外文资料原件
毕业设计(论文)外文资料及译文(模板)
大连东软信息学院
毕业设计（论文）外文资料及译文
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大连东软信息学院
Dalian Neusoft University of Information
外文资料和译文格式要求
一、装订要求
1、外文资料原文（复印或打印）在前、译文在后、最后为指导教师评定成绩。
2、译文必须采用计算机输入、打印。
3、A4幅面打印，于左侧装订。
二、撰写要求
1、外文文献内容与所选课题相关。
2、本科学生译文汉字字数不少于4000字，高职学生译文汉字字数不少于2000字。
三、格式要求
1、译文字号：中文小四号宋体，英文小四号“Times New Roman”字型，全文统一，首行缩进2个中文字符，1.5倍行距。
2、译文页码：页码用阿拉伯数字连续编页，字体采用“Times New Roman”字体，字号小五，页底居中。
3、译文页眉：眉体使用单线，页眉说明五号宋体，居中“大连东软信息学院本科毕业设计（论文）译文”。
外文文献资料
外文文献外文文献对于学术研究以及跨文化交流起着至关重要的作用。
随着全球化进程的加快，外文文献的重要性也日益突出。
本文将探讨外文文献的定义、意义以及获取途径，并探讨其在学术领域的应用。
定义外文文献是指使用外国语言编写的科技、文学、艺术等各种学术和非学术文献。
外文文献不仅包括英语文献，还包括其他国家和地区使用的各种语言文献。
外文文献作为跨越语言障碍的重要工具，帮助读者获取更广泛的知识和信息。
意义外文文献的重要性主要体现在以下几个方面：1.获取新知识：外文文献是获取国际前沿学术信息的重要途径。
许多先进的研究成果和理论在国际上首次发表，通过翻译和阅读外文文献可以及时获取这些信息。
2.促进学术交流：外文文献是学术交流的桥梁，可以帮助不同国家和地区的学者之间进行交流与合作，促进学术研究的发展。
3.提升个人能力：通过阅读外文文献，可以提升个人的外语水平和专业知识，拓宽视野，培养批判性思维和跨文化交流能力。
4.推动学科发展：外文文献中包含了丰富的学术理论和研究方法，可以为国内学科的发展提供借鉴和参考，推动学科发展。
获取途径获取外文文献有多种途径，如下：1.图书馆资源：大部分高校图书馆都拥有丰富的外文文献资源，学生和教职员工可通过图书馆的借阅服务获取所需文献。
2.学术期刊和数据库：很多学术期刊和数据库提供有关于外文文献的查找和下载服务，如Google Scholar、JSTOR等。
3.专业网站：一些专业的学术网站和论坛提供了大量的外文文献资源，通过注册或付费可以获取到相关文献。
4.学术交流：参加国际学术会议或学术交流活动，可以结识到海外学者，获取到最新的外文文献。
学术应用外文文献在学术研究中占据重要地位，主要体现在以下几个方面：1.文献综述：通过阅读外文文献可以进行综述研究，了解国际研究进展和学术观点，为自己的研究提供理论支持和参考。
2.研究方法：外文文献中包含了丰富的研究方法和技术，可以帮助研究者选择合适的研究方法和工具，提升研究质量和水平。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料和译文格式要求(模板)
成都东软学院外文资料和译文格式要求一、译文必须采用计算机输入、打印，幅面A4。
外文资料原文（复印或打印）在前，译文在后，于左侧装订。
二、具体要求1、至少翻译一篇内容与所选课题相关的外文文献。
2、译文汉字字数不少于4000字。
3、正文格式要求：宋体五号字。
译文格式参见《译文格式要求》，宋体五号字，单倍行距。
纸张纸张为A4纸，页边距上2.54cm、下2.54cm、左3.17cm、右3.17cm。
装订外文资料原文（复印或打印）在前，译文在后封面封面的专业、班级、姓名、学号等信息要全部填写正确。
封面指导教师必须为讲师以上职称，若助教则需要配备一名讲师协助指导。
讲师在前，助教在后。
指导教师姓名后面空一个中文空格，加职称。
页眉页眉说明宋体小五，左端“XX学院毕业设计（论文）”，右端“译文”。
页眉中的学院名称要与封面学院名称一致。
字数本科4000字。
附：外文资料和译文封面、空白页成都东软学院外文资料和译文专业：软件工程移动互联网应用开发班级：2班姓名：罗荣昆学号：12310420216指导教师：2015年 12月 8日Android page layoutUsing XML-Based LayoutsW hile it is technically possible to create and attach widgets to our activity purely through Java code, the way we did in Chapter 4, the more common approach is to use an XML-based layout file. Dynamic instantiation of widgets is reserved for more complicated scenarios, where the widgets are not known at compile-time (e g., populating a column of radio buttons based on data retrieved off the Internet).With that in mind, it’s time to break out the XML and learn how to lay out Android activities that way.What Is an XML-Based Layout?As the name suggests, an XML-based layout is a specification of widgets’ relationships to each other—and to their containers (more on this in Chapter 7)—encoded in XML format. Specifi cally, Android considers XML-based layouts to be resources, and as such layout files are stored in the res/layout directory inside your Android project.Each XML file contains a tree of elements specifying a layout of widgets and their containers that make up one view hierarchy. The attributes of the XML elements are properties, describing how a widget should look or how a container should behave. For example, if a Button element has an attribute value of android:textStyle = "bold", that means that the text appearing on the face of the button should be rendered in a boldface font style.Android’s SDK ships with a tool (aapt) which uses the layouts. This tool should be automatically invoked by your Android tool chain (e.g., Eclipse, Ant’s build.xml). Of particular importance to you as a developer is that aapt generates the R.java source file within your project, allowing you to access layouts and widgets within those layouts directly from your Java code. Why Use XML-Based Layouts?Most everything you do using XML layout files can be achieved through Java code. For example, you could use setTypeface() to have a button render its textin bold, instead of using a property in an XML layout. Since XML layouts are yet another file for you to keep track of, we need good reasons for using such files.Perhaps the biggest reason is to assist in the creation of tools for view definition, such as a GUI builder in an IDE like Eclipse or a dedicated Android GUI designer like DroidDraw1. Such GUI builders could, in principle, generate Java code instead of XML. The challenge is re-reading the UI definition to support edits—that is far simpler if the data is in a structured format like XML than in a programming language. Moreover, keeping generated XML definitions separated from hand-written Java code makes it less likely that somebody’s custom-crafted source will get clobbered by accident when the generated bits get re-generated. XML forms a nice middle ground between something that is easy for tool-writers to use and easy for programmers to work with by hand as needed.Also, XML as a GUI definition format is becoming more commonplace. Microsoft’s XAML2, Adobe’s Flex3, and Mozilla’s XUL4 all take a similar approach to that of Android: put layout details in an XML file and put programming smarts in source files (e.g., JavaScript for XUL). Many less-well-known GUI frameworks, such as ZK5, also use XML for view definition. While “following the herd” is not necessarily the best policy, it does have the advantage of helping to ease the transition into Android from any other XML-centered view description language. OK, So What Does It Look Like?Here is the Button from the previous chapter’s sample application, converted into an XMLlayout file, found in the Layouts/NowRedux sample project. This code sample along with all others in this chapter can be found in the Source Code area of .<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?><Button xmlns:android="/apk/res/android"android:id="@+id/button"android:text=""android:layout_width="fill_parent"android:layout_height="fill_parent"/>The class name of the widget—Button—forms the name of the XML element. Since Button is an Android-supplied widget, we can just use the bare class name. If you create your own widgets as subclasses of android.view.View, you would need to provide a full package declara tion as well.The root element needs to declare the Android XML namespace:xmlns:android="/apk/res/android"All other elements will be children of the root and will inherit that namespace declaration.Because we want to reference this button from our Java code, we need to give it an identifier via the android:id attribute. We will cover this concept in greater detail later in this chapter.The remaining attributes are properties of this Button instance:• android:text indicates the initial text to be displayed on the button face (in this case, an empty string)• android:layout_width and android:layout_height tell Android to have the button’swidth and height fill the “parent”, in this case the entire screen—these attributes will be covered in greater detail in Chapter 7.Since this single widget is the only content in our activity, we only need this single element. Complex UIs will require a whole tree of elements, representing the widgets and containers that control their positioning. All the remaining chapters of this book will use the XML layout form whenever practical, so there are dozens of other examples of more complex layouts for you to peruse from Chapter 7 onward.What’s with the @ Signs?Many widgets and containers only need to appear in the XML layout file and do not need to be referenced in your Java code. For example, a static label (TextView) frequently only needs to be in the layout file to indicate where it should appear. These sorts of elements in the XML file do not need to have the android:id attribute to give them a name.Anything you do want to use in your Java source, though, needs an android:id.The convention is to use @+id/... as the id value, where the ... represents your locally unique name for the widget in question. In the XML layout example in the preceding section, @+id/button is the identifier for the Button widget.Android provides a few special android:id values, of the form @android:id/.... We will see some of these in various chapters of this book, such as Chapters 8 and 10.We Attach These to the Java How?Given that you have painstakingly set up the widgets and containers in an XML layout filenamed main.xml stored in res/layout, all you need is one statement in your activity’s onCreate() callback to use that layout:setContentView(yout.main);This is the same setContentView() we used earlier, passing it an instance of a View subclass (in that case, a Button). The Android-built view, constructed from our layout, is accessed from that code-generated R class. All of the layouts are accessible under yout, keyed by the base name of the layout file—main.xml results in yout.main.To access our identified widgets, use findViewById(), passing in the numeric identifier of the widget in question. That numeric identifier was generated by Android in the R class asR.id.something (where something is the specific widget you are seeking). Those widgets are simply subclasses of View, just like the Button instance we created in Chapter 4.The Rest of the StoryIn the original Now demo, the button’s face would show the current time, which would reflect when the button was last pushed (or when the activity was first shown, if the button had not yet been pushed).Most of that logic still works, even in this revised demo (NowRedux). However,rather than instantiating the Button in our activity’s onCreate() callback, we can reference the one from the XML layout:package youts;import android.app.Activity;import android.os.Bundle;import android.view.View;import android.widget.Button; import java.util.Date;public class NowRedux extends Activity implements View.OnClickListener { Button btn;@Overridepublic void onCreate(Bundle icicle) { super.onCreate(icicle);setContentView(yout.main);btn=(Button)findViewById(R.id.button);btn.setOnClickListener(this);upd ateTime();}public void onClick(View view) { updateTime();}private void updateTime() {btn.setText(new Date().toString()); }}The first difference is that rather than setting the content view to be a view we created in Java code, we set it to reference the XML layout (setContentView(yout.main)). The R.java source file will be updated when we rebuild this project to include a reference to our layout file (stored as main.xml in our project’s res/l ayout directory).The other difference is that we need to get our hands on our Button instance, for which we use the findViewById() call. Since we identified our button as @+id/button, we can reference the button’s identifier as R.id.button. Now, with the Button instance in hand, we can set the callback and set the label as needed.As you can see in Figure 5-1, the results look the same as with the originalNow demo.Figure 5-1. The NowRedux sample activity Employing Basic WidgetsE very GUI toolkit has some basic widgets: fields, labels, buttons, etc. Android’s toolkit is no different in scope, and the basic widgets will provide a good introduction as to how widgets work in Android activities.Assigning LabelsThe simplest widget is the label, referred to in Android as a TextView. Like in most GUI toolkits, labels are bits of text not editable directly by users. Typically, they are used to identify adjacent widgets (e.g., a “Name:” label before a field where one fills in a name).In Java, you can create a label by creating a TextView instance. More commonly, though, you will create labels in XML layout files by adding a TextView element to the layout, with an android:text property to set the value of the label itself. If you need to swap labels based on certain criteria, such as internationalization, you may wish to use a resource reference in the XML instead, as will be described in Chapter 9. TextView has numerous other properties of relevance for labels, such as:• android:typeface to set the typeface to use for the label (e.g., monospace) • android:textStyle to indicate that the typeface should be made bold (bold), italic (italic),or bold and italic (bold_italic)• android:textColor to set the color of the label’s text, in RGB hex format (e.g., #FF0000 for red)For example, in the Basic/Label project, you will find the following layout file:<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?><TextView xmlns:android=/apk/res/androidandroid:layout_width="fill_parent"android:layout_height="wrap_content"android:text="You were expecting something profound?" />As you can see in Figure 6-1, just that layout alone, with the stub Java source provided by Android’s p roject builder (e.g., activityCreator), gives you the application.Figure 6-1. The LabelDemo sample applicationButton, Button, Who’s Got the Button?We’ve already seen the use of the Button widget in Chapters 4 and 5. As it turns out, Button is a subclass of TextView, so everything discussed in the preceding section in terms of formatting the face of the button still holds. Fleeting ImagesAndroid has two widgets to help you embed images in your activities: ImageView and ImageButton. As the names suggest, they are image-based analogues to TextView and Button, respectively.Each widget takes an android:src attribute (in an XML layout) to specify what picture to use. These usually reference a drawable resource, described in greater detail in the chapter on resources. You can also set the image content based on a Uri from a content provider via setImageURI().ImageButton, a subclass of ImageView, mixes in the standard Button behaviors, for responding to clicks and whatnot.For example, take a peek at the main.xml layout from the Basic/ImageView sample project which is found along with all other code samples at : <?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?><ImageView xmlns:android=/apk/res/androidandroid:id="@+id/icon"android:layout_width="fill_parent"android:layout_height="fill_parent"android:adjustViewBounds="true"android:src="@drawable/molecule" />The result, just using the code-generated activity, is shown in Figure 6-2.Figure 6-2. The ImageViewDemo sample applicationFields of Green. Or Other Colors.Along with buttons and labels, fields are the third “anchor” of most GUI toolkits. In Android, they are implemented via the EditText widget, which is a subclass of the TextView used for labels.Along with the standard TextView properties (e.g., android:textStyle), EditText has many others that will be useful for you in constructing fields, including:• android:autoText, to control if the fie ld should provide automatic spelling assistance• android:capitalize, to control if the field should automatically capitalize the first letter of entered text (e.g., first name, city) • android:digits, to configure the field to accept only certain digi ts • android:singleLine, to control if the field is for single-line input or multiple-line input (e.g., does <Enter> move you to the next widget or add a newline?)Beyond those, you can configure fields to use specialized input methods, such asandroid:numeric for numeric-only input, android:password for shrouded password input,and android:phoneNumber for entering in phone numbers. If you want to create your own input method scheme (e.g., postal codes, Social Security numbers), you need to create your own implementation of the InputMethod interface, then configure the field to use it via android: inputMethod.For example, from the Basic/Field project, here is an XML layout file showing an EditText:<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?