responsive budgets that examine how the allocation of public resources benefits women andmen, and addresses gender equality requirements. In Mexico, the government earmarked the equivalent of 0. 85 per cent of the total budget in 2003 for programmes promoting gender equity. Fourteen ministries are required to report quarterly on the status of these programmes.27.Third, improving institutional capacities to incorporate gender-relatedenvironmental analysis. Much of modem environmental analysis is framed by the technical / scientific paradigm and relies mostly on quantitative biophysical data. Much of the work on gender and environment, on the other hand, is framed by a social science approach relying more on qualitative material, case study narratives, and anecdotal evidence.Merging these two paradigms will be a challenge.28.It is difficult enough to mainstream social considerations withinenvironmental work; adding gender as a third dimension is even more challenging. Many people in the environmental field see issues such as climate change or loss of biodiversity as urgent, first-order global problems.Bringing a gender perspective into the discussion is often dismissed as trivial--or at least not essential to priority problem solving. It is not unusual for environmentalists to consider that attention to gender diverts energy and time away from pressing issues; it is"like rearranging the chairs on the Titanic,"one environmentalist was recently cited as saying. Part of this challenge is to convince technical experts that gender matters, and that analyses of gender balance and equity do not weaken or delay, but actually strengthen and sharpen environmental analyses, policies and programmes.。
英文文学元素-literary-elements
Lo cation
Life
Era
Physical
Place
Time
Setting
History
Atmosphere
Mood Weather
Word Choice
Day
Fe elings
Use as activator to activate prior know ledge. Write the w eb on the board or overhead and students cre ate one at their seats. Then as class share and fill in.
✓External conflict- outside force may be person,
group, animal, nature, or a nonhuman obstacle
✓Internal conflict- takes place in a character’s mind
Theme
Direct Characterization
…And I don’t play the dozens or believe in standing around with somebody in my face doing a lot of talking. I much rather just knock you down and take my chances even if I’m a little girl with skinny arms and a squeaky voice, which is how I got the name Squeaky.
➢A central message, concern, or insight
《文学原理》硕士研究生课程教学大纲
《文学原理》硕士研究生课程教学大纲（英文名称：Introduction to Literary Studies）一、课程说明1、课程编码：0130502012022、学分：3学时：513、课程类别：专业学位课4、开课学院：翻译学院5、课程简介：文学原理是文学专业的基础理论课程之一。
本课程介绍和阐述文学理论的性质和形态，文学活动的性质和文学创作的过程，文学作品的性质和特征，帮助学生掌握文学理论的基本原理和基础知识，树立马克思主义文艺观点，提高欣赏、评论文学作品的能力，科学地认识和理解文学现象，为学习其他文学课程和以后从事语言文学的教学奠定文学方面的基础。
6、预备知识：英美文学基本知识7、教学目的与要求：本课程按照小说、诗歌、戏剧三大文学体裁分类，阐释文学要素和文学原理，为学生阅读文本提供一种可行的视角和分析模式，并注重实践，强调文本阅读，精选英美文学名篇，将理论与实践相结合，指导学生利用所学文学批评知识欣赏、分析文本。
8、考核方法与要求：考核方法：闭卷考试和课程论文相结合组成及占分比例：闭卷考试占40%，课程论文占60%。
9、教材与参考书：教材：金莉，张剑. 文学原理教程(修订版). 外研社, 2010.参考书目：Cleanth Brooks, Robert Penn Warren. Understanding Poetry. 外研社, 2004.Cleanth Brooks, Robert Penn Warren. Understanding Fiction.外研社, 2004. 邓绪新. 英语文学概论. 武汉大学出版社, 2002.黄源深，周立人.外国文学欣赏与批评. 外教社, 2003.林六辰. 英美小说要素解析. 外教社, 2004.二、教学内容纲要Part 1 Fiction （学时：20）Chapter I PlotThe Story of an Hour Kate ChopinThe Girls in Their Summer Dresses Irwin ShawChapter 2 Character and CharacterizationAstronomer's Wife Kay BoyleEveryday Use Alice WalkerChapter 3 ThemeI Want to Know Why Sherwood AndersonA Rose for Emily William FaulknerChapter 4 Point of ViewHaircut Ring LardnerA Little Cloud James JoyceChapter 5 Style, Tone, and IronyA Clean, Well-Lighted Place Ernest HemingwayThe Black Cat EdgarAIlan PoeChapter 6 SymbolThe Fly Katherine MansfieldThe Lottery Shirley JacksonChapter 7 Types of FictionThe Mark on the Wall Virginia WoolfLost in the Funhouse John BarthPart 2 Poetry （学时：19）Chapter 1 Alliteration, Assonance, and RhymeBlow, Blow, Thou Winter Wind William ShakespeareTo——Percy Bysshe ShelleyThe Splendor Falls Alfred TennysonToads Revisited Philip LarkinChapter 2 Rhythm and MeterVirtue George HerbertThe Oak Alfred TennysonOh, Who Is That Young Sinner A.E. HousmanThe V oice Thomas HardyChapter 3 Closed Form and Open FormOn What Foundation Stands Samuel JohnsonDo Not Go Gentle into That Good Night Dylan Thomas To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time Robert HerrickWith Music Strong I Come Walt WhitmanChapter 4 DictionThis Is Just to Say William Carlos WilliamsMetamorphosis Wallace StevensA Little Leaming Is a Dangerous Thing Alexander PopeFire and Ice Robert FrostChapter 5 Figures of SpeechThe Eagle: A Fragment Alfred TennysonMetaphors Sylvia PlathTo His Coy Mistress Andrew MarvellMethought I Saw My Late Espoused Saint John Milton Chapter 