开题报告 外文翻译
开题报告范文英语翻译
开题报告范文英语翻译In recent years, there has been a growing concern about the impact of climate change on the environment. As global temperatures rise, the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, droughts, and heatwaves have increased. These changes pose a significant threat to the world’s ecosystems, biodiversity, and human livelihoods.One of the major consequences of climate change is the disruption of ecosystems. Rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns have caused shifts in plant and animal habitats, leading to the decline in certain species and the proliferation of others. For example, rising sea levels have resulted in the loss of coastal habitats and the destruction of coral reefs, which are vital breeding grounds for many marine species. This loss of biodiversity not only impacts ecosystems, but also affects human societies that depend on these ecosystems for food and resources.Another alarming consequence of climate change is the increased occurrence of extreme weather events. Hurricanes, floods, and droughts have become more frequent and severe in many parts of the world. These events not only cause immediate destruction and loss of lives, but also have long-term social and economic impacts. For instance, the destruction of infrastructure and agricultural lands due to floods can lead to food shortages and economic instability. Similarly, prolonged droughts can cause water scarcity and trigger conflicts over limited resources.Furthermore, climate change is also affecting human health. Rising temperatures and changing weather patterns create favorableconditions for the spread of infectious diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Heatwaves and extreme temperatures also pose a risk to vulnerable populations, such as the elderly and those with pre-existing health conditions. Moreover, the displacement of communities due to climate-related events can lead to food insecurity, malnutrition, and mental health issues.In conclusion, climate change has far-reaching and detrimental effects on the environment and human societies. The disruption of ecosystems, the increase in extreme weather events, and the impact on human health are just a few examples of the consequences we are already witnessing. Urgent action is needed to mitigate and adapt to climate change, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions, transitioning to renewable energy sources, and implementing measures to protect vulnerable communities. Only through concerted global efforts can we hope to minimize the impacts of climate change and ensure a sustainable and resilient future for all.。
翻译报告开题报告
翻译报告开题报告Translation Report: Opening Report开题报告 (Opening Report) - Translation Report (翻译报告) Introduction (介绍):In this translation report, we will be discussing the process and results of translating the opening report. The opening report serves as an introduction to a project or research topic, providing an overview of the objectives, methodology, and expected outcomes. It outlines the scope of the project and highlights the significance and relevance of the topic.翻译报告 (Translation Report):During the translation process, we focused on maintaining the clarity and coherence of the original text while also ensuring accurate representation of the content. Our approach involved understanding the purpose and context of the opening report and adapting the language accordingly to cater to the target audience. We encountered several challenges during the translation process. The language used in the original report was technical and required us to conduct extensive research to ensure accurate understanding and translation. Additionally, the report contained complex concepts and terminology that required careful interpretation and explanation to ensure clarity in the target language.To overcome these challenges, we employed various strategies. Firstly, we created a glossary of key terms to ensure consistent translation throughout the report. This enabled us to maintain accuracy and coherence in conveying the technical information. Secondly, we sought guidance from subject matter experts to clarify any ambiguities and ensure accurate translation of complex concepts.The translation process involved several rounds of editing and proofreading to ensure accuracy and fluency in the target language. We also paid attention to the stylistic conventions of the target language, adapting the sentence structures and expressions to enhance readability and adherence to language norms.Conclusion (结论):Overall, the translation of the opening report was a challenging yet rewarding process. Through careful research, collaboration with subject matter experts, and attention to detail, we successfully translated the report while maintaining its clarity, coherence, and accuracy. The translated report effectively communicates the objectives, methodology, and expected outcomes of the project to the target audience.。
英文翻译及开题报告
北京建筑工程学院电气与信息工程学院电气工程系英文资料翻译PLC technique discussion and future development 可编程控制技术的未来发展与探讨指导教师栾茹学生姓名聂沐晗专业电气工程及自动化班级电083学号 2107170813231原文PLC technique discussion and future developmentAlong with the development of the ages, the technique that is nowadays is also gradually perfect, the competition plays more strong; the operation that list depends the artificial has already can't satisfied with the current manufacturing industry foreground, also can't guarantee the request of the higher quantity and high new the image of the technique business enterprise.The people see in produce practice, automate brought the tremendous convenience and the product quantities for people up of assurance, also eased the personnel's labor strength, reduce the establishment on the personnel. The target control of the hard realization in many complicated production lines, whole and excellent turn, the best decision etc., well-trained operation work, technical personnel or expert, governor but can judge and operate easily, can acquire the satisfied result. The research target of the artificial intelligence makes use of the calculator exactly to carry out, imitate these intelligences