><EditTextxmlns:android=/apk/res/androidandroid:id="@+id/field"android:layout_width="fill_parent"android:layout_height="fill_parent"android:singleLine="false" />Note that android:singleLine is false, so users will be able to enter in several lines of text. For this project, the FieldDemo.java file populates the input field with some prose:package monsware.android.basic;import android.app.Activity;import android.os.Bundle;import android.widget.EditText;public class FieldDemo extends Activity { @Overridepublic void onCreate(Bundle icicle) { super.onCreate(icicle);setContentView(yout.main);EditText fld=(EditText)findViewById(R.id.field);fld.setText("Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 " + "(the \"License\"); you may not use this file " + "except in compliance with the License. You may " + "obtain a copy of the License at " +"/licenses/LICENSE-2.0");}}The result, once built and installed into the emulator, is shown in Figure 6-3.Figure 6-3. The FieldDemo sample applicationNote Android’s emulator only allows one application in the launcher per unique Java package. Since all the demos in this chapter share the monsware.android.basic package, you will only see one of these demos in your emulator’s launcher at any one time.Another flavor of field is one that offers auto-completion, to help users supply a value without typing in the whole text. That is provided in Android as the AutoCompleteTextView widget and is discussed in Chapter 8.Just Another Box to CheckThe classic checkbox has two states: checked and unchecked. Clicking the checkbox toggles between those states to indicate a choice (e.g., “Ad d rush delivery to my order”). In Android, there is a CheckBox widget to meet this need. It has TextView as an ancestor, so you can use TextView properties likeandroid:textColor to format the widget. Within Java, you can invoke: • isChecked() to determi ne if the checkbox has been checked• setChecked() to force the checkbox into a checked or unchecked state • toggle() to toggle the checkbox as if the user checked itAlso, you can register a listener object (in this case, an instance of OnCheckedChangeListener) to be notified when the state of the checkbox changes.For example, from the Basic/CheckBox project, here is a simple checkbox layout:<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?><CheckBox xmlns:android="/apk/res/android"android:id="@+id/check"android:layout_width="wrap_content"android:layout_height="wrap_content"android:text="This checkbox is: unchecked" />The corresponding CheckBoxDemo.java retrieves and configures the behavior of the checkbox:public class CheckBoxDemo extends Activityimplements CompoundButton.OnCheckedChangeListener { CheckBox cb;@Overridepublic void onCreate(Bundle icicle) { super.onCreate(icicle);setContentView(yout.main);cb=(CheckBox)findViewById(R.id.check);cb.setOnCheckedChangeListener(this);}public void onCheckedChanged(CompoundButton buttonView,boolean isChecked) {if (isChecked) {cb.setText("This checkbox is: checked");}else {cb.setText("This checkbox is: unchecked");}}}Note that the activity serves as its own listener for checkbox state changes since it imple ments the OnCheckedChangeListener interface (via cb.setOnCheckedChangeListener(this)). The callback for the listener is onCheckedChanged(), which receives the checkbox whose state has changed and what the new state is. In this case, we update the text of the checkbox to reflect what the actual box contains.The result? Clicking the checkbox immediately updates its text, as you can see in Figures 6-4 and 6-5.Figure 6-4. The CheckBoxDemo sample application, with the checkbox uncheckedFigure 6-5. The same application, now with the checkbox checkedTurn the Radio UpAs with other implementations of radio buttons in other toolkits, Android’s radio buttons are two-state, like checkboxes, but can be grouped such that only one radio button in the group can be checked at any time.Like CheckBox, RadioButton inherits from CompoundButton, which in turn inherits fromTextView. Hence, all the standard TextView properties for font face, style, color, etc., are available for controlling the look of radio buttons. Similarly, you can call isChecked() on a RadioButton to see if it is selected, toggle() to select it, and so on, like you can with a CheckBox.Most times, you will want to put your RadioButton widgets inside of aRadioGroup. The RadioGroup indicates a set of radio buttons whose state is tied, meaning only one button out of the group can be selected at any time. If you assign an android:id to your RadioGroup in your XML layout, you can access the group from your Java code and invoke:• check() to check a specific radio button via its ID (e.g., group.check(R.id.radio1))• clearCheck() to clear all radio buttons, so none in the group are checked• getCheckedRadioButtonId() to get the ID of the currently-checked radio button (or -1 if none are checked)For example, from the Basic/RadioButton sample application, here is an XML layout showing a RadioGroup wrapping a set of RadioButton widgets: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> <RadioGroupxmlns:android=/apk/res/androidandroid:orientation="vertical"android:layout_width="fill_parent"android:layout_height="fill_parent" ><RadioButton android:id="@+id/radio1"android:layout_width="wrap_content"android:layout_height="wrap_content"android:text="Rock" /><RadioButton android:id="@+id/radio2"android:layout_width="wrap_content"android:layout_height="wrap_content"android:text="Scissors" /><RadioButton android:id="@+id/radio3"android:layout_width="wrap_content"android:layout_height="wrap_content"android:text="Paper" /></RadioGroup>Figure 6-6 shows the result using the stock Android-generated Java forthe project and this layout.Figure 6-6. The RadioButtonDemo sample application Note that the radio button group is initially set to be completely unchecked at the outset. To pre-set one of the radio buttons to be checked, use either setChecked() on the RadioButton or check() on the RadioGroup from within your onCreate() callback in your activity.It’s Quite a ViewAll widgets, including the ones previously shown, extend View, and as such give all widgets an array of useful properties and methods beyond those already described.Useful PropertiesSome of the properties on View most likely to be used include:• Controls the focus sequence:• android:nextFocusDown• android:nextFocusLeft• android:nextFocusRight• android:nextFocusUp• android:visibility, which controls wheth er the widget is initially visible• android:background, which typically provides an RGB color value (e.g., #00FF00 for green) to serve as the background for the widgetUseful MethodsYou can toggle whether or not a widget is enabled via setEnabled() and see if it is enabled via isEnabled(). One common use pattern for this is to disable some widgets based on a CheckBox or RadioButton selection.You can give a widget focus via requestFocus() and see if it is focused via isFocused(). You might use this in concert with disabling widgets as previously mentioned, to ensure the proper widget has the focus once your disabling operation is complete.To help navigate the tree of widgets and containers that make up an activity’s overall view, you can use:• get Parent() to find the parent widget or container• findViewById() to find a child widget with a certain ID• getRootView() to get the root of the tree (e.g., what you provided to the activity via setContentView())Android 页面布局使用XML进行布局虽然纯粹通过Java代码在activity上创建和添加部件，在技术上是可行的，我们在第4章中做的一样，更常见的方法是使用一种基于XML的布局文件。
外文资料翻译
外文资料翻译学生姓名：崔华星专业班级： 07级机制04班指导教师：杨庆山河北工程大学机电学院年月Reduction of noise of loaded and unloaded misaligned gear drives AbstractTransmission errors are considered as the main source of vibration and noise of gear drives. The impact of two main functions of transmission errors on noise is investigated: (i) a linear one, caused by errors of alignment, and (ii) a predesigned parabolic function of transmission errors, applied for reduction of noise. It is shown that a linear function of transmission errors is accompanied with edge contact, and then inside the cycle of meshing, the meshing becomes a mixed one: (i) as surface-to-surface tangency, and (ii) surface-to-curve meshing when edge contact starts. Application of a predesigned parabolic function of transmission errors enables to absorb the linear functions of transmission errors caused by errors of alignment, reduce noise, and avoid edge contact. The influence of the load on the function of transmission errors is investigated. Elastic deformations of teeth enable to reduce the maximal transmission errors in loaded gear drives. Computerized simulation of meshing and contact is developed for loaded and unloaded gear drives. Numerical examples for illustration of the developed theory are provided.Keywords: Gear drives; Transmission errors; Tooth contact analysis (TCA); Finite element analysis; Reduction of noiseArticle Outline1. Introduction2. Modification of tooth surfaces2.1. Helical gear drives2.2. Spiral bevel gears2.3. Worm gear drives with cylindrical worm3. Types of meshing and basic functions of transmission errors4. Transmission errors of a loaded gear drive4.1. Preliminary considerations4.2. Application of finite element analysis for determination of function of transmission errors of a loaded gear drive5. Numerical examples6. Comparison of the power of noise for two functions of transmission errors6.1. Conceptual consideration of applied approach6.2. Interpolation by a piecewise linear function7. ConclusionAcknowledgementsReferences1. IntroductionSimulation of meshing of gear drives performed by application of tooth contact analysis (TCA) and test of gear drives have confirmed that transmission errors are the main source of vibrations of the gear box and such vibrations cause the noise of gear drive [1], [2], [4], [5], [6], [7], [10] and [11]. The shape of functions of transmission errors depends on the type of errors of alignment and on the way of modification of gear tooth surfaces performed for improvement of the drive (see Section 2).The reduction of noise proposed by the authors is achieved as follows:(1) The bearing contact of tooth surfaces is localized.(2) A parabolic function of transmission errors is provided. This allows to absorb linear functions of transmission errors caused by misalignment [7].(3) One of the pair of mating surfaces is modified by double-crowning (see Section 2). This allows usually to avoid edge contact (see Section 5).The authors have compared the results of application of TCA for loaded and unloaded gear drives. It is shown that transmission errors of a loaded gear drive are reduced. The developed approach is illustrated with numerical examples (see Section 5).2. Modification of tooth surfacesReduction of noise of a gear drive requires modification of one of the pair of contacting surfaces. The surface modification is illustrated for three types of gear drives: helical gears, spiral bevel gears, and worm gear drives.2.1. Helical gear drivesProfile crowning of helical gears may be illustrated considering that the mating surfaces are generated by two rack-cutters with mismatched profiles [5] and [7].Profile crowning allows to localize the bearing contact. Double-crowning in comparison with profile crowning allows to: (i) avoid edge contact (caused by errors of crossing angle and different helix angles of mating gears), and (ii) provide a parabolic function of transmission errors.Double-crowning is performed by plunging of the disk that generates the pinion (see details in Chapter 15 of Ref. [7]).2.2. Spiral bevel gearsLocalization of contact of generated spiral bevel gears is provided by application of two mismatched head-cutters Σp and Σg used for generation of the pinion and the gear, respectively [7]. Two head-cutters Σp and Σg have a common line C of generating tooth surfaces (in the case when profile crowning is provided). In the case of double-crowning, the mismatched generating surfaces Σp and Σg of the head-cutters have only a common single point of tangency, but not a line of tangency.Double-crowning of a generated gear may be achieved by tilting of one of the pair of generating head-cutters, or by proper installment of one of the head-cutters. It is very popular for the modern technology that during the generation of one of the mating gears, usually of the pinion, modified roll is provided [7].2.3. Worm gear drives with cylindrical wormVery often the technology of manufacturing of a worm-gear is based on the following approach. The generation of the worm-gear is performed by a hob that is identical to the worm of the gear drive. The applied machine-tool settings simulate the meshing of the worm and worm-gear of the drive. However, manufacture with observation of these conditions causes an unfavorable bearing contact, and high level of transmission errors. Minimization of such disadvantages may be achieved by various ways:(i) by long-time lapping of the produced gear drive in the box of the drive;(ii) by running of the gear drive under gradually increased load, up to the maximal load;(iii) by shaving of the worm-gear in the box of the drive by using a shaver with minimized deviations of the worm-member, etc.The authors’ approach is based on localization of bearing contact by application of: (a) an oversized hob, and (b) modification of geometry (see below).There are various types of geometry of worm gear drives [7], but the preferable one is the drive with Klingelnberg’s type of worm. Such a worm is generated by a disk with profiles of a circular cone [7]. The relative motion of the worm with respect to the generating disk is a screw one (in the process of generation).Very often localization of bearing contact in a worm gear drive is achieved by application of a hob that is oversized in comparison with the worm of the drive.3. Types of meshing and basic functions of transmission errorsIt is assumed that the tooth surfaces are at any instant in point tangency due to the localization of contact. Henceforth, we will consider two types of meshing: (i) surface-to-surface, and (ii) surface-to-curve. Surface-to-surface tangency is provided by the observation of equality of position vectors and surface unit normals [7]. Surface-to-curve meshing is the result of existence of edge contact [7].The algorithm of TCA for surface-to-surface tangency is based on the following vector equations [7]:(1)(2)that represent in fixed coordinate system Sf position vectors andsurface unit normals . Here, (ui, θi) are the surface parameters and (1, 2) determine the angular positions of surfaces.The algorithm for surface-to-curve tangency is represented in Sf by equations [7](3)(4)Here, represents the surface that is in mesh with curve is the tangent to the curve of the edge.Application of TCA allows to discover both types of meshing,surface-to-surface and surface-to-curve. Computerized simulation of meshing is an iterative process based on numerical solution of nonlinear equations [8].By applying double-crowning to one of the mating surfaces, it becomes possible to: (i) avoid edge contact, and (ii) obtain a predesigned parabolic function [7] (Fig. 1). Application of a predesigned parabolic function is the precondition of reduction of noise.Fig. 1. Illustration of: (a) transmission functions 1 of a misaligned gear drive and linear function 2 of an ideal gear drive without misalignment;(b) periodic functions Δ2(1) of transmission errors formed byparabolas.Application of double-crowning allows to assign ahead that function of transmission errors is a parabolic one, and allows to assign as well the maximal value of transmission errors as of 6–8″. The expected magnitude of the predesign parabolic function of transmission errors and the magnitude of the parabolic plunge of the generating tool have to be correlated. Fig. 2 shows the case wherein due to a large magnitude of error of misalignment, the function of transmission errors is formed by twobranches: of surface-to-surface contact and ofsurface-to-curve contact.Fig. 2. Results of TCA of a case of double-crowned helical gear drive with a large error Δγ = 10′: (a) function of transmission errors whereincorresponds to surface-to-surface tangency and correspond tosurface-to-curve tangency; (b) path of contact on pinion tooth surface;(c) path of contact on gear tooth surface.4. Transmission errors of a loaded gear driveThe contents of this section cover the procedure of determination of transmission errors of a loaded gear drive by application of a general purpose FEM computer program [3]. Transmission errors of an unloaded gear drive are directly determined by application of TCA. Comparison of transmission errors for unloaded and loaded gear drives is represented in Section 5.4.1. Preliminary considerations(i) Due to the effect of loading of the gear drive, the maximal transmission errors are reduced and the contact ratio is increased(ii) The authors’ approach allows to reduce the time of preparation of the model by the automatic generation of the finite element model [1] for each configuration of the set of applied configurations.