6 Image and SymbolA Noiseless Patient Spider Walt WhitmanThe Boston Evening Transcript T.S. EliotUp-hill Christina RossettiThe Second Coming William Butler YeatsChapter 7 Tone and SpeakerMy Papa's Waltz Theodore RoethkeThe Chimney Sweeper William BlakeOn Stella's Birthday Jonathan SwiftThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock T.S. EliotChapter 8 Types of PoetryI Sing of Warfare VirgilThe Passionate Shepherd to His Love Christopher MarloweNothing Gold Can Stay Robert FrostWe All Behold with Envious Eyes Jonathan SwiftPart 3 Drama（学时：12）Chapter 1 Plot and CharacterOedipus the King SophoclesChapter 2 Dialogue, Staging, and ThemeTrifles Susan GlaspellChapter 3 Types of DramaThe Dumb Waiter Harold Pinter。
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8
Hithcliff in Wuthering Heights
Protagonist
Not so good
Frankenstein in Frankenstein
9
Antagonist
？ villain or bad character
10
Whether a character is considered an protagonist in a story, is not determined by who is good and who is evil; but by who is the main character and who is their adversary or obstacle.
2. Rising Action
▪ The rising action includes all the events that lead to the climax. It also presents a series of conflicts that build toward the point of greatest interest. Suspense is building.
eg. Pi VS Richard Parker( a Bengal tiger) (stranded on a
lifeboat ) in Life of Pi. the captain VS the white whale in
Moby Dick (who destroyed his ship ad bit off his leg many years ago)
Who is the protagonist and who is the antagonist?
6
Protagonist
Antagonist
Dorothy
Witch
7
Protagonist
？ hero or good character
Discussion: is the protagonist always ard collapses, dead. The Doctor said "that she had died of
heart disease - of joy that kills." He thought she was so overjoyed to see him that she died.
“To be, or not to be – that is the question: Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep…”
13
Work in groups to put the events in correct order.
▪ ①Mrs. Mallord, though grieving, realizes that she is now free from a
marriage in which she wasn't truly happy. So though she mourns the death of her husband, secretly she's extremely happy.
will kill her.
14
Work in groups to put the events in correct order.
▪ ①Mrs. Mallord, though grieving, realizes that she is now free from a
marriage in which she wasn't truly happy. So though she mourns the death of her husband, secretly she's extremely happy.
will kill her.
53142
15
Plot Diagram (on the board)
Climax
3
Exposition
1
Rising Action
2
Falling Action
4
Resolution
5
Plot Diagram (on the blackboard), one group puts event in the right place
3
2 1
4 5
1. Exposition
▪ The exposition is the introduction to a story, including the primary characters' names, setting, mood, and time.
Mrs. Mallard is sickly and suffers from a weak heart. Her sister, Josephine comforts her, concerned that the news she is about to hear will kill her.
▪ ③Josephine and Richards, a friend of Mr. Brently Mallard, gently reveal
that Mr. Mallard has been killed in a railroad disaster.
▪ ④After Mrs. Mallard comes to the conclusion that she is now free to live a
happy life, Mr. Mallard, unharmed by the tragic accident, comes through the door.
▪ ⑤Mrs. Mallard is sickly and suffers from a weak heart. Her sister,
Josephine comforts her, concerned that the news she is about to hear
3
Sample character map (Hamlet)
4
5
Protagonist
Antagonist
The protagonist is the main character in a story.
The character or group of characters that stand against the protagonist
11
Plot
▪ The organized pattern or sequence of events that make up a story.
12
Understanding the Plot of The Story of an Hour
▪ Work in groups to put the events in correct order.
▪ ②Mrs. Mallard collapses, dead. The Doctor said "that she had died of
heart disease - of joy that kills." He thought she was so overjoyed to see him that she died.
Josephine and Richards, a friend of Mr. Brently Mallard, gently reveal that Mr. Mallard has been killed in a railroad disaster.
Conflict
The struggle between two forces in the story. Conflict provides interest, suspense, and tension.
Elements of Literature
Characterization
▪ The creation of imaginary people who appear to be real to the reader.
2
Work in groups to draw a character map of The Story of an Hour. Who they are, what they do, what happens to them.
-Character vs. Character * two or more characters have a problem
eg. HarryPottervs.Voldemort. -Character vs. Nature
* characters have to fight against a force of nature. Ex/ storm, disease
happy life, Mr. Mallard, unharmed by the tragic accident, comes through the door.
▪ ⑤Mrs. Mallard is sickly and suffers from a weak heart. Her sister,
Josephine comforts her, concerned that the news she is about to hear
▪ ③Josephine and Richards, a friend of Mr. Brently Mallard, gently reveal