behavior, moderating the work through person's brain and calculators, with the mode that person's machine combine, for resolve the very complicated problem to look for the best pathWe come in sight of the control that links after the electric appliances in various situation, that is already the that time generation past, now of after use in the mold a perhaps simple equipments of grass-roots control that the electric appliances can do for the low level only; And the PLC emergence also became the epoch-making topic, adding the vivid software control through a very and stable hardware, making the automation head for the new high tide.The PLC biggest characteristics lie in: The electrical engineering teacher already no longer electric hardware up too many calculations of cost, as long as order the importation that the button switch or the importation of the sensors order to link the PLC up can solve problem, pass to output toorder the conjunction contact machine or control the start equipments of the big power after the electric appliances, but the exportation equipments direct conjunction of the small power can.PLC internal containment have the CPU of the CPU, and take to have an I/ O for expand of exterior to connect a people's address and saving machine three big pieces to constitute, CPU core is from an or many is tired to add the machine to constitute, mathematics that they have the logic operation ability, and can read the procedure save the contents of the machine to drive the homologous saving machine and I/ Os to connect after pass the calculation; The I/ O add inner part is tired the input and output system of the machine and exterior link, and deposit the related data into the procedure saving machine or data saving machine; The saving machine can deposit the data that the I/ O input in the saving machine, and in work adjusting to become tired to add the machine and I/ Os to connect, saving machine separately saving machine RAM of the procedure saving machine ROM and dates, the ROM can do deposit of the data permanence in the saving machine, but RAM only for the CPU computes the temporary calculation usage of hour of buffer space.The PLC anti- interference is very and excellent, our root need not concern its service life and the work situation bad, these all problems have already no longer become the topic that we fail, but stay to our is a concern to come to internal resources of make use of the PLC to strengthen the control ability of the equipments for us, make our equipments more gentle.PLC language is not we imagine of edit collected materials the language or language of Cs to carry on weaving the distance, but the trapezoid diagram that the adoption is original after the electric appliances to control, make the electrical engineering teacher while weaving to write the procedure very easy comprehended the PLC language, and a lot of non- electricity professional also very quickly know and go deep into to the PLC.Is PLC one of the advantage above and only, this is also one part thatthe people comprehend more and easily, in a lot of equipments, the people have already no longer hoped to see too many control buttons, they damage not only and easily and produce the artificial error easiest, small is not a main error perhaps you can still accept; But lead even is a fatal error greatly is what we can't is tolerant of. New technique always for bringing more safe and convenient operation for us, make we a lot of problems for face on sweep but light, do you understand the HMI? Says the HMI here you basically not clear what it is, also have no interest understanding, change one inside text explains it into the touch to hold or man-machine interface you knew, and it combines with the PLC to our larger space.HMI the control not only is reduced the control press button, increase the vivid of the control, more main of it is can sequence of, and at can the change data input to output the feedback with data, control in the temperature curve of imitate but also can keep the manifestation of view to come out. And can write the function help procedure through a plait to provide the help of various what lies in one's power, the one who make operate reduces the otiose error. Currently the HMI factory is also more and more, the function is also more and more strong, the price is also more and more low, and the noodles of the usage are wide more and more. The HMI foreground can say that think ° to be good very.At a lot of situations, the list is a smooth movement that can't guarantee the equipments by the control of the single machine, but pass the information exchanges of the equipments and equipments to attain the result that we want. For example fore pack and the examination of the empress work preface, we will arrive wrapping information feedback to examine the place, and examine the information of the place to also want the feedback to packing. Pass the information share thus to make both the chain connect, becoming a total body, the match of your that thus make is more close, at each other attain to reflect the result that mutually flick.The PLC correspondence has already come more body now its value, at the PLC and correspondence between PLCs, can pass the communication of the information and the share of the dates to guarantee that of the equipments moderates mutually, the result that arrive already to repair with each other. Data conversion the adoption RS232 between PLC connect to come to the transmission data, but the RS232 pick up a people and can guarantee 10 meters only of deliver the distance, if in the distance of 1000 meters we can pass the RS485 to carry on the correspondence, the longer distance can pass the MODEL only to carry on deliver.The PLC data transmission is just to be called a form to it in a piece of and continuous address that the data of the inner part delivers the other party, we, the PLC of the other party passes to read data in the watch to carry on the operation. If the data that data in the watch is a to establish generally, that is just the general data transmission, for example today of oil price rise, I want to deliver the price