词汇学构词法Word FORMATION
Chapter4 Word information II
The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation. There is a variety of means being at work now.
The most productive are ：
affixation, compounding and conversion词缀法、复合法和转类法
And there are minor processes of word formation几个次要构词方法：
blending, clipping, acronymy, back-formation and words from proper name
4.1Affixation词缀法
4.1.1Prefixation前缀法
Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. 前缀法是在词干上加前缀构词的一种方法。
We shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups我们可从语义的角度把前缀分为九类。
1.“negative” prefixes表示否定意义的前缀
prefixes meaning examples
a- not,the converse of amoral, apolitical
dis- disloyal, disobey
in- injustice
il- illegal
ir- irresistible
im- immature
non- non-smoker, non-classical
un- unfair, unwilling
2.“reversative or privative”(“非”﹑“缺”) prefixes表示逆向意义的前缀
prefixes meaning examples
de- reversing the actiondecentralize, de-compose
dis- disunite, disallow
un- unhorse, unwrap
3.“pejorative” prefixes（贬损）表示贬义的前缀
prefixes meaning examples
mal- wrongly maltreat, malpractice
mis- bad misconduct, mistrust
pseudo- false pseudo-science
4.Prefixes of size or degree表示程度、大小等意义的前缀
prefixes meaning examples
arch- supreme archbishop
extra- superior extra-strong
hyper- extreme hyperactive
macro- large macrocosm
micro- small microcomputer
mini- little mini-election
out- surpassing outlive
over- excessive overweight
sub- below subheading
super- more thansuperfreeze
sur- over surtax
ultra- extreme ultra-conservative
under- too little underdeveloped
5.Prefixes of orientation and attitude表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀
prefixes meaning examples
anti- against anti-nuclear, anti-government, anti-clockwise
contra- against contraflow
counter- against counterattack
pro- for pro-student, pro-democracy
co- with cooperate
6."locative" prefixes表示方位意义的前缀
prefixes meaning examples
extra- out extraordinary, extramarital
fore- front forehead, forearm
inter- between,among inter-city, interpersonal, international
intra- inside intra-party,
tele- distant telecommunication
trans- across transcontinental, transplant
sub- under subway
7.Prefixes of time and order表示时间和顺序等意义的前缀
prefixes meaning examples
ex- former ex-professor, ex-president
fore- before foretell, foreknowledge, foresee
post- after post-election, postindustrial
pre- in advance pre-prepared, preschool
re- again reconsider, resell
8."number" prefixes表示数字的前缀
prefixes meaning examples
semi-,demi-,hemi- half semi-naked,demi-circle,hemisphere
uni-,mono- one uniform,monorail
bi-,di- two bilingual,bicycle,dioxide
tri- three tricycle,triangle
deca- ten decadal
centi- hundred centimetre,centimillionare
kilo-,milli- thousand kilogram,milligram
mega- million megacity
poly-,multi- many polysyllable,multi-purpose
9.a miscellaneous category (auto-, neo-, pan-, proto-, semi-, vice-).其他种类意义的前缀prefixes meaning examples
auto- self autobiography
neo- new neo-Nazi
pan- all pan-European
vice- deputy vice-chairman
4.1.2后缀法
Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. Therefore, we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc. By noun suffix or adjective suffix, we mean that when the suffix under discussion is added to the stem, whatever class it belongs to, the result will be a noun or an adjective. 后缀法是在词干上加后缀构成新词的方法。不像前缀主要是改变词干的意义，后缀只带有很弱的语义，其主要功能是改变词干的语法功能。换句话说，后缀主要改变词类。因此，我们将把后缀按语法分成名词后缀、动词后缀、形容词后缀等类别。所谓名词后缀和形容词后缀，意思是说这些后缀无论加在什么样的词干上，所构成的新词就一定是名词和形容词。
If a suffix is fixed at the end of a verb and derives a noun, then this noun is called deverbal nouns.（由动词转化的名词）
employ + er =employer
If a suffix is fixed at the end of a noun and derives a noun, then this noun is called denominal mouns.（由名词转化的名词）
village + er = villager
1.Noun suffixes名词后缀
1）Denominal nouns由名词转化的名词
a. Concrete suffixes具体后缀
suffixes meaning exampl
-ster person engaged in an occupation or activity gangster, songster
-eer pro fiteer, engineer
-er(or) teenager, driver
-ess female priestess, hostess
-let small, unimportant booklet,
-ette small; imitation; female cigarette, kitchenette
b. Abstract suffixes抽象后缀
uffixes meaning examples
-age amountwastage, mileage
-dom real mofficialdom
-ship co dition dictatorship
-ery slavery
-hood status adulthood, childhood
-ing state farming, bathing
-ism doctrine terrorism
-ship friendship, sportsmanship.