(iii) Fig. 3 illustrates a configuration that is investigated under the load. TCA allows to determine point M of tangency of tooth surfaces Σ1 and Σ2, before the load will be applied (Fig. 3(a)), where N2 and N1 are the surface normals (Fig. 3(b) and (c)). The elastic deformations of tooth surfaces of the pinion and the gear are obtained as the result of applying the torque to the gear. The illustrations of Fig. 3(b) and (c) are based on discrete presentations of the contacting surfaces.Fig. 3. Illustration of: (a) a single configuration; (b) and (c) discrete presentations of contacting surfaces and surface normals N1 and N2.Fig. 4 shows schematically the set of configurations in 2D space. The location of each configuration (before the elastic deformation will beapplied) is determined by TCA.Fig. 4. Illustration of set of models for simulation of meshing of a loaded gear drive.4.2. Application of finite element analysis for determination of function of transmission errors of a loaded gear driveThe described procedure is applicable for any type of a gear drive. The following is the description of the required steps:(i) The machine-tool settings applied for generation are known ahead, and then the pinion and gear tooth surfaces (including the fillet) may be determined analytically.(ii) Related angular positions are determined by(a) applying of TCA for Nf configurations (Nf = 8–16), and (b) observing the relation(5)(iii) A preprocessor is applied for generation of Nf models with the conditions: (a) the pinion is fully constrained to position , and (b)the gear has a rigid surface that can rotate about the gear’s axis (Fig.5). Prescribed torque is applied to this surface.(vi) The total function of transmission errors for a loaded gear driveis obtained considering: (i) the error caused due to the mismatched of generating surfaces, and (ii) the elastic approach .(6)5.Numerical examplesA helical gear drive with design parameters given in Table 1 is designed. The following conditions of meshing and contact of the drive are considered:(1) The gear and pinion rack-cutters are provided with a straight-line and parabolic profiles as cross-section profiles, respectively, for generation of the gear and the pinion. Mismatched rack-cutter profiles yield the so-called profile crowning.(2) The misalignment of gear drive is caused by an error of the shaft angle, Δγ≠ 0.(3) A predesigned parabolic function for absorption of transmission errors caused by Δγ≠ 0 is provided. （Such a function for a double-crowned pinion tooth surface is obtained by plunging of the generating disk, or by modified roll of the grinding worm.）(4) TCA (tooth contact analysis) for unloaded and loaded gear drives are applied for determination of transmission errors caused by Δγ. This enables to investigate the influence of the load on the magnitude and shape of the function of transmission errors.(5) Application of a computer program for finite element analysis [3] enables to determine the stresses of a loaded gear drive.(6) Formation of bearing contact is investigated.Table 1.Design parametersNumber of teeth of the pinion, N1 21Number of teeth of the gear, N2 77Normal module, mn 5.08 mmNormal pressure angle, αn 25°Hand of helix of the pinion Left-handHelix angle, β30°Face width, b 70 mmParabolic coefficient of pinion rack-cutter, aca 0.002 mm−1 Radius of the worm pitch cylinder, rwa 98 mmParabolic coefficient of pinion modified roll, amrb 0.00008 rad/mm2 Applied torque to the pinionc 250 N m(i) Example 1: An aligned gear drive (Δγ = 0) is considered. The geardrive is unloaded. A parabolic function with the maximal value of transmission errors Δ2(1) = 8″ is provided (Fig. 6(a)). The cycle ofmeshing is . The bearing contact on the pinion and gear tooth surfacesis oriented almost longitudinally (Fig. 6(b) and (c)).Fig. 6. Results of computation for an unloaded gear drive without misalignment: (a) function of transmission errors; (b) and (c) paths of contact on pinion and gear tooth surfaces.6. Comparison of the power of noise for two functions of transmission errors6.1. Conceptual consideration of applied approachDetermination of the power of the signal of noise is based on the assumption that the velocity of oscillation of the generated acoustic waves is proportional to the fluctuation of the instantaneous value of the velocity of the gears. This assumption (even if not accurate in general) is good as the first guess, since it allows to avoid application of a complex dynamic model of the gear drive.We emphasize that the proposed approach is applied for the following conditions:(a) The goal is the determination of difference of power of signals, but not the determination of absolute values of signals.(b) The difference of power of signals is the result mainly of the difference of first derivatives of two smooth functions of transmission errors.The proposed approach is based on the comparison of the root mean square of the signals (in rms) caused by two functions of transmission errors[9]. Such comparison yields the simulation of the intensity (the power) of the signal defined as(7)Here ω2(1)′ represents the d eviation of the angular velocity of the gear from the average value, and ωrms represents the desired rms value. The definition of function of transmission errors yields that 2 = m211 + Δ2(1), where m21 is the gear ratio. By differentiation with respectto time, we obtain the angular velocity of the gear as(8)wherein is assumed as constant. The second term on the right side of Eq. (8) represents the sought-for fluctuation of velocity(9)The definition above assumes that the function of transmission errors (FTE) is a continuous and differentiable one. In the case of computation of a loaded gear drive simulated by FEM (finite element method), this function is defined by a finite number of given points ((1)i, (Δ2)i)(i = 1, … , n). The given data of points have to be interpolated by continuous functions for application of Eq. (7).)6.2. Interpolation by a piecewise linear functionIn this case (Fig. 7), two successive data points are connected by a straight line. The derivative (velocity) between point i and i − 1 is constant and is determined as follows:(10)Fig. 7. Interpolation of function of transmission errors by application of a piecewise linear function.Data points have been chosen as follows: (i) an increment (1)i − (1)i−1 is considered as constant for each interval i, and (ii) as the same for the two functions (FTE) represented in Examples 2 and 3 (in Section 5). Based on this assumption, the ratio of two magnitudes of power by application of the mentioned functions is represented as(11)7. ConclusionThe previously presented discussions, computations, and numerical examples enable to draw the following conclusions:(1) Errors of alignment of a gear drive (if modification of surfaces is not provided enough) may cause a mixed meshing: (i) surface-to-surface and (ii) edge contact (as surface-to-curve). Edge contact may be usually avoided by application of a predesigned parabolic function (PPF).(2) The investigation of influence of a parabolic function of transmission errors shows that application of PPF enables to reduce the noise and vibration of the gear drive. Application of PPF requires modification of generation of at least of one member of the gear drive, usually of the pinion (or the worm, in case of a worm gear drive).(3) Determination of transmission errors of a loaded gear drive requires application of a general purpose finite element computer program. A loaded gear drive is accompanied with elastic deformation of teeth, the increase of the contact ratio, and as a result, the decrease of transmission errors of the drive caused by misalignment. The time for preparation of the models is substantially redu ced due to application of the authors’ approach of automatic generation of finite element models [1] for determination of transmission errors of a loaded gear drive.AcknowledgementsThe authors express their deep gratitude to the Gleason Foundation, and the Yamaha Motor Co., Japan, for the financial support of the projects.References[1] J. Argyris, A. Fuentes and F.L. Litvin, Computerized integrated approach for design and stress analysis of spiral bevel gears, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 191 (2002), pp. 1057–1095.[2] Gleason Works, Understanding Tooth Contact Analysis, Rochester, New York, 1970.[3] Hibbit, Karlsson & Sirensen, Inc., ABAQUS/Standard User’s Manual, 1800 Main Street, Pawtucket, RI 20860-4847, 1998.[4] Klingelnberg und Söhne, Ettlingen, Kimos: Zahnkontakt-Analyse für Kegelräder, 1996.[5] F.L. Litvin et al., Helical and spur gear drive with double crowned pinion tooth surfaces and conjugated gear tooth surfaces, USA Patent 6,205,879, 2001.[6] F.L. Litvin, A. Fuentes and K. Hayasaka, Design, manufacture, stress analysis, and experimental tests of low-noise high endurance spiral bevel gears, Mech. Mach. Theory 41 (2006), pp. 83–118.[7] F.L. Litvin and A. Fuentes, Gear Geometry and Applied Theory (second ed.), Cambridge University Press, New York (2004).[8] J.J. Moré, B.S. Garbow, K.E. Hillstrom, Use r Guide for MINPACK-1, Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL-80-74, Argonne, Illinois, 1980.[9] A.D. Pierce, Acoustics. An Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications, Acoustical Society of America (1994).[10] J.D. Smith, Gears and Their Vibration, Marcel Dekker, New York (1983).[11] H.J. Stadtfeld, Gleason Bevel Gear Technology—Manufacturing, Inspection and Optimization, Collected Publications, The Gleason Works, Rochester, New York (1995).译文减少偏离齿轮传动装载和卸载时的噪音摘要齿轮传动时产生震动和噪音的主要原因是传输误差。
营销渠道和营销策略外文文献资料
文献出处：Paswan A K, Blankson C, Guzman F. Relationalism in marketing channels and marketing strategy[J]. European Journal of Marketing, 2015，45(3): 311-333.Relationalism in marketing channels and marketing strategyPaswan, Audhesh K; Blankson, Charles; Guzman, FranciscoAbstractPurpose - The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between marketing strategy types - aggressive marketing, price leadership and product specialization strategies - and the extent of renationalize in marketing channels.Design/methodology/approach - Data were collected using a self-administered survey from managers responsible for marketing and channels management in US pharmaceutical firms. The responses to the questions capturing focal constructs were measured using a five-point Liker type scale. Data were analyzed using Principal Component Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling procedures.Findings - Aggressive marketing strategy and price leadership strategy are positively associated with the level of renationalize in marketing channels. In contrast, product specialization (focus) strategy is negatively associated with the level of renationalize in marketing channels.Originality/value - The relationship between marketing strategy and the emergent renationalize among marketing channel intermediaries is critical for the firm's ability to meet objectives. This relationship has not been investigated so far and, from a managerial perspective, managing marketing channels is critical for successful implementation of marketing strategies.Keywords: Relationship marketing, marketing strategy, Distribution channels and marketsIntroductionThe concept of renationalize (i.e. extent to which relational norms guide the interactions between business partners) has been extensively studied within the overlapping rubrics of marketing channels (see [14] Black and Peoples, 2005; [21] Boyle et al. , 1992; [32] Dent and School, 1992; [88] Aswan et al. , 1998; [112] Zhang et al. , 2003), logistics, and supply chain networks ([13] Penstock et al. , 1997; [33] Davis and Meltzer, 2006; [40] Germaine and Ayer, 2006; [44] Griffith and Myers, 2005; [78] Meltzer et al. , 1989; [83] Morris and Carter, 2005;[97] Srivastava et al., 1999; [108] Williams et al., 1997). The general consensus in theliterature is that the presence of strong relational norms among marketing channel intermediaries is associated with factors such as performance (see [14] Black and Peoples, 2005; [44] Griffith and Myers, 2005; [60] Kahn et al. , 2006; [83] Morris and Carter, 2005), channel management and governance, and conflict resolution ([21] Boyle et al. , 1992; [22] Brown et al. , 2000; [32] Dent and School, 1992; [45] Gonzalez-Hernando et al. , 2003; [57] Jap and Gamesman, 2000; [68] Liu et al. , 2008; [88] Aswan et al. , 1998; [104] Vazquez et al. , 2007), information exchange ([53] Holmes and Srivastava, 1999), and competitiveness ([112] Zhang et al. , 2003). Notwithstanding, to our best knowledge, the relationship between marketing strategy and the emergent relational norms in marketing channels has not received adequate research attention in the extant literature. Closing this gap in the literature is crucial given that both marketing strategy and marketing channels, including norm based governance of marketing channels, are inextricably linked to the success of the marketing function. To this end, the focus of this study is to examine the linkages between the level of renationalize among marketing channel intermediaries and the marketing strategy.Before proceeding any further, we would like to acknowledge that while the focus of this study is on relational norm (or renationalize) within the business-to-business context, a review of the literature shows that renationalize and relationship marketing are mutually inclusive ([24] Christopher et al. , 1991; [48] Gambeson, 1987; [105] Flouts et al. , 2002). In fact, according to [105] Flouts et al.(2002), the scope of relationship marketing includes external and internal and upstream and downstream constituencies. While modern marketing practices reflect the maximization of customer value, the onus of relationship marketing is reflected in the dictum proposed by [48] Gambeson (1987) that everyone in the firm is a part-time marketer. The latter is taken further by [105] Flouts et al.