of the oil price to lose the oil ally on board, that is the share of the data; But take data in the watch for an instruction procedure that controls the PLC, that had the difficulty very much, for example you have to control one pedestal robot to press the action work that you imagine, you will draw up for it the form that a procedure combine with the data sends out to pass by.The form that information transport contain single work, the half a work and the difference of a workers .The meaning of the single work also is to say both, a can send out only, but a can receive only, for example a spy he can receive the designation of the superior only, but can't give the superior reply; A work of half is also 2 and can send out similar to accept the data, but can't send out and accept at the same time, for example when you make a phone call is to can't answer the phone, the other party also; But whole pair works is both can send out and accept the data, and can send out and accept at the same time. Be like the Internet is a typical example.The process that information transport also has synchronous and different step cent: The data line and the clock lines are synchronous when synchronous meaning lie in sending out the data, is also the data signal and the clock signals to be carry on by the CPU to send out at the same time, this needs to all want the specialized clock signal each other to carry on the transmission and connect to send, and is constrained, the characteristics of this kind of method lies in its speed very quick, but correspond work time of take up the CPU and also want to be long oppositely, at the same time the technique difficulty also very big. Its request lies in canting have an error margins in a dates deliver, otherwise the whole piece according to compare the occurrence mistake, this on the hardware is a bigger difficulty. Applied more and more extensive in some appropriative equipments, be like the appropriative medical treatment equipments, the numerical signal equipments...etc., in compare the one data deliver, its result is very good.And the different step is an application the most extensive, this receive benefit in it of technique difficulty is opposite and want to be small, at the same time not need to prepare the specialized clock signal, its characteristics to lie in, its data is partition, the long-lost send out and accept, be the CPU is too busy of time can grind to a stop sex to work, also reduced the difficulty on the hardware, the data throw to lose at the same time opposite want to be little, we can pass the examination of the data to observe whether the data that we send out has the mistake or not, be like strange accidentally the method, tired addition and eight efficacies method etc., can use to helps whether the data that we examine to send out have or not the mistake occurrence, pass the feedback to carry on the discriminator.A line of transmission of the information contains a string of and combine the cent of: The usual PLC is 8 machines, certainly also having 16 machines. We can be an at the time of sending out the data a send out to the other party, also can be 88 send out the data to the other party, an and 8 differentiations are also the as that we say to send out the data and combine sends out thedata. A speed is more and slowly, but as long as 2 or three lines can solve problem, and can use the telephone line to carry on the long range control. But combine the ocular transmission speed is very quick of, it is a string of ocular of 25600%, occupy the advantage in the short distance, the in view of the fact TTL electricity is even, being limited by the scope of one meter generally, it combine unwell used for the data transmission of the long pull, thus the cost is too expensive.Under a lot of circumstances we are total to like to adopt the string to combine the conversion chip to carry on deliver, under this kind of circumstance not need us to carry on to deposited the machine to establish too and complicatedly, but carry on the data exchanges through the data transmission instruction directly, but is not a very viable way in the correspondence, because the PLC of the other party must has been wait for your data exportation at the time of sending out the data, it can't do other works.When you are reading the book, you hear someone knock on door, you stop to start up of affair, open the door and combine to continue with the one who knock on door a dialogue, the telephone of this time rang, you signal hint to connect a telephone, after connecting the telephone through, return overdo come together knock on door to have a conversation, after dialogue complete, you continue again to see your book, this kind of circumstance we are called the interruption to it, it has the authority, also having sex of have the initiative, the PLC had such function .Its characteristics lie in us and may meet the urgently abrupt affairs in the operation process of the equipments, we want to stop to start immediately up of work, the whereabouts manages the more important affair, this kind of circumstance is we usually meet of, PLC while carry out urgent mission, total will keep the current appearance first, for example the address of the procedure, CPU of tired add the machine data etc., be like to stick down which the book that we see is when we open the door the page or simply make a mark, because we treat and would still need to continue immediately after book of see the behind. The CPU always does theaffair that should do according to our will, but your mistake of give it an affair, it also would be same to do, this we must notice.The interruption is not only a, sometimes existing jointly with the hour several inside break, break off to have the preferred Class, they will carry out the interruption of the higher Class according to person's request. This kind of breaks off the medium interruption to also became to break off the set. The Class that certainly break off is relevant according to various resources of CPU with internal PLC, also following a heap of capacity size of also relevant fasten.The contents that break off has a lot of kinds, for