2）Deverbal nouns由动词转化的名词
suffixes meaning examples
-ant denoting people assistant, informant
-ee employee, trainee
-ent dependent
-age state linkage, carriage
-al action dismissal, survival, arrival
-ance state attendance, performance
-ation(tion,ion,ition) stateprotection, decision, oppression
-ence state existence, persistence
-ing state building, savings
-ment state statement, judgment, movement
3）De-adjective nouns: 由形容词转化的名词
suffixes meaning examples
-ity state popularity, productivity
-ness state happiness, largeness
4）Noun and adjective suffixes名词和形容词后缀
A small number of suffixes, when added to stems related to human beings or nationality names, form words that can be used both as nouns and adjectives：有一小部分后缀加在表示人或国家名的词干上既构成名词，又构成形容词
suffixes meaning examples
-ese added to stems related to human beings or nationality names,
form words that can be used both as nouns and adjective Lebanese, Chinese
-an Australian, Elizabethan
-ist socialist, violinist
2. Adjective suffixes形容词后缀
1）Denominal suffixes：加在名词后的形容词后缀
suffixes meaning examples
-ed having wooded,simple-minded
-ful full of hopeful, successful
-ish somewhat like foolish, childish
-less without priceless, nameless
-like like childlike, lady-like, dreamlike
-ly having the quality of cowardly, friendly
-y somewhat like smoky,bloody
-al (-ial, -ical) typical of cultural, residential
-icty pical of economic, historic
-ous（-eous, -ious）full of courageous, marvelous
-esque like picturesque
2）Deverbal suffixes: 加在动词后的形容词后缀
suffixes meaning examples
-able（-ible）capable washable, arguable permissible
-ive（-ative, -sive）having the quality of active, decisive, productive
3. Adverb suffixes：副词后缀
suffixes meaning examples
-lyin a manner calmly, naturally, publicly
-ward(s) directionof movement homeward, downward, onward
-wise in the manner of as far as…is concerned clockwise education-wise
4. Verb suffixes：动词后缀
suffixes meaning examples
-ateto become originate
-en darken, heighten, strengthen
-ify solidify, beautify
-ize modernize, symbolize
A seemingly productive vogue affix:
suffixes meaning examples
-nik people who like sth folknik, peacenik, jazznik
4.2Compounding
Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a…lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word?（Quirk et al 1985）. 将两个或两个以上的根词合在一起构成新词的方法叫复合构词法。这类词叫复合词。复合词可定义为“由不只一个根词组成，但只起一个词的语法和词义作用的词汇单位”
silkworm，honey-bee，tear gas，easy chair
These examples show that compounds can be written solid（合在一起）, hyphenated（用连字符）and open（分开写）.
Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects.
1. Phonetic features（语音特征）. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress. In cases of two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the secondary stress, if any, on the second whereas the opposite is true of free phrases. 语音上的特点。复合词中重音通常在第一个构词成分上，而名词词组的重音在第二个词上（如果该词只有一个重音）；如果有两个重音，复合词的主要重音在第一个构词成分上，次重音在第二个构词成分上。
Compound Free phrase
a 'fat head a fat 'head
a 'hot house a hot 'house
a 'black horse a black 'horse
a 'green room a green 'room
But these stress patterns of compounds are not absolute.
ash-'blonde
bottle-'green
socio-linguistic
psycho-analysis
2. Semantic features（语义特征）. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity.
Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. 在语义的统一性上复合词与自由词组也有区别。每个复合词所表达的意思是一个概念，如同一个词一样。
For example
green handinexperienced person
red meatbeef or lamb
hot doga typical American sausage in between two pieces of bread.
Nevertheless, a lot of compounds are transparent（透明的）, that is the meaning can be inferred from the separate elements of compounds. But the two elements are inseparable and the change of the element would result in the loss of the original identity.
For example
disaster-related flower pot washing machine dumb show scarlet fever
3. Grammatical features（语法特征）：A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.（复合词在语法上独立作成分，如作动词、作名词、作形容词等。）
He bad-mouthed me. （他诋毁了我）
Compound nouns show their plural forms by taking inflectional -s at the end
Compound nouns Plural form
new-born new-borns
three-year-old three-year-olds
will-o-the-wisp will-o?-the-wisps
major general major generals
exceptions
Compound nouns Plural form
brother-in-law brothers-in-law
looker-on lookers-on
In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes. Compound Free phrase
fine art finer art
red tape reddest tape
hot line hotter line