(2002) who assert that relational and transactional forms of relationships are not necessarily mutually exclusive. The authors suggest that in order for firms to engage with their dynamic target markets (i.e. business-to-business, business-to-customer, or both), and to effectively manage the relationship with them over time, firms should develop relationship marketing chains (see also, [89] Peck et al., 1999).Pursuant to the aim of the study, the first focus of this research reflects the fact that a key marketing objective is to meet the customer's needs, wants, and aspirations and that in order to fulfill these goals, firms must manage the channel intermediaries and logistics function to ensure the effective and efficient flow of goods, information, and revenue (see [28] CSCMP, 2005; [32] Dent and School, 1992; [40] Germaine and Ayer, 2006; [43] Gill and Allerheiligen, 1996; [66] Larson et al. , 2007; [98] Stank et al. , 2007). Studies in the field of channels and logistics acknowledge that marketing channel networks with strong emergent relationalnorms (i.e. spirit of cooperation, long term orientation, and a feeling of solidarity are likely to yield better results. Some have even suggested that renationalize is the cure for all business problems (for example [43] Gill and Allerheiligen, 1996; [60] Kahn et al., 2006; [85] Nordmeyer et al., 1990; [110] Womack et al., 1991). However, others have taken a more cautious stance towards the linkage between the concept of renationalize and its outcomes (see [30] Curran et al., 2008; [32] Dent and School, 1992; [88] Aswan et al., 1998).The second focal direction of this study is marketing strategy - the way in which firms create value and define their operational boundaries. The literature also stresses the importance of a good fit between marketing strategy and governance structure (see [14] Black and Peoples, 2005; [38] Galbraith and Karajan, 1986; [44] Griffith and Myers, 2005; [77] Meltzer et al., 2001; [91] Porter, 1980; [92] Powell, 1992; [94] Slater and Olson, 2000, [95] 2001). Together, the renationalize in marketing channels and marketing strategy literature streams imply that while long term relationships between marketing channel intermediaries may be pivotal for a firm's strategy, there is some ambiguity about the exact nature of this relationship; in other words, not all strategies harmonize well with renationalize in marketing channels. To that end, this investigation focuses on the following research question:RQ1.Are relational norms among marketing channel intermediaries suitable for every marketing strategy, or are some marketing strategies more suitable for relational norms while others may in fact be negatively affected by the presence of strong relational norms?From a managerial perspective, managing marketing channels is critical for successful implementation of marketing strategies. Given the fact that governance using relational norms is considered by most as a more effective way of managing marketing channels, managers need to be cognizant of the exact relation between emergent renationalize in marketing channel and marketing strategy.In the ensuing sections of this paper, the literature on renationalize in marketing channels is examined, followed by a discussion on marketing strategy and the rationale for the hypotheses. The method section is presented next. The last sections include a discussion of the findings, managerial implications, and limitations of this study.Marketing channel intermediaries and relational normsMarketing channels typically consist of intermediaries that function in a cohesive manner to meet the customer's needs and wants while fulfilling the intermediaries' goals (see [5] Alderson, 1954; [19] Bowers ox et al., 1980). While contractual or corporate channels are not uncommon, recent studies have questioned the traditional linear perspective of the supply chain and have suggested a more complex network perspective ([1] Carol, 1997; [4] Caroland Kilter, 1999; [96] Snow, 1997; [107] Walker, 1997). [4] Carol and Kilter (1999, p. 148) define a network organization as:an interdependent coalition of task- or skill-specialized economic entities (independent firms or autonomous organizational units) that operates without hierarchical control and is embedded, by dense lateral connections, mutuality, and reciprocity, in a shared value system that defines "membership" roles and responsibilities.For the purposes of this research, we focus on channel intermediaries that are independent businesses and loosely aligned through consensus. They could be part of a simpler supply chain or could be part of a more complex network. In any case, to fulfill customer needs and wants, marketing channel systems or networks perform various activities such as physical distribution, warehousing, storage, flow of information, flow of revenue and profits, and logistics, to name a few (see [19] Bowers ox et al., 1980; [99] Stern et al., 1996). These words also appear in some combination under labels such as supply chain management and logistics (see [20] Bowers ox et al., 1995; [23] Christopher, 1992; [27] Cooper et al., 1997;[28] CSCMP, 2005; [36] Forrester, 1958; [42] Gibson et al., 2005; [58] Jones and Riley, 1985;[77] Meltzer et al., 2001; [80] Min and Meltzer, 2000).Despite the divergent perspectives, the importance of relational norms towards the efficient and effective functioning of a distribution channel has been acknowledged in the channels and supply chain areas (e.g., [21] Boyle et al., 1992; [32] Dent and School, 1992; [39] Gamesman, 1994; [61] Kaufmann and Dent, 1992; [62] Kaufmann and Stern, 1988; [74] Attila, 2001; [77] Meltzer et al. , 2001; and [88] Aswan et al. , 1998). Most researchers and practitioners in marketing channels, supply chain, and logistics agree that coordination and collaboration between channel members, and the relational norm guiding such behavior are the essence of modern day marketing channels management. From a strategic perspective, [82] Morgan and Hunt (1994) confirm that changes are taking place in the practice and theory of business relationships; in other words, towards establishing, developing, and maintaining successful relational exchanges. The importance of developing and maintaining enduring relationships with intermediaries is also widely accepted in logistics and supply chain literature (e.g., [37] Fugate et al., 2006; [60] Kahn et al., 2006; [77] Meltzer et al., 2001).At its core, renationalize is built on an expectation of continuity of exchange and a shift in focus towards long term payoffs based on relational norms. In support, [49] Heidi (1994) notes that exchange partners develop joint values and expectations about what behaviors are appropriate in order to complete formal arrangements. A strong feeling of trust, cooperation, open communication, and a reduction in the adversarial feelings towards thetrading partners are the core characteristics of renationalize. (While some of these sentiments have been used in the context of relationship marketing ([11] Berry, 1983; [12] Berry and Paraguayan, 1991; [46] Gringos, 1994), we use these to characterize the relationship between supply chain partners). In fact, it is suggested that network partners may even forgo short-term profits if renationalize in the network leads to long term gains. To that end, expectations of a non-economic, psychological, and social payoff may even become more important than strict transactional payoffs. Thus, renationalize is expected to mitigate the opportunistic behavior ([30] Curran et al., 2008). In other words, firms embracing relational norms are likely to behave in a more supportive and cooperative manner with their channel partners. The mind-set of renationalize, the anticipation of continuity, and the long-term payoffs replace the no promise of tomorrow in which immediate profit is maximized ([87] Aswan and Young, 1999). These joint values and expectations have been studied within marketing channels literature under labels such as relational norms or renationalize (see [32] Dent and School, 1992; [61] Kaufmann and Dent, 1992; [62] Kaufmann and Stern, 1988). [70] McNeil (1980, [71] 1981, [72] 1983) suggested that exchanges between business entities lie on a continuum with one end heavily oriented towards discreet exchange and the other end leaning heavily towards relational norm based exchange.Initial conceptualization of relational norm by [70] McNeil (1980) included nine norms. Later, McNeil added one more norm resulting in the ten most commonly used relational norms - Role integrity, Contractual solidarity, Reciprocity/mutuality, Implementation of planning, Effectuation of consent, The linking norms (restitution, reliance, and expectation interests), Creation and restitution of power, Flexibility, Harmonization with the social matrix, and Propriety of means ([15] Blois and Ovens, 2006, [16] 2007; [55] Ovens, 2006; [72] McNeil, 1983). While several scholars have used these relational norms in their investigation of business-to-business exchange relationships in various contexts, there is little agreement about the use of the term relational norms and its operationalization ([15] Blois and Ovens, 2006, [16] 2007; [56] Ovens and Blois, 2004; [55] Ovens, 2006). [55] Ovens (2006), and [15] Blois and Ovens (2006, [16] 2007) have tried to make sense of this very confusing scenario and offer an interesting interpretation. Through an empirical study they found that the norms used in literature could be grouped into two clusters -norms that help in value creation (solidarity, mutuality, flexibility, information exchange, role integrity, long term orientation, and planning behavior) and norms that facilitate value claiming (conflict behavior, monitoring behavior, and power reduction). These investigations indicate that most authors using relational norms have relied to various degrees on the operationalization put forward by [62] Kaufmann and Stern (1988) and [61] Kaufmann and Dent (1992), and that the three normsfeatured in most studies are solidarity, role integrity, and mutuality.Relying on the extant studies on renationalize (see [15] Blois and Ovens, 2006, [16] 2007;[21] Boyle et al., 1992; [32] Dent and School, 1992; [55] Ovens, 2006; [61] Kaufmann and Dent, 1992; [62] Kaufmann and Stern, 1988; [88] Aswan et al., 1998), we adopt a multidimensional perspective of renationalize that uses Solidarity, Role Integrity, and Mutuality, as its three dimensions. Solidarity refers to the importance attached to the orderly exchange norms that are accepted by the majority and captures sentiments such as trust, future cooperation, and open communications versus discreet transaction orientation and arms length negotiation. Role integrity captures more complex expectations and roles associated with the relationships with trading partners versus an expectation of simplistic transactional role fulfillment by exchange partners. Finally, mutuality (originally labeled as reciprocity by McNeil) captures the importance associated with long-term payoffs where each party tries to balance the account book on a transaction by transaction basis; as is the case in discreet exchange relationships, by constantly monitoring, reconciling, and controlling every transaction with high degree of immediacy. In contrast, an exchange relationship based on relational norms will be characterized by high levels of trust and an expectation of continuous improvement over a pre-exchange position over an extended period of time ([15] Blois and Ovens, 2006, [16] 2007; [21] Boyle et al. , 1992; [32] Dent and School, 1992; [55] Ovens, 2006; [61] Kaufmann and Dent, 1992; [62] Kaufmann and Stern, 1988; [88] Aswan et al. , 1998).Marketing strategyTwo dominant typologies have emerged in the business strategy field - [79] Miles and Snow's (1978) typology (i.e. prospector, defender, analyzer, and reactor) and [91] Porter's (1980) typology (i.e. cost leadership, differentiation, and focus). Of these, it appears that [91] Porter's (1980) typology has been used extensively in marketing strategy literature ([94] Slater and Olson, 2000) probably because it captures the way in which firms create value (i.e. differentiation or low cost) and defines their scope of market coverage (i.e. focused or market-wide). However, in the marketing strategy literature, with the exception of [84] Murphy and Ennis (1986) and [95] Slater and Olson (2001), there is a lack of comprehensive marketing strategy classification schemes. [84] Murphy and Ennis (1986) use a framework for classifying products (i.e. convenience, preference, shopping, and specialty products) and integrate the remaining marketing mix elements (price, promotion, and distribution) into this framework. [95] Slater and Olson's (2001) typology of marketing strategy includes aggressive marketers, mass marketers, marketing minimizes, and value marketers. These authors alsofound congruence between their typology and business strategy typologies by examining the effect of the interaction between the marketing and business strategy on performance (see [79] Miles and Snow, 1978; [81] Mint berg, 1988; [91] Porter, 1980). They found similarities between aggressive marketers and prospectors, mass marketers and analyzers, low cost defenders and marketing minimizes, and between differentiated defenders and value marketers. [95] Slater and Olson (2001) also suggest that there is congruence between their marketing strategy typology and the typology proposed by [84] Murphy and Ennis (1986) -, e.g. the aggressive marketers resemble specialty product marketers; mass marketers offer broad product range, use intensive distribution, and charge low price; marketing minimizes put the lowest emphasis on marketing; while value marketers prefer to lower prices while offering high customer service.For the purposes of this research, we rely on the strategy typology frameworks suggested by [91] Porter (1980) and [94] Slater and Olson (2000) to operationally the notion of marketing strategy - Aggressive marketing (characterized by high quality, innovative products with high prices and selective distribution, and investment in advertising and marketing support functions), Price leadership (characterized by a focus on price discounts to ensure that the firm/product is not under-priced and letting the price consideration drive other activities such as purchase), and Product specialization (characterized by limited and specialized product range with other business functions driven by this narrow focus). From a marketing perspective, product and price decisions are two of the most crucial strategic decisions faced by managers ([54] Hunt and Morgan, 1995; [64] Kilter, 1994). However, aggressive marketing captures a more multifaceted high value, high price, and high investment in marketing function. We chose not to use the differentiated strategy because a differentiated offer could be based on price or a unique and highly specialized product that is the outcome of aggressive R&D and marketing efforts. We next discuss the relationship between these three marketing strategies (aggressive marketing, price leadership, and product specification) and emergent relational norms amongst channel intermediaries.Marketing strategy and renationalize in supply chainAs noted earlier, very few researchers have empirically investigated the relationship between marketing channels renationalize and marketing strategy ([95] Slater and Olson, 2001). The importance of the relationship between marketing strategy and channel renationalize is evidenced in the strategy literature and focuses on the fit between strategy and structure (see [38] Galbraith and Karajan, 1986; [92] Powell, 1992; [94] Slater and Olson, 2000, [95] 2001). As firms try to adopt one or more of the three marketing strategies - aggressivemarketing, price leadership, and product focus (specialization) - they may find that the extent of relational norms present in their marketing channels may not be equally suitable for all three strategies.As mentioned earlier, aggressive marketing strategy is characterized by high-quality innovative products, close relationships with customers, extensive marketing research and market segmentation to identify premium target markets, selective distribution, and intensive advertising ([95] Slater and Olson, 2001). For channel partners, such strategy refers to an intimate knowledge of the market, closer involvement with both the suppliers and customers, and a willingness to invest in market research and R&D. A high degree of renationalize in marketing channels is thus likely to foster closer ties amongst channel intermediaries, strong identification with the common goal, and an incline towards long term payoffs in comparison to a more transactional and short term orientation (see [32] Dent and School, 1992; [61] Kaufmann and Dent, 1992; [62] Kaufmann and Stern, 1988; [70] McNeil, 1980, [71] 1981). Literature on use of power business-to-business relationships have traditionally suggested that an aggressive marketing strategy may be associated with use of power by lead channel members, however, recent thinking suggests that the use of coercive power in fact results in dysfunctional outcomes (see [31] Cox, 1999; [41] Geysers et al. , 1999; [52] Henley, 2005, [51] 2001; [65] Kumar, 1996). To that end, we speculate that:H1.The level of renationalize in the marketing channels will be positively associated with aggressive marketing strategy.Product specialization (focus) strategy, on the other hand, is characterized by a more concentrated approach towards segmenting the market and targeting a narrowly defined niche market with fewer and more specialized products (consistent with the more current service dominant logic ([69] Lush et al. , 2007; [101] Vargo and Lusch, 2004a, [102] b, [103] 2008), the term product is henceforth used to represent the entire range of offering - products, services, and the resultant solutions). （完整文献请见百度文库）For channel members, this strategy may translate into a shrinking business volume. Although the increased focus on segmentation and focused targeting may prove to be a significant investment of effort and resources, the outcomes may not be commensurate with the enhanced resource allocation, especially with a shrinking scope of operation and business volume. Surely, this is not a promising picture of the firm's future in that the shrinking business may not bode very well for the relationalism amongst channel members. In fact, the literature suggests that the narrow product and market focus may be more congruent with strong and close administrative control. [67] Lasser and Kerr (1996) found that firms offeringdifferentiated and highly specialized products tended to rely more on highly involved control relationship with very close monitoring of behavior. A similar result was found by [94] Slater and Olson (2000). Thus, relationalism, while conducive for aggressive market strategy, may not be as conducive for product specialization strategy. We speculate that a product specialization (focus) strategy will be negatively associated with relationalism in marketing channels:H2.The level of relationalism in the marketing channels will be negatively associated with product specialization (focus) strategy.Finally, price leadership strategy requires a shift in focus to lower margins and high volumes. Price leadership strategy may require intensive distribution with a focus on larger markets resembling mass marketing strategy. While [94] Slater and Olson (2000) found that mass marketing strategy is congruent with analyzer strategy, [67] Lasser and Kerr (1996) found the cost leaders to be low in behavioral control, contractual restriction, and manufacturer coordination with medium levels of manufacturer support. While this strategy is not likely to yield significant results in the short run, it may have a bright future due to the enhanced market coverage. Therefore, to encourage the channel members to go along with a low price strategy, managers may need to rely heavily on relational norm among channel partners with a promise of a successful future. This approach is more likely to succeed than a strong bureaucratic stance which is typically more transactional and short term in orientation. An obvious example would be Wal-Mart, which is known as a price leader and is known to use closer ties with its channel partners to achieve its objectives. Thus, we speculate that price leadership strategy will be positively associated with channel relationalism:H3.The level of relationalism in the marketing channels will be positively associated with price leadership strategy.Research methodThe pharmaceutical industry supply chain in the USA is selected as the research context for this study because of its ever increasing complexity ([63] Koh et al., 2003) and drastic transformations over the past 15 years. As a result of a significant number of mergers and acquisitions, 60 percent of total sales in 2004 were controlled by ten large, multinational firms. The number of distributors reduced from 100 to three national companies responsible for almost 90 percent of wholesale products ([50] Health Strategy Consultancy LLC, 2005; [111] Yost, 2005). At a very basic level, pharmaceutical supply chain structure is described as: "pharmaceuticals that originate from manufacturing sites; transferred to wholesale distributors; stocked at retail, mail-order, and other types of retail pharmacies; subject to pricenegotiations and processed through quality management by pharmacy benefit management companies (PBMs); dispensed by pharmacies; and ultimately delivered to and taken by patients" ([50] Health Strategy Consultancy LLC, 2005, p. 1). However, an increasing push towards operating efficiencies has led manufacturers to decrease the amount of excess inventory in the supply chain and they have moved from a traditional buy-and-hold strategy towards a model based on fees for the services provided by the manufacturer. This is forcing the distributors to provide high quality and value-added services ([111] Yost, 2005). This is further exacerbated by the fact that the pharmaceutical industry is facing challenges such as an accelerated rate of development of medical solutions, obsolescence, and duplication of its infrastructure ([90] Prendergast et al. , 2004).The pharmaceutical supply chain is also facing some interesting challenges, and emerging opportunities and threats ([90] Prendergast et al., 2004). In the mid nineties the biggest challenges in the pharmaceutical industry were seen to be R&D, marketing and sales, and business strategy ([18] Booth, 1996). The biggest challenge today detected in the literature is the efficiency and control of the supply chain in order to assure patient care and safety ([63] Koh et al., 2003; [90] Prendergast et al., 2004; [109] Witmer and Deffenbaugh, 2004). Counterfeit drugs, illegal internet sales, illegal importations of drugs, and the emergence of counterfeit agents, are some of the risks and vulnerabilities that the pharmaceutical supply chain in the USA is facing ([109] Witmer and Deffenbaugh, 2004). To protect against fraud, pharmaceutical companies increase the control of their downstream distribution, especially as specialized medicines and new biotechnology solutions start flooding the supply chain ([63] Koh et al. , 2003; [90] Prendergast et al. , 2004).In terms of products and services offered, pharmaceutical firms market a combination of specialty products, prescription drugs, generic, "me too", and OTC (over the counter) products. For specialized products, dosage and consumption are crucial factors and hence a strong relationship with upstream and downstream channel partners becomes critical. In comparison, OTC and basic "me too" products require little detailing at the transaction point, and hence firms could get away with arms length transactional relationships with their channel partners. Moreover, as mentioned earlier, the US pharmaceutical industry is characterized by uncertainties due to frequent innovations, regulatory constrains, and global competition.Given these complexities, the extent of relationalism within the supply chain could prove to be a critical factor. Thus, we infer that the pharmaceutical industry is appropriate for this study with its focus on the demand side or the downstream of the supply chain - i.e.。
毕业论文外文资料翻译【范本模板】
毕业论文外文资料翻译题目(宋体三号，居中）学院（全称，宋体三号，居中)专业(全称，宋体三号，居中）班级（宋体三号,居中）学生（宋体三号，居中）学号（宋体三号,居中)指导教师(宋体三号，居中)二〇一〇年月日(宋体三号，居中，时间与开题时间一致）（英文原文装订在前)Journal of American Chemical Society, 2006, 128(7）: 2421-2425. (文献翻译必须在中文译文第一页标明文献出处:即文章是何期刊上发表的,X年X卷X 期,格式如上例所示,四号，右对齐，杂志名加粗。
)［点击输入译文题目—标题1,黑体小二][点击输入作者，宋体小四］[点击输入作者单位，宋体五号］摘要［点击输入，宋体五号]关键词［点击输入,宋体五号]1［点击输入一级标题-标题2，黑体四号］［点击输入正文，宋体小四号，1。
25倍行距］1。
1［点击输入二级标题-标题3，黑体小四］［点击输入正文,宋体小四，1。
25倍行距]1.1。
1[点击输入三级标题-标题4，黑体小四］［点击输入正文,宋体小四，1。
25倍行距］说明：1.外文文章必须是正规期刊发表的。
2.翻译后的中文文章必须达到2000字以上，并且是一篇完整文章。
3.必须要有外文翻译的封面,使用学校统一的封面；封面上的翻译题目要写翻译过来的中文题目；封面上时间与开题时间一致。
4.外文原文在前，中文翻译在后；5.中文翻译中要包含题目、摘要、关键词、前言、全文以及参考文献,翻译要条理清晰，中文翻译要与英文一一对应.6.翻译中的中文文章字体为小四，所有字母、数字均为英文格式下的，中文为宋体,标准字符间距。
7.原文中的图片和表格可以直接剪切、粘贴，但是表头与图示必须翻译成中文。
8.图表必须居中，文章段落应两端对齐、首行缩进2个汉字字符、1.25倍行距。
例如:图1. 蛋白质样品的PCA图谱与8-卟啉识别排列分析(a)或16—卟啉识别排列分析（b).为了得到 b的数据矩阵，样品用16—卟啉识别排列分析来检测，而a 是通过捕获首八卟啉接收器数据矩阵从b 中萃取的.。
外文翻译资料---电子时钟设计
外文翻译资料---电子时钟设计___。
using digital tubes for high-brightness displays。
offers intuitive and intelligent ns。
and is ___ design for a n electronic clock。
using a single-chip puter (AT89C52) as the core。
The clock features a display composed of seven figures。
showing the week。
hour。
minute。
and second。
It can also switch to year。
month。
and day display modes。
and includes music playback and alarm ___。
it ___.The clock circuit is the computer's core。
___.Since its n。
the clock has ___'s lives。
especially in this eraof efficiency。
It is widely used in human n。
living。
learning。
and other ___。
over time。
people's requirements for the clock have increased。
They not only demand higher n but also more ns。
The clock is no longer just a tool used to display time。
It ___ as alarm clock。
calendar display。
temperature measurement。
学前教育外文文献翻译资料
文献出处：Field T. Emotional wellbeing and childcare quality in preschool education [J]. Child Development, 2015, 6(3): 63-80.原文Emotional wellbeing and childcare quality in preschool educationField TAbstractPreschool age is human social behavior, mood, emotion, personality and cognitive aspects of the key stage of development, is also one of the fastest growing, most plastic time in their life. Preschool education and related research results show that conservation is very important to the individual's physical and mental development, in the person's lifelong development also plays an important role. “Research has shown that high quality pre-school education and care to children's language ability, cognitive ability and the development of social behavior and their later in the long-term school and society's achievements in life has a positive impact. In addition, the pre-school education and care for the development of education, family happiness and social stability and progress also plays an important role. Keywords: pre-school education, child care, mental healthIntroductionSince the 1990 s, preschool education is being paid attention to by the countries all over the world, and gradually become the world's one of the important topics of education reform. Governments through perfecting the legislation of preschool education, increase financial investment and so on, gradually increase the intensity of support for preschool education, and through a series of means and measures, improve the quality of the country's pre-school education, and promote the pre-school education fair. At present, the social education to the health of preschool children, only stay in the range of health, the mental health education, especially to cultivate children's sound personality, including healthy emotion, strong will, coordination behavior, moderate reaction, and normal interpersonal relationship is still insufficient attention.Literature reviewFrancis & and Alan Hayes in the OECD on pre-school education policy project review (2000) review summarizes the development of preschool education in the background, historical origin, the regulations and policy guidance, etc., points out that preschool education is facing many challenges, they think the government should fully realize that children are the future of the country and the importance of preschool education on children development and take measures to improve the quality of preschool education, strengthen the pre-school education and conservation organizations contact with family and community.Alison Elliott in his study of the preschool education - all children to quality and fair path "(2006), analyzes the current pre-school education and care system operation mode, a summary of the results of our predecessors' studies, think should reform of preschool education and care to give their children a better future, and puts forward some reform Suggestions: at the end of the policy on the condition of education and conservation division; Overall, cooperation plan implementation; To establish a national curriculum system, and so on.Mailing says, mental health refers to people for the environment and to each other with the highest efficiency and happy to adapt to the situation. Mental health who can adapt to the external world stable emotion, in all kinds of psychological quality has a pleasant disposition. English points out that mental health is a kind of psychological status of the participants in that case can do good, has the vigor of life, and can fully develop the potential of body and mind, it is a positive case, not just from mental illness.Katz and column think, mental health refers to the person's mood is stable, wisdom and good social adaptation.Jieming bloom in 1964 by the eight children's physical, mental and psychological development of longitudinal study, found that for children aged eight, because in a good environment and grow in the bad environment, both the difference between the IQ of up to 16 points, in order to produce the stand or fall of juvenile stage provide environment for children to a large extent influence the development of their IQ.Sally Tomlinson and Kathy's wedding on child care has carried on the thorough analysis and research. They believe that a country's strategy of early childhoodeducation should be for at least two goals: one is for all the family can put their children in a good environment for the development of education and health; 2 it is to have a good selection of preschool education, and the choice of parents should be able to get respect, etc. Finally they also point out that, in order to achieve these goals, the government should increase the preschool funding projects and adjust tax distribution, to reform the system of state aid in close cooperation and strengthen the central and local, and ensure that investment in young children makes it possible for families to take care of, so that you can let the children to get healthy development.Brian brown in the Choice For Parents, the Best Start For Children - a ten - year strategy For childcare: a Case Study of New Sure Start, UK "(2005), the content of the background, For child care, etc. The analysis and research are discussed in detail. Ann bout and Gordon MacDonald in the Parents and a ten - year strategy for childcare Evaluation: Suggestions for partnership "(2006), this Angle is mainly from the family and community resources, studied the content of the child care.Preschool education in child carePreschool education and conservation organizationsDifferent families can choose according to their own situation and the child's needs a pre-school institutions, also can choose a variety of preschool institutions at the same time. According to various preschool institutions function is divided into three categories: mainly for 3-5 years old children preschool education preschool/kindergarten, mainly provide pre-school children 0-5 years old conservation service conservation organizations as well as the remote areas and children with special needs of mainstream pre-school institutions.Conservation organizations are all day care and home care agencies: the whole facility is mainly geared to the needs of children aged 0 to 5, generally at 7:30 am to 6 PM open, open at least 10 hours a day, five days a week (from Monday to Friday), at least 48 weeks each year; Family day care is to point to by professional nanny in their own homes for children, provide flexible pre-school teaching and care services, including the day of custody, part time and temporary custody hosting, mainly for children aged 0 to 6, family day care nurse to day care in the family registrationsystem, family day care system is responsible for recruiting and training the nanny, conservation of regulatory quality and provide professional advice and support for the parents and information, etc., with a range of pre-school education qualifications of preschool teachers can be independent of the home care system and separate family day care institutions.Quality promotion and certification system and family day care institutions of quality assurance system requirements for the whole day care and family day care for children and they adapt to the development of preschool education and conservation programs, but there is no prescribed course.Preschool education and conservation supervisionAt the federal level, the education, employment, and labor relations department is responsible for the jurisdiction of pre-school education and care of related transaction, its functions are: for the whole day care, family day care, some temporary trustee institution, formulate related policies, through family help office to issue childcare subsidies and child night tax return, overseeing all day care and home care quality certification system and supporting indigenous children's pre-school education; State and territory governments bears the major responsibility for the preschool education and conservation of this area, is mainly responsible for: the jurisdiction of the regulation and funding preschool/kindergarten and some is beyond the scope of the federal government to support conservation organizations, according to the jurisdiction of the pre-school education and conservation organizations set up regulatory requirements, monitor their behavior and issue business licenses.The defects of preschool education and conservation systemIn recent years, more and more studies show that children's first five years of experience, learning, and to the health of their future social development plays a decisive role. Children started from the birth of learning, the federal government will pre-school education from pre-school conservation fund and regulatory practices against the development of children. And in the actual operation, the preschool education and preschool boundaries also gradually tends to be fuzzy. In some jurisdictions, some conservation organizations also provide preschool education forchildren, conservation agencies in 2006 census data show that the country's 2068 is about 48% in the whole facility for meat to provide pre-school education. Because families choose conservation organizations can get the federal government's subsidies, conservation agencies and more on service when asked to meet the needs of the parents, many parents are willing to send children to conservation of preschool education, in 2007-2008, about 526000 children aged 4, including about 200000 in conservation agency preschool education.Preschool institutions no consistent curriculum, teachers' qualification, regulation and support standards, this is bad for children in a variety of transition between pre-school institutions, is unfavorable to the parents to choose the appropriate for children pre-school institutions; And government regulatory requirements also do not take the pre-school institutions especially conservation organizations to provide the quality of preschool education and conservation, leaving many children receive less than high quality pre-school education and care; Layers of government regulation of preschool education and conservation, caused the pre-school education and preservation system policy, funding and develop parties, such as the complexity and multilayered; The federal government and the district government regulatory conservation organizations, and creates some regulatory overlap, increased the regulatory burden of conservation organizations, make a conservation organization staff have to shoulder some of the unnecessary administrative work, and have no time to plan and prepare for children education activities; And the independent regulation of the jurisdiction of preschool education, and the development level and the quality is uneven, unfavorable to pre-school education and conservation of fair; Preschool workers have different qualifications, and many conservation agency workers have no formal qualifications, statistics show, only 7% of the whole day care staff across the country has degree or higher qualifications, 39% of staff have no formal qualifications, this is not conducive to the development of children.ConclusionResearch proves that high quality pre-school education and care to children's language ability, cognitive ability and the development of social behavior and theirlater in the long-term school and society's achievements in life has a positive impact. In addition, the pre-school education and care for the development of education, family happiness and social stability and progress also plays an important role. And the quality is the lifeline of the preschool education career, it is directly related to the level of children's physical and mental development, quality and high quality pre-school education can effectively promote the sound development of children.译文学前教育阶段的心理健康与儿童保育质量Field T摘要学前期是人的社会性行为、情绪情感、性格和认知等方面发展的关键阶段,也是人一生中发展最快、可塑性最强的时期。
外文文献—管理信息系统
附录Ⅰ外文资料：Management Information SystemsWriter: Raymond McLeod, Jr·George Schell ，2007Information is one of the main resources available to the manager. Information can be managed just as any other resource, and interest in this topic stem from two influences. First, business has become more complex, and second, the computer has achieved improved capabilities.Computer information is used by managers, non-managers, and persons and organizations within the firm’s environment. Managers are found on all orga nizational levels of the firm and in all business areas. Managers perform functions and play roles; to be successful and they need skill in communication and problem solving. Managers should be computer literate, but, more important, they should be information literate.It is helpful if the manager has an ability to see his or her unit as a system composed of subsystems and existing within a larger super system. The firm is a physical system, but it is managed through a conceptual system. The conceptual system consists of an information processor that transforms data into information and represents the physical resources.The first major computer application was used to process accounting data. That application was followed by four others: management information systems, decision support system, the virtual office, and knowledge-based system. All five of these applications compose the computer-based information system.What are the information resources?The first efforts to engage in information management focused on data. These efforts occurred in conjunction with widespread adoption database management systems during the 1970s and 1980s. Firms reasoned that if they managed their data by implementing computer-based DBMSs, they would, in effect, manage their information.A broader view, however, is that you can manage information by managing the resources that produce the information. In other words, rather than concentrate on the input (the data)and the output (the information), attention should also be given to the information processor that transforms the input into the output. This processor includes the hardware and software, as well an the persons who develop, operate, and use the systems. Also included are the facilities that house the resources.Main Type of Resource sThe manager managers five main type of resources:●Personnel●Material●Machines(including facilities and energy)●Money●Information(including data)The task of the manager is to manage these resources in order to use them in themost effective way. The first four resource types are tangible; they exist physically and can be touched. We use the term physical resource to describe them. The fifth resource type, information, is not valuable form what it represents. That is we use the term conceptual resource to describe information and data. Managers use conceptual resources to manage physical resources.How Information is managedIt is easy to see how a manager managers physical resources, but management applies equally well to conceptual resources. The manager ensures that the necessary raw data is gathered and then processed into usable information. He or she then ensures that appropriate individuals receive the information in the proper form at the proper time so that it can be used. Finally, the manager discard information that has outlived its usefulness and replaces it with information that is current and accurate. All of this activity-acquiring information, using it in the most effective way, and discarding it at the proper time-is called information management.Increasing Complexity of Business ActivityBusiness has always been complex, but it is more so today than ever before. All firms are subject to international economic influences and compete in a worldwide marketplace, the technology of business is becoming more complex, the time frame for taking action is shrinking, and there are social constrains.International economic influences Firms of all size are subject to economic influences that can originate anywhere in the world. Such influence can be seen in the relative values of the currencies of each nation. Buyers make purchases in those countries where their currencies have the greatest value. For example, when Mexico devalued its peso during the late 1980s, tourists decided to take their vacations there, rather than in place like Hawaii.Worldwide competition Firms no longer compete in only their own geographic area. Rather, competition exists on a worldwide scale. The effects of this competition can be seen in the imports from foreign countries. The decision by General Motors in the early 1990s to close many of its plans indicates that even industry giants are not insulated from the effects of competition which can originate anywhere in the world.Increasing complexity technology We see example of technology in business every day-barcode scanners in supermarkets, computer-based airline reservation systems, automated teller technology that we do not see-factory robots and automated merchandise storage-and-handling equipment, for example. Firms invest in this technology to perform necessary operation. Just think what would happen if the L.L.Bean mail-order operation in Maine or Harrods’s department store in London could no longer use their computer!Shrinking time frames All phases of business operations are performed more rapidly than ever before. Sales representatives engage in telemarketing to contact their customers within seconds by telephone, sale orders are transmitted electronically from one computer to another, and manufacturers schedule raw material deliveries to arrive “just in time.”Social constraints Oddly enough, not all pressures favor production; some favor nonproduction. This is true in the case of products and services that society findsundesirable. Business decisions must be based on economic factors, but social costs and payoffs must be considered as well. Plant expansion, new products, new products, new sales outlets, and similar actions must all be weighed in term of their environmental impact.Each of these influences contributes to the complexity of business.Physical systems and conceptual systemsThe business firm is a physical system, composed of physical resources. A conceptual system, on the other hand, is a system that uses conceptual resources-information and data-to represent a physical system. A conceptual system exists, for example, as mental images in the manager’s mind, as figures or lines on a sheet of paper, or in the electronic form of the computer’s storage.The computer is a physical system, but the data and information stored in it can be viewed as a conceptual system. The date and information represent one or more physical system. How the date and information are stored is unimportant. What is important is what the data and information represent. The physical system is important for what it is; the conceptual system is important for its representation of the physical system.What stimulated end-user computing?End-user computing evolved because of four main influences.●An increase in computer literacy During the early 1980s, good computereducation programs at both the college and precollege level began to have an impact. Management ranks, especially on the lower levels, began to fill with computer-literate people.●The information services backing Information specialists have always had morework than they can handle. This situation became critical during the early 1980s, when users began making demands on information services for additional systems support. Information services could not respond quickly enough, and backlogs built up. Some users had to wait two or three year for their jobs to work their way through the backlog.●Low-cost hardware During this period, the market becomes flooded withlow-cost microcomputers. Users could obtain their own hardware by placing an order at the local computer store by telephone and making payment for the petty cash fund.●Prewritten software Both hardware and software firms produced software thatwould perform basic accounting tasks as well as provide information for decision making. This prewritten software offered enhanced support and ease of use, and it enabled firms and individual users with little or no computer expertise to implement computer-based system.The combination of these four influences accounted for the explosion of end-user computing.System ElementsNot all systems have the same combination of elements, but a basic configuration is illustrated in figure 1.5. Input resources are transformed into output resources. The resources flow from the input element, through the transformation element, and to theoutput element. A control mechanism monitors the transformation process to ensure that the system meets its objectives. The control mechanism is connected to the resource flow by means of a feedback loop, which obtains information from the system output and makes it available to the control mechanism. The control mechanism compares the feedback signals to the objectives and directs signals to the input element when it is necessary to change the system operation.When this arrangement of elements is used to explain a heating system, for example, the input represents the fuel, such as natural gas or coal. Combustion is the heating process that transforms the fuel into heat-the output. The control mechanism is the thermostat, the feedback loop is the wiring that connects the thermostat to the heater, and the objective is the temperature that is dialed into the thermostat.When the system elements represent a manufacturing firm, the input resources are the raw materials, which are transformed into finished products or services by the manufacturing process. The control mechanism is the firm’s management, the objectives are the goals that the firm seeks to achieve, and the feedback loop is the flow of information both to and from management.中文译文：管理信息系统作者：Raymond McLeod, Jr·George Schell 信息是管理者可以使用的主要资源之一。
中小企业融资研究文献综述及外文文献资料
本文档包括改专题的：外文文献、文献综述一、外文文献The Role of Banks in Small and Medium Enterprises Financing: A Case Studyfrom KosovoAbstractIn this study we investigate the impact of firm and entrepreneurship characteristics in small and medium enterprises (SME-s) investment finance through debt (bank loan). Data are gathered from interviews based on a self-organized questionnaire with 150 SME-s in Kosovo. Based on the econometric model of linear regression, key factors are identified which influence the investment growth financed by debt. The results indicate that there is mutual correlation among the firm's age, size, business plan, sector, number of owners, sources of financing and the investment growth financed from banks in Kosovo. Therefore, findings in this work suggest that the access to external sources of financing through bank loan is an important factor that influences the investment growth. The paper provides some important conclusions and implications for policymakers and entrepreneurs.Keywords: SME, entrepreneurship, financing through debt, investment, Kosovo1. IntroductionIt is explicitly accepted that SME-s present a pivotal element in the economic activity in both, developed and developing countries (Acs & Audretsch, 1990; Johnson & Loweman, 1995). Numerous authors from academic and professional world designate SME-s as generators of both, economic growth and overall social development (Audretsch & Klepper, 2000; World Bank Group, 2005; McMillan & Woodruff, 2002).The discussion of the relevant literature related to the access of SME-s to finance, as well as to investment finance is of particular importance (Krasniqi, 2007). According to Beck et al. (2007), the SME-s access to, and cost of, finances is quite often characterized as a major difficulty, up to the extent of 35 percent. It should alsobe stressed that the small firms come with more difficulty to loans, since they encounter higher transaction costs and higher premium risks, for they are more fragile and they offer lower collaterals (Beck et al., 2006). Audretsch and Elston (2006) also stress that small firms confronted higher financial difficulties than large ones. Similar conclusions can be found among other authors who have worked in this direction (Beck et al., 2006; Oliveira & Fortunato, 2006).Brinckmann et al. (2011) finds that small firms have higher limitations to access external sources of financing than bigger firms, and, thus, they become more dependent on internal funds for financing their investment needs. A major obstacle in financial markets to the access on finances by SME-s is also the asymmetry of information. Thus, based on Zhao et al. (2006), one from the major difficulties for accessing finance is the asymmetry of information among lenders and debtors; for instance, borrowers have private information on the firm that lenders do not possess. Because of their small size, short history and inconsistent accounting data, the issue of asymmetric information for SME-s becomes more serious (Deakins et al., 2008; EBRD, 1999; Pissardies et al., 2003; Klapper et al., 2002).Difficulties of this kind are expressed also among SME-s of Kosovo, as one from the last countries in transition. In spite of the fact that the SME sector in Kosovo is relatively new, it constitutes 98% of all the firms, thus representing a huge potential for generation of new jobs and for economic development of the country. Based on data of the World Bank (2010), the major obstacle to the development of SME-s in Kosovo is access to bank loans. Only 10% of investments made by SME-s are financed through bank loans, and above 85% of investments are financed from private sources (World Bank, 2010).Objective of this work is to empirically investigate the role and importance of the firms and entrepreneurship characteristics that influence the investment growth through debt finance (loans) in Kosovo. Therefore, the research question in this study is: How does the investment growth impact the performance of SME-s, by discussing the firm and entrepreneurship characteristics of the investment growth of SME-s in Kosovo?The organization of the work is as following: Part one discusses the context of the research, part two the theoretical aspect and the summary of literature. In part three we provide the research methodology and model. Part four contains the results and empirical findings. And, part five deals with the conclusions.2. Theory and Literature ReviewUntil now, there is no single and unique theoretical model that explains the financing of SME-s, which influences the performance of investments, their growth and development. The theoretical principles underlying capital structure can generally be describes in terms of the static trade off theory by Modigliani and Miller (1958), the pecking order theory (Myers & Majluf, 1984), managerial theory of investments (Marris, 1963; Baumol, 1967), agency theory by Jensen and Meckling (1976) and extended by Stiglitz and Weiss (1981).According to neoclassical theory of investments (M-M), which affirms the attitude on the irrelevance of the capital structure for the value of the firm, internal and external sources of financing are perfect substitutes. In the world of the perfect functioning of the market, the choice between financing through capital or debt is irrelevant. Therefore, the cost of capital and the market value of the firm are independent from the value of the firm (Modigliani & Miller, 1958). The theory of M-M is based on the following premises: there are no taxes, there are no transaction costs, there are no bankruptcy costs, the equal cost of debt for companies and for investors, symmetrical information in the market, there is no influence of debt in the profit of the company before interest and taxation.Modigliani and Miller (1958) modify their theory by introducing the tax on profit. In this case, the value of the firm is positively related to debt. After introducing the tax on profit in their analysis, they ascertain that the financial leverage increases the value of the firm, since the interest decreases the tax base (it is deduced from the business profit), and, therefore, we have savings which have the value of the interest. From this ascertainment, the value of the firm grows bigger, as the financial leverage increases, which means that the highest value of the firm is achieved if the burden of debt becomes 100%. In this way the firm attains absolute advantage, given that it isdefended from taxes.Scott (1972) emphasizes that 100% tax shield does not exist in reality, because of distress costs. Debt leads to legal obligation to pay interest and principal. If a firm cannot meet its debt obligation, it is forced in to bankruptcy an incurs associated costs (Fatoki & Asah, 2011). This theory, in fact, does not take into the consideration all the other factors, such as: the costs of the bankruptcy of the firm, the costs of the agency, the impact of debt in profit, the asymmetry of information, and, therefore, this theory is challenged by other theories (Harris & Raviv, 1991).Thus, the static trade off theory, which is based on the M-M theory and is its complementary, except savings from the tax on profit, incorporates into the discussion also the cost of bankruptcy, such as: judicial taxes, attorney costs, administrative costs, and, also, the agency costs (the firms managers damage the interests of the creditors by working in the interest of shareholders), and this can reduce the value of the firm (Jensen and Meckling, 1976). This theory is, in fact, the dominant theory regarding the determination of the financial structure of the firm, and it is founded on the premise that it is the firm that chooses how much it will be financed from debt, and how much from the capital, by balancing the cost of profits. According to this theory, the optimal level of the structure of capital is the one which equates the profit and costs from debt.According to pecking order theory, the firm initially prefers internal sources of financing to external ones, and, regarding external sources, they prefer debt to capital (Donaldson, 1961). Thus, initially we have the use of accumulated profit, amortization, debt, and, finally, the equity capital. According to this theory, the firms finance their investment requirements based on a hierarchic order. This can direct also to existence of the asymmetry of information between managers (insiders) and investors (outsiders). As a result of this, managers have more information then investors (Myers & Majluf, 1984).Based on the agency theory, Stiglitz and Weiss (1981) present the problem that, as a consequence of asymmetrical information, occur between managers and shareholders, on one hand, and the problem among shareholders, managers andcreditors, on the other. They argue that only SME-s knows the real financial structure of their own, the real strength of their investment projects and the tendencies for settling up the debt, and, therefore, the firm possesses superior private information (Mazanai & Fatoki, 2012).3. Hypothesis3.1 Business PlanAccording to Guffey, the business plan is a necessary requirement at the beginning of business, and it is used as an important element to acquire financial support during application to banking institutions (Guffey, 2008). An increase in the level of skills of those who are looking for credits in the compilation of business plans, will increase their opportunities to have properly prepared documentation, and to have a clear idea on the course of their business. According to Maziku (2012), the asymmetric information between the debt-seeking SME-s and the bank, is reflected in the incapability of the majority of SME-s to provide consistent financial data and real business plans, which increases the operational cost during the decision making for permitting the loans by the a bank (Maziku, 2012). Thus, the business plan does not have an impact only in reduction of operational costs, but it is also a key instrument in the decision making regarding the use of banking loans by the firms (Zhang, 2008; Madura, 2007). This is valid particularly for start-up businesses.Therefore, the following hypothesis is generated:H1: SME-s which have business plans are more likely to use bank loans than SME-s without written business plans.3.2 The Growth of the FirmThe growth of SME-s depends on the level of investments. The growth of SME-s can be measured in different ways, including the growth of sales, profits, or number of employees (McPerson, 1996). We measure this variable through the growth of the number of employees.The ability of SME-s to grow depends on a large measure from their potential to invest in the restructuring and innovations. All these investments require capital, that is, they require access to finance (Mazanai & Fatoki, 2012). According to Ganbold(2008), in a research of the World Bank, one among the key difficulties in the growth of the firm is access to financial services, which reflects in economic growth, employment generation, and reduction of poverty in the developing countries (Ganbold, 2008). Based on the theory of firm growth (Jovanovic, 1982), new enterprises grow faster, which means that these have to invest more.Therefore, the following hypothesis is generated:H2: SME-s that grow faster invest more than those with low level of growth.3.3 GenderIn the professional literature there are contradictory opinions regarding the impact that gender of the owner of the firm has into the access to finance. While a group of thinkers assert that gender of the owner has an impact into the capital structure of the firm, the other group denies this, ascertaining that gender doesn't have any impact into the determination of the capital structure.On one hand, Abor (2008) argues that businesses owned by female owners use the debt (loans) less for different reasons, including discrimination and aversion to risk. Watson et al. (2009) emphasize that a key factor in determining the capital structure in businesses owned by female owners is their propensity towards not accepting risk from the desire to keep things under control. Female clients are more hesitant to seek loans, since they feel discriminated and discouraged (Kon & Storey, 2003).On the other hand, Coleman (2000) find that there ar no important differences in the use of debt (banking loan) between female and male owners, and that gender is not an important predictor of the financial leverage of the firm. Whereas, Irving and Scott (2008), analyzing 400 SME-s, and based on the questionare prepared by Barclays Bank, in the most surprising way ascertain that female have easier access to finance then male. Therefore, based on the findings reported above, the following hypothesis is generated:H3: The male owners of firms are more likely to use bank loans then the female owners of firms.3.4 Sources of FinancingThe larger participation of investment finance from internal sources of SME-s increases the probability for acquiring of bank loans, since the internal sources carry the opportunity cost of financing of the project. Thus, SME-s provide higher level of trust to banks, since, in the case of failure, the unexpected burden falls on SME-s themselves. In their research conducted in 16 countries of OECD, Japelli and Pagano (1994) ascertain that banks don't finance 100% of the property value in any of these countries, but they do that with a certain coeficient loan/property. This is not equal for all the countries, and it differs from country to country, starting from the minimum financing of 50% in Turkey and Greece, up to 95% in Denmark.Thus, authors Lee and Ratti (2008) and Ahn et al. (2006) reports negative relationship between debt and investments. This relationship is stronger among smaller firms. As the debt (loans) grows, the cash flow is increasingly used for settling up the loan and its interest. Consequently, firms fulfill their obligations to creditors with more difficulties, and, on the other hand, the possibility for new investments is reduced.Therefore the following hypothesis is generated:H4: The higher the internal sources of SME-s, the higher probability to acquire bank loans for investment finance.3.5 EducationEducation is one of the important factors that influence the growth of the firm. Therefore, the high level of human capital (education and experience) has a positive impact in the growth of the firm. The owners of the firm who are of young age and low level of education are more active in using the external sources of financing, in spite of the fact that higher education reduces the fear for refusing the loans. In the meantime the owners of more mature age and with higher education, the so called "wiser" ones, can be found as less interested for external sources of financing (V os et al., 2007). Therefore, the majorities of owners of SME-s prefer to keep the control and do not apply for external capital (Curran, 1986; Jarvis, 2000).Thus, the internal capital is the major source of financing the SME-s (Ou & Haynes, 2003). Rand (2007) finds also negative influence between education ofowners-managers and access to credit, arguing that owners-managers with higher education can understand easier that their requirements for credits can be refused. Therefore, these owners-managers are for this reason discouraged and hesitate to apply for loans. In their study on new firms, Hartarska and Gonzales Vega (2006) find that education does not have an important role in the decision-making of the banks for lending.Therefore, the following hypothesis is generated:H5: Owners/managers with high level of education use less bank loans for financing the investment requirements.4. Methodology4.1. Sources of DataThe organization of data gathering from the questionnaire was developed in the period March-July, 2012, and data processing based on the answers was conducted in November and December 2012. On this occasion, a database was developed, which includes characteristics of SME-s in general, and characteristics related to investments and their financing in particular. Data processing was conducted with the STATA software.The questionnaire is specially designed for this scientific research with 150 SME-s in Kosovo, and it includes years 2010 and 2011. The sample selection is made randomly, from database at the Agency for Businesses Registration in the Ministry of Industry and Trade of Kosovo, and it is stratified in three basic sectors, in order to reflect eventual changes among the production, trade and service firms. Interviews were conducted directly (face to face) with owners/managers, or financial managers of the firms.4.2 QuestionnaireThe questionnaire consisted of 4 major sections. The first section included data on the owner/manager of the firm, and general data about the firm (location, the year of establishment, type of activity, and qualification of owners/managers). Second section included the orientation regarding the development in the future as well as investments, and here are presented data regarding volume of investments, sources ofinvestment, the use of bank loans in realization of investments, conditions of financing, activities that are conducted during the realization of investments, and investment plans for the future. The third section covers information regarding business activities of the firms inside and outside of the country, that is, whether a certain firm imports or exports merchandise. The fourth section includes data regarding the business plans of the firms: possession of the business plan, its impact on the decisions of the banks. Information gathered from the questionnaire was important for determining the variables in the econometric model of linear regression.5. Survey ResultsBased on the results, we conclude that the regression linear model mentioned above is specified good, given that Adj R-squared 0.36, which shows that the variation in independent variables explains the variation in dependent variable for more than 36%. In addition, the statistical F-test, shows that all the independent variables, jointly, which are statistically significant, are different from zero.Also, the correlation analysis shows that the problem of correlation in independent variables is not present in our data, given that there no higher coefficients in our estimation. Also, the dependent variable has a normal distribution and does not represent a statistical problem that requires treatment.Based on the table 2, in which the results of the linear regression are presented, from nine independent variables, six are statistically significant with impact on the dependent variable, or on the investment growth.According to results, the variable business plan, is statistically significant and with positive sign. This means that the firms that have business plans, on average have investment growths that are bigger than those of the firms that do not have business plans. Similar ascertainments can be found among other authors who emphasize that the business plan serves as a mean for increasing financing from external sources (Zhang, 2008).The variable trade is statistically significant and with negative impact in the investment growth when compared with the firms that belong to the service sector. This has the meaning that services on average invest more than other sectors. Inaddition the variable production is also statistically significant and with negative impact on the increase of investments when compared with the firms that belong to the sector of services. This has the meaning that when compared with the services, the sector of production invests less than other sectors. Similar ascertainments for the case of Kosovo can be found in the work of the author Krasniqi (2010).The next variable no_own, which indicates the number of owners, is statistically significant and with positive impact, which means that the greater the number of owners, the greater will be the investments. We have also size_emp as a variable that shows the size of the firm expressed by the number of employees, and is statistically significant and with inverse impact on the growth of investments. This means that smaller firms have larger investment growths. This finding clearly reflects that as the number of employee's grows, the firms grow slowlier. This is in full accordance with findings of other authors (Audretsch & Klepper, 2000; Caves, 1998). These results are the same with other studies that oppose the Gibrat Law (Krasniqi, 2006; Harris & Trainor, 2005).The firm_age as an independent variable is statistically significant and with negative sign, which means that new firms grow faster than older firms. This ascertainment is in accordance with findings of many authors who ascertain that younger firms grow faster than the older ones, and, therefore, have higher investment growth (Woldie et al., 2008; Storey, 1994; Barkham et al., 1996).The gender of the owner of the firm in the presented model, as a variable is not statistically significant, which means that the owners of the businesses of both genders have the same probability to obtain bank loans for SME-s investments. These results are in accordance with the studies conducted by Kalleberg and Leicht (1991), who, in a study conducted with 300 firms in three sectors, ascertain that female owners were as successful as male owners. We find similar ascertainment in the study of 298 businesses in United Kingdom, which emphasizes that gender, is not a determinant for financing the business (Johnson & Storey, 1993). Coleman (2000) emphasizes that there are no important differences in the use of debt (bank loans) between males and females, and that gender is not an important predictor for financial leverage of thefirm.Finally, education represents a variable which is not statistically significant and has negative sign, which means that the level of education of the managers/owners doesn't impact external sources of financing (bank loans) for SME-s investments. This is explained by the fact that Kosovan SME-s suffer from permanent lack of capital, and on average the time frame of establishment is short and the means that are accumulated from the profits are insufficient for financing the investments. Therefore, the only alternative that remains to them is financing from banking credits, taking into the consideration that the capital market does not function in Kosovo, which causes that the possibility to use other forms of external financing is very difficult. Similar results can be found at Krasniqi (2010).6. ConclusionsIn this study we have investigated empirically the key factors of the firms and entrepreneurship which influence the increase of investment growth through bank loans. The data gathered by the self organized questionnaire with 150 SME-s in the entire territory of Kosovo for the years 2010 and 2011 are used to test the impact of certain factors in the increase of investments through the use of financial means from debt (bank loans). Based on the statistical analysis and the method of linear regression, key factors are identified as indicators that influence the growth of investments of SME-s in Kosovo.The findings of this work stress that the business plan is a factor with statistical importance which has positive influence in the access to the bank loans for financing the SME-s investment. This means that the firms that posses business plan and use it for seeking bank loans necessary for financing investments, on average have higher growth of investments than the firms who do not have a business plan.The variables trade and production are statistically significant, but they have negative influence in the growth of investments. This means that the firms that use bank loans for investment in the sector of trade and production, on average, have lower chance to grow, than firms in the service sector. This is an indicator that shows that the sector of services is more attractive in the aspect of investments of Kosovanfirms, than other sectors of the economy, and this results from faster returns of investments and, consequently, faster settling up of the bank loans.The next variable named as the number of owners also results positive and significant in the statistical aspect, which means that the larger the number of owners, the greater the investments. This is explained by the fact that in Kosovo firms have started to use other forms of organization that influence the growth of business and of firm, through larger number of owners who use investment as another opportunity for the growth and development of the firm.The size of the firm expressed by the number of employees results with inverse influence in the growth of investments, and is statistically significant. The meaning of this is that smaller firms have bigger growth of investment on average than other firms. This result is in accordance with other studies that oppose the Gibrat's Law for the case of Kosovo (Krasniqi, 2010). Similar results are attained regarding the variable the age of the firm, which is statistically significant and has a negative sign, which means that the younger firms invest more on average than older firms.Empirical evidence and findings in this work can be used as recommendations for a broad spectrum of users. The problems of asymmetric information between owners-managers and creditors (banks) are of particular importance. This represents a clear signal for policy makers to create conditions for favorable environment for stimulating the sources of external financing of SME-s in Kosovo, such as: the creation of the guarantee fund for SME-s, the increase of banking supply through licensing of new banks in the financial market, which will increase the competition between the existing banks, and which will, in turn, enable the improvement of the conditions of financing of SME-s, with the reduction of the interest, reduction of managerial costs, increase of the grace period, softening of the conditions for collateral, longer periods of use of financial means, particularly for SME-s that have longer investment plans. Also, in the institutional aspect, initiatives should be undertaken for the creation of conditions for development of entrepreneurial capabilities, and for other forms of cooperating networks of firms that will facilitate the growth of businesses in general, and investment growth in particular.二、文献综述中小企业融资研究文献综述摘要长时间以来，融资难问题都是制约中小企业长期稳定发展的最主要因素之一，各国学者对于中小企业的融资问题从本国范围和世界范围内进行了深入的研究,在此对国内外学者的研究成果进行了文献综述，主要内容包括：中小企业融资现状和制度环境分析；分别从内、外部原因以及信息不对称等原因分析中小企业融资难问题；第三部分是关于应对中小企业融资难问题的对策研究；最后给出关于中小企业融资难问题的建议。
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外文资料原件 87 Cliffhanger The Lawrence Hargrave Drive , a coastal road north of Wollongong , is one of the most scenic roads in New South Wales , Australia , and a major tourist attraction . A 900 m section of the road is also the highest slope risk section of road in the country , with a long history of rock falls and embankment failure . Richard High report on construction of a spectacular alternative route . Built in the 1860s the road was known as the Lower Coast Road until 1947 , when it was renamed Lawrence Hargrave Drive (LHD) . Born in Greenwich . England in 1850 Lawrence Hargrave was an aviation pioneer ,inventor , explorer , mason and astronomer . In 1984 , he became the first man in Australia to fly – at nearby Stanwell Park . As well as having the coast road renamed to commemorate him . Hargrave’s face was on the first AU$ 20 note , issued in 1966 . Originally , a dirt track , LHD carried comparatively few vehicles for many years . In the 21st century as local communities and tourism have grown , about 3000 vehicles a day used the road . In August 2003 , following an independent study , which found the road posed an ‘intolerable risk’ to public safety , the Minister for Roads announced a major repair project for the LHD . In November 2003 , in a bid to speed up construction and drive down costs the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) formed a construction alliance – The Lawrence Hargrave Drive Alliance (LHDA) – with Barclay Mowlem , Coffey Geosciences and Maunsell Australia . Construction started in June 2004 on the AU$ 49 million (US$ 37 million) replacement of the 900 m section between Clifton and Coalcliff . and the road is expected to re-open to 天津城建学院毕业（设计说明书） 88 traffic in early 2006 . At the heart of the project are two bridges , one spanning the southern bay and the other the middle headland , which will connect to form a single 665 m long bridge . The route will then return to the existing alignment through the northern bay . The new road , including the bridge , will have two 3.5 m wide lanes , one in each direction , with 1 m wide shoulders . A separate 2.5 m wide shared pedestrian/cycle path will be built next to the traffic lanes on the eastern (seaward) side . Australian first The bridge is being constructed using two different methods . A balanced cantilever bridge will extend from the existing road along the southern headland and curve to join an incrementally launched bridge , which joins the existing road at the middle headland . This is the first bridge in Australia to combine both incremental launching and balanced cantilevering on the same project to form one continuous structure . Before construction of the bridge could start significant temporary works were required to provide am access road for the foundation construction equipment , and to erect the four tower cranes for construction of the balanced cantilever piers . This involved the construction of a 6 m wide track , 6 m above the high tide mark , with a maximum grade of 1in 8 from the existing roadway . About 60000 tonnes of rock was imported to support and protect the access road from heavy seas . According to Barclay Mowlem's Peter Stewart, engineering manager for the LHDA, the most difficult part of the project is site access and size. "The availble sitearea is very restricted and logistically the proiect is very challenging given the quantity of materials and equipment to be moved in 外文资料原件 89 and around site. Some of the [formwork] traveller components are up to 16 by 6 m in size. "Besides which, some of the local conditions, including high seas and strong winds, has made progress slow at various times." said Mr Stewart. Balanced cantilever bridge Construction of the 665 m bridge started in June 2004 and is expected to finish in early 2006. The LHD balanced cantilever bridge section is 455 m long and built up to 45 m to the east af the existing road to bypass the unstable cliff line and rock falls and areas of embankment instability. It will carry the road 41 m above sea level at its highest point and have a total of four piers and five spans. The first and last spans will be 63 m long, while the three central spans will be 108 m. Using the balanced cantilevering method, the superstructure of bridges is built out from the pier head ensuring the loads are never more than one segment out of balance on either side. The bridge deck is constructed using tormwork travellers with curvature radii of 500 m and 300 m. The structure advances symmetrically on either side of the pier head. The segment length is typically 4.95 m with ten segments each side of the pier. Closure cores at mid and end spans allow for completion of the deck. Segments are concreted and once the concrete has gained sufficient strength they are stressed to the previously completed segments using pre-stressing cables. According to Mr Stewart, a balanced cantilever bridge is ideally suited for the long spans and overcomes construction difficulties where it is not practical to temporarily support the