example the exterior break off, correspondence in of send out and accept the interruption and settle and the clock that count break off, still have the WDT to reset the interruption etc., they enriched the CPU to respond to the category while handle various business. Speak thus perhaps you can't comprehend the internal structure and operation orders of the interruption completely also, we do a very small example to explain.Each equipment always will not forget a button, it also is at we meet the urgent circumstance use of, which is nasty to stop the button. When we meet the Human body trouble and surprised circumstances we as long as press it, the machine stops all operations immediately, and wait for processing the over surprised empress recover the operation again. Nasty stop the internal I/ O of the internal CPU of the button conjunction PLC to connect up, be to press button an exterior to trigger signal for CPU, the CPU carries on to the I/ O to examine again, being to confirm to have the exterior to trigger the signal, CPU protection the spot breaks off procedure counts the machine turn the homologous exterior I/ O automatically in the procedure to go to also, be exterior interruption procedure processing complete, the procedure counts the machine to return the main procedure to continue to work. Have 1:00 can what to explain is we generally would nasty stop the button of exterior break offto rise to the tallest Class, thus guarantee the safety.When we are work a work piece, giving the PLC a signal, counting PLC inner part the machine add 1 to compute us for a day of workload, a count the machine and can solve problem in brief, certainly they also can keep the data under the condition of dropping the electricity, urging the data not to throw to lose, this is also what we hope earnestly.The PLC still has the function that the high class counts the machine, being us while accept some dates of high speed, the high speed that here say is the data of the in all aspects tiny second class, for example the bar code scanner is scanning the data continuously, calculating high-speed signal of the data processor DSP etc., we will adopt the high class to count the machine to help we carry on count. It at the PLC carries out the procedure once discover that the high class counts the machine to should of interruption, will let go of the work on the hand immediately. The trapezoid diagram procedure that passes by to weave the distance again explains the high class for us to carry out procedure to count machine would automatic performance to should of work, thus rise the Class that the high class counts the machine to high one Class.You heard too many this phrases perhaps:" crash", the meaning that is mostly is a workload of CPU to lead greatly, the internal resources shortage etc. the circumstance can't result in procedure circulate. The PLC also has the similar circumstance, there is a watchdog WDT in the inner part of PLC, we can establish time that a procedure of WDT circulate, being to appear the procedure to jump to turn the mistake in the procedure movement process or the procedure is busy, movement time of the procedure exceeds WDT constitution time, the CPU turn but the WDT reset the appearance. The procedure restarts the movement, but will not carry on the breakage to the interruption.The PLC development has already entered for network ages of correspondence from the mode of the one, and together other works control the net plank and I/ O card planks to carry on the share easily. A state software can pass allse hardwires link, more animation picture of keep the view to carries on the control, and cans pass the Internet to carry on the control in the foreign land, the blast-off that is like the absolute being boat No.5 is to adopt this kind of way to make airship go up the sky.The development of the higher layer needs our continuous effort to obtain. The PLC emergence has already affected a few persons fully, we also obtained more knowledge and precepts from the top one experience of the generation, coming to the continuous development PLC technique, push it toward higher wave tide.Knowing the available PLC network options and their best applications will ensure an efficient and flexible control system design.The programmable logic controller's (PLC's) ability to support a range of communication methods makes it an ideal control and data acquisition device for a wide variety of industrial automation and facility control applications. However, there is some confusion because so many possibilities exist. To help eliminate this confusion, let's list what communications are available and when they would be best applied.To understand the PLC's communications versatility, let's first define the terms used in describing the various systems.ASCII: This stands for "American Standard Code for Information Interchange." As shown in Fig. 1, when the letter "A" is transmitted, for instance, it's automatically coded as "65" by the sending equipment. The receiving equipment translates the "65" back to the letter "A." Thus, different devices can communicate with each other as long as both use ASCII code.ASCII module: This intelligent PLC module is used for connecting PLCs to other devices also capable of communicating using ASCII code as a vehicle.Bus topology: This is a linear local area network (LAN) arrangement, as shown in Fig. 2A, in which individual nodes are tapped into a main communications cable at a single point and broadcast messages. These messages travel in both directions on the bus from the point of connection until they are dissipated by terminators at each end of the bus.CPU: This stands for "central processing unit," which actually is that part of a computer, PLC, or other intelligent device where arithmetic and logical operations are performed and instructions are decoded and executed.Daisy chain: This is a description of the connection of individual devices in a PLC network, where, as shown in Fig. 3, each device is connected to the next and communications signals pass from one unit to the next in a sequential fashion.Distributed control: This is an automation concept in which portions of an automated system are controlled by separate controllers, which are located in close proximity to their area of direct control (control is decentralized and spread out over the system).Host computer: This is a computer that's used to transfer data to, or receive data from, a PLC in a PLC/computer network.Intelligent device: This term describes any device equipped with its own CPU.I/O: This stands for "inputs and outputs," which are modules that handle data to the PLC (inputs) or signals from the PLC (outputs) to an external device.Kbps: This stands for "thousand bits per second," which is a rate of measure for electronic data transfer.Mbps: This stands for "million bits per second."Node: This term is applied to any one of the positions or stations in a network. Each node incorporates a device that can communicate with all other devices on the network.Protocol: The definition of how data is arranged and coded for transmission on a network.Ring topology. This is a LAN arrangement, as shown in Fig. 2C, in which each node is connected to two other nodes, resulting in a continuous, closed, circular path or loop for messages to circulate, usually in one direction. Some ring topologies have a special "loop back" feature that allows them to continue functioning even if the main cable is severed.RS232. This is an IEEE standard for serial communications that describes specific wiring connections, voltage levels, and other operating parameters for electronic data communications. There also are several other RS standards defined.Serial: This is an electronic data transfer scheme in which information is transmitted one bit at a time.Serial port: This the communications access point on a device that is set up for serial communications.Star topology. This is a LAN arrangement in which, as shown in Fig. 2B, nodes are connected to one another through a central hub, which can be active or passive. An active hub performs network duties such as message routing and maintenance. A passive central hub simply passes the message along to all the nodes connected to it.Topology: This relates to a specific arrangement of nodes in a LAN inrelation to one another.Transparent: This term describes automatic events or processes built into a system that require no special programming or prompting from an operator.Now that we're familiar with these terms, let's see how they are used in describing the available PLC network options.PLC network optionsPLC networks provide you with a variety of networking options to meet specific control and communications requirements. Typical options include remote I/O, peer-to-peer, and host computer communications, as well as LANs. These networks can provide reliable and cost-effective communications between as few as two or as many as several hundred PLCs, computers, and other intelligent devices.Many PLC vendors offer proprietary networking systems that are unique and will not communicate with another make of PLC. This is because of the different communications protocols, command sequences, error-checking schemes, and communications media used by each manufacturer.However, it is possible to make different PLCs "talk" to one another; what's required is an ASCII interface for the connection(s), along with considerable work with software.Remote I/0 systemsA remote I/O configuration, as shown in Fig. 4A, has the actual inputs and outputs at some distance from the controller and CPU. This type of system, which can be described as a "master-and-slave" configuration, allows many distant digital and analog points to be controlled by a single PLC. Typically, remote I/Os are connected to the CPU via twisted pair or fiber optic cables.Remote I/O configurations can be extremely cost-effective control solutions where only a few I/O points are needed in widely separated areas. In this situation, it's not always necessary, or practical for that matter, to have a controller at each site. Nor is it practical to individually hard wire each I/O point over long distances back to the CPU. For example, remote I/O systems can be used in acquiring data from remote plant or facility locations. Information such as cycle times, counts, duration or events, etc. then can be sent back to the PLC for maintenance and management reporting.In a remote I/O configuration, the master controller polls the slaved I/O for its current I/O status. The remote I/O system responds, and the master PLC then signals the remote I/O to change the state of outputs as dictated by the control program in the PLC's memory. This entire cycle occurs hundreds of times per second.Peer-to-peer networksPeer-to-peer networks, as shown in Fig. 4B, enhance reliability by decentralizing the control functions without sacrificing coordinated control. In this type of network, numerous PLCs are connected to one another in a daisy-chain fashion, and a common memory table is duplicated in the memory of each. In this way, when any PLC writes data to this memory area, the information is automatically transferred to all other PLCs in the network. They then can use this information in their own operating programs.With peer-to-peer networks, each PLC in the network is responsible for its own control site and only needs to be programmed for its own area of responsibility. This aspect of the network significantly reduces programming and debugging complexity; because all communications occur transparently to the user, communications programming is reduced to simple read-and-write statements.In a peer-to-peer system, there's no master PLC. However, it's possibleto designate one of the PLCs as a master for use as a type of group controller. This PLC then can be used to accept input information from an operator input terminal, for example, sending all the necessary parameters to other PLCs and coordinating the sequencing of various events.Host computer linksPLCs also can be connected with computers or other intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs, from the small to the very large, can be directly connected to a computer or part of a multi drop host computer network via RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of computer and controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC, for control and data acquisition, as well as the computer, for data processing, documentation, and operator interface.In a PLC/computer network, as shown in Fig. 4C, all communications are initiated by the host computer, which is connected to all the PLCs in a daisy-chain fashion. This computer individually addresses each of its networked PLCs and asks for specific information. The addressed PLC then sends this information to the computer for storage and further analysis. This cycle occurs hundreds of times per second.Host computers also can aid in programming PLCs; powerful programming and documentation software is available for program development. Programs then can be written on the computer in relay ladder logic and downloaded into the PLC. In this way, you can create, modify, debug, and monitor PLC programs via a computer terminal.In addition to host computers, PLCs often must interface with other devices, such as operator interface terminals for large security and building management systems. Although many intelligent devices can communicate directly with PLCs via conventional RS232C ports and serial ASCII code, some don't have the software ability to interface with individual PLC models. Instead, they typically send and receive data in fixed formats. It's the PLCprogrammer's responsibility to provide the necessary software interface.The easiest way to provide such an interface to fixed-format intelligent devices is to use an ASCII/BASIC module on the PLC. This module is essentially a small computer that plugs into the bus of the PLC. Equipped with RS232 ports and programmed in BASIC, the module easily can handle ASCII communications with peripheral devices, data acquisition functions, programming sequences, "number crunching," report and display generation, and other requirements.Access, protocol, and modulation functions of LANsBy using standard interfaces and protocols, LANs allow a mix of devices (PLCs, PCs, mainframe computers, operator interface terminals, etc.) from many different vendors to communicate with others on the network.Access: A LAN's access method prevents the occurrence of more than one message on the network at a time. There are two common access methods.Collision detection is where the nodes "listen" to the network and transmit only if there are no other messages on the network. If two nodes transmit simultaneously, the collision is detected and both nodes retransmit until their messages get through properly.Token passing allows each node to transmit only if it's in possession of a special electronic message called a token. The token is passed from node to node, allowing each an opportunity to transmit without interference. Tokens usually have a time limit to prevent a single node from tying up the token for a long period of time.Protocol: Network protocols define the way messages are arranged and coded for transmission on the LAN. The following are two common types.Proprietary protocols are unique message arrangements and coding。
翻译专业开题报告
翻译专业开题报告翻译专业开题报告1How to Deal with Ellipsis in English-Chinese TranslationI. Purpose and SignificanceWith the development of globalization, the world’s political, economic and cultural communications are becoming increasingly frequent. Therefore, the role of translation cannot be ignored. However, the differences between English and Chinese cultures that are reflected in the two languages pose considerable difficulty.It is acknowledged that when doing translation one can not translate word for word, or sentence by sentence. Therefore, we must use some translation strategies such as amplification, ellipsis, conversion and so on. Ellipsis as one of the basic translation methods plays an essential role in English-Chinese rendition. Translators apply it in order to make their versions more coherent and understandable.According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary, ellipsis means leaving out a word or words from a sentence deliberately, when the meaning can be understood without them. Ellipsis in translation does not mean cutting some content from the original articles. What could be omittedare words that are useless in translated works or else they will make the versions redundant or disobey the manner of expression in another language.Some words and phrases are useless in Chinese but necessary in English. Articles in English are the most significant phenomenon from this aspect. They are very important in English, but we can hardly see any reflection of this part in Chinese. Ellipsis is designed on the basis of faithfulness to the original text, making it more fluent, smooth, concise, thus conforming to idiomatic Chinese. The paper will explore ellipsis in English-Chinese translation from five aspects, which are ellipses of pronouns, conjunctions, articles, prepositions, modifications, so as to achieve smoother and clearer communications among China and English-speaking countries.II. Literature ReviewLong before, some people began to learn other countries’languages to understand others cultures. In China, Xuanzang was the first translator who not only translated the Sanskrit sutras into Chinese, but introduced the first Chinese writings to foreign countries, making foreigners understand China’s ancient culture. Meanwhile, he was the first to translate LaoTses works into Sanskrit. Indian scholars had a high opinion of Xuanzang, In China, there is no such great translator, and also in the human cultural history, we can only say that Xuanzang is the first great translator.(Ye Lang, 20xx) We can say that it was Xuanzang who motivated people to know the different parts of the world, their cultures and the peoples who live there. Then, some big countries such as America, China, and so on became a melting pot.(Gu Zhengkun, 20xx) People have imperceptibly spent thousands of years in knowing each other.With China’s entry into WTO and its open-up policy, cross-cultural exchanges are increasingly frequent between this country and others. A lot of foreign tourists come to visit China. While traveling, these foreigners are not satisfied with the translations of the scenic spots. Sometimes, they even feel confused. A lot of problems exist in the translation, such as misuse of words, poor expression of meaning and so on. All of these poor translations do harm to our country’s international image, and cause a lot of inconveniences for the foreign visitors. (Ma Zuyi, 20xx). I am fond of tourism and being a free tourist like the others who are good at enjoying their wonderful lives. The love of tourism makes me feel the need to improve the translation. But every time when I have a trip, manyunsuitable translations of the names of those scenic spots will embarrass me. Tourism is part of intercultural communication, so proper translation of the scenic spots become more and more important to our country.Communication plays a significant role in the globalized society. In order to know each other better, people from all over the world have tried a verity of ways. Of course, translation is one of them. All translators have done their best to make the translated works more consistent with the needs of people.(Gu Jinming, 1997) From my perspective, they really have done a great job. And I want to retrospect the cause of their development. After a thorough evaluation, I choose a branch of translation—ellipsis in translation from English to Chinese, then I did the following jobs.I put all my researches and other stuffs together, and then I found that it is a common case in English and Chinese which draws much academic interest. In 1976, Halliday and Hsan classified ellipsis into nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis. This classification exerts great influence in academic circle. Thereafter, ellipsis in Chinese and English has been studied according to this theory, which is based on different layers of structure. This kind of study underlines differentiationsand similarities of ellipsis in Chinese and English.Another famous theory to explain ellipsis is Economy Principle. Economy Principle was put forward by Chomsky (1991,1993, and 1995) in his Generate Crammer. It maintains that language and linguistic study follow Economy Principle, which means using the least effort to express the most information. This principle just coincides with ellipsis in function.In this thesis, I think that brevity is the most obvious and common function of ellipsis, especially in daily language. And in both English and Chinese, people advocate brevity. Shakespeare once remarked, “brevity is the soul of wit”, and in Chinese there are numerous idioms like “yan jian yi gai” (meaning compendious). However, apart from the function of brevity, ellipsis embodies other functions which are also pretty common in the two languages but less noticed.(Hua Xianfa,20xx)These functions distribute in both English and Chinese unevenly and represent great colorfulness of language. Exploring other functions of ellipsis and searching for functional recreation in translation will be of much benefit to both English to Chinese and Chinese to English translation.I found that when Chinese authors try to analyse ellipsisin English to Chinese translation, they always initially put articles in the list. They consider that it is a common phenomenon that Chinese always leave out personal articles. While it is obviously different in English that almost every sentence has a subject, we can see articles fluently. That is because when we translate from English to Chinese, personal articles can be omitted, even though sometimes it may appear once, it can also be omitted if necessary. Furthermore, if the objects can be seen obviously, personal articles should also be omitted. However, it never happens in English. From this point, it is not only allowable but also necessary when we translate personal articles which are objects in sentences into Chinese.In my point of view, the development of society has in some way has deliberately promoted the way of people’s thinking, translation system has become more and more perfect, people from all over the world have enjoyed the convenience. However, we can not neglect that there are still some problems in this field in China, and we have less influential Chinese translators in the world. Therefore, we still have a long way to go in translation.III. Feasibility AnalysisThis academic paper is a feasible project and the reasons are as follows:1.I have great interests in the way of English-Chinese translation.2.I have already studied translation methods and have been familiar with the functions and applications of ellipsis .3.I have collected enough references both Chinese and Western on ellipsis intranslation and do a scrupulous study of the relationship between them.4.I have a carefully planned schedule and have worked outa detailed outline of this thesis.5.I have acquainted myself with the correct format, a clear and complete structure required by the academic paper, and my adequate English competence will enable me to write in fluent and precise English.6.My instructor is a qualified translator who is familiar with the subject I havechosen.IV. Problems of the research and solutions1. ProblemsDespite the references I have collected and read, a thorough study of ellipsis in English-Chinese translation fromthe point of freely using still needs far more. What’s more, owing to the limited ways of getting references in Xinjiang, I will have to make full use of my present resources. Also, this is the first time I have ever written such a serious academic paper. I am therefore a learner and lack the needed training and experience.2. Solutions(1) I shall make full use of my already acquired references which come from books, magazines and the Internet as well.(2) I shall value my own original thoughts and mainly rely on detailed analysis that I have read from the books which have closely idea with my purpose.(3) When I have difficulties in the writing process, I shall consult my instructor and seek for help.V. Necessary conditions1. Our university and school of foreign languages have provided the basic study and research conditions and facilities, including books and journals in the library and reading rooms.2. The Internet is another source of information and on the campus we have easy access to the Internet.3. I have been assigned an instructor to guide me through the whole process of planning and writing.VI. OutlineI. IntroductionA. A Brief Introduction of Ellipsis in TranslationB. What Should We Pay Attention to When Dealing with EllipsisC. The Reason Why Ellipsis Is So Widely Used in Translation1. Chinese Expressions Are Much Briefer Than That of English2. English Grammar Is Wee-Knit and Complete in Sentence StructureII. The Principles of EllipsisA. Omitted Words Must Be Useless And Unnecessary in the Translated WorksB. The Meaning of the Omitted Words Is Implied in the TestC. Omitted Words Which Are Self-EvidentШ. The Functions and Applications of EllipsisA. The Coherence of the Meaning of ExpressionB. The Coincidence of the Manner of Expression1. Ellipsis of Articlesa. Ellipsis of Definite Articlesb. Ellipsis of Indefinite Articles2. Ellipsis of Prepositions3. Ellipsis of Pronounsa. Ellipsis of Personal and Impersonal Pronounsb. Ellipsis of Indefinite Pronounsc. Ellipsis of Relative Pronouns4. Ellipsis of Conjunctionsa. Ellipsis of Coordinating Conjunctionsb. Ellipsis of Subordinate Conjunctions5. Ellipsis of Rhetorica. Ellipsis of Repeated Wordsb. Ellipsis of Synonyms翻译专业开题报告2选题的原因、基本内容：英语成语(idiom)是英语的核心与精华。
外文翻译和开题报告的要求
同学们：放假前要完成的工作有两项：外文翻译和开题报告。
下面我就把各自的具体要求强调一下。
（一）外文翻译1、外文必须和论文相关，可以作为论文的参考文献；2、翻译完中文后，字数在3000字以上；3、格式按照模板里的格式做，正文字号用小四，标题用四号；4、英文原文必须有出处，最好不要用在网上随便搜到的英文文章复制到word里，这样你很难标注出处，比如可以从图书馆的外文资料里下载；5、不管你采用什么样的翻译手段，翻译后的译文语句一定要通顺（往年总有同学的外文翻译译文前言不搭后语）。
（二）开题报告开题报告中的第一部分就是文献综述，它也是开题报告中的最难做最重要的一块；第二部分拟解决的问题及采用的方法手段要填的就是你的论文要解决得问题和运用什么方法去解决；这两部分是你们要完成的内容，剩下的部分你们不用管。
下面我就文献综述来说一下它的具体要求：1、怎样写：文献综述就是对你搜集到的文献进行分类总结，通过总结去发现问题，即前人研究的不足之处，也就是你要研究的论题，引出你的论题；2、注意事项：a、不要写成毕业论文里要有的引言和理论基础；b、文献综述中要对参考文献进行标注，标注方式有两种：（1）作者（年代），如“卞显红（2005）指出，近年来的城市旅游发展的实践现状，城市旅游开发方向主要向城市郊区拓展。
”；（2）（作者，年代），如“美国在住宅法案中将城市郊区定义为都市地区具有被用作公园和游憩目的，对土地和其他自然资源的具有保护功能或具有历史和风景价值的完全或基本上未开发的土地。
这种在城市周边一定距离上形成的旅游活动的频繁发生地带，专家称其为“环城游憩带”（Mckenzie，1996）。
”c、要将参考文献罗列在文献综述之后；d、格式参考模板。
以上是对外文翻译和文献综述的具体要求，大家要按照要求认真去做，放假前交给我。
开题报告有外文翻译吗
开题报告有外文翻译吗开题报告是研究生阶段非常重要的一项任务，它是整个研究过程的起点，也是研究生培养计划中的一项必修课程。
在准备开题报告时，有人会疑惑，开题报告中是否需要包含外文翻译呢？这个问题涉及到研究生学术研究的国际化与本土化之间的平衡，也与学科特点和研究对象有关。
首先，我们需要明确开题报告的目的和要求。
开题报告是为了向导师和评审委员会展示研究生的研究方向、研究内容和研究方法，以及对相关领域已有研究的了解和分析。
因此，开题报告中需要包含对国内外相关研究成果的综述，以及对研究对象、研究方法和研究内容的详细描述。
在进行综述时，如果所研究的领域已有较为丰富的国内研究成果，那么完全可以使用中文进行综述，毕竟开题报告的主要读者是导师和评审委员会，他们对国内研究成果更为关注。
此时，如果对国外相关研究成果进行综述，可以选择性地进行外文翻译，以便更好地展示国内外研究的对比和差距。
然而，对于某些学科而言，国外研究成果可能更具有参考价值。
比如，一些前沿科学领域或跨学科研究，国外的研究成果可能更为先进和领先。
在这种情况下，开题报告中的综述部分就需要更多地涉及外文翻译。
这时，研究生需要具备一定的外文文献检索和阅读能力，能够理解和翻译相关文献，同时也需要具备一定的英语写作能力，能够将翻译的内容准确地表达出来。
除了综述部分，开题报告中还需要详细描述研究对象、研究方法和研究内容。
对于研究对象和研究内容来说，如果是国内研究领域已有的研究对象和研究内容，完全可以使用中文进行描述。
但是，如果所研究的对象和内容来自于国外，那么在描述时可能需要进行外文翻译。
这时，研究生需要具备一定的外文翻译能力，能够将相关内容准确地翻译成中文。
对于研究方法来说，一些常用的研究方法可能已经有了中文的翻译，比如问卷调查、实验设计等。
但是，一些新兴的研究方法或者特定领域的研究方法可能没有中文的翻译或者翻译不够准确。
在这种情况下，研究生可能需要进行外文翻译，以确保导师和评审委员会对研究方法的理解准确。
翻译文章类的开题报告
翻译文章类的开题报告Title: Translation of Articles: A Preliminary Study1. IntroductionThe purpose of this report is to present a preliminary study on the translation of articles. Translation plays a crucial role in today's globalized world, facilitating communication and understanding between people from different linguistic backgrounds. However, translating articles poses specific challenges due to their unique nature and characteristics. This study aims to explore these challenges and propose effective translation strategies.2. ObjectivesThe main objectives of this study are as follows:- To identify the challenges faced when translating articles.- To examine the different approaches and strategies used in translating articles.- To propose effective translation strategies for overcoming these challenges.- To evaluate the impact of translation strategies on the quality of translated articles.3. Literature ReviewIn order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter, a review of relevant literature will be conducted. This literature review will cover topics such as translation theory, article structure and characteristics, as well as previous studies on articletranslation. By examining existing research, this study aims to build upon the existing knowledge and identify any research gaps that need to be addressed.4. MethodologyThe research will adopt a qualitative approach, using content analysis as the primary method of data collection. A selection of articles from different fields will be chosen, and their translations will be analyzed. The analysis will focus on identifying the challenges faced, as well as the translation strategies employed by professional translators. The impact of these strategies on the quality of the translated articles will also be evaluated.5. Expected FindingsBased on the review of literature and the analysis of translated articles, it is expected that this study will identify several challenges in the translation of articles. These challenges may include issues with cultural and linguistic nuances, the preservation of the author's style and tone, as well as the adaptation of content to suit the target audience. The study will also propose strategies for overcoming these challenges, such as the use of cultural equivalents, localization techniques, and stylistic adaptation.6. Significance of the StudyThis study is significant as it contributes to the field of translation studies, specifically in the area of article translation. By identifying the challenges faced and proposing effective translation strategies,this study aims to provide valuable insights for both translators and researchers. The findings of this study can be used to improve the quality of translated articles, ensuring that the intended message is accurately conveyed to the target audience.7. ConclusionIn conclusion, this report presents a preliminary study on the translation of articles. By conducting a literature review, analyzing translated articles, and proposing effective translation strategies, this study aims to contribute to the field of translation studies. The findings of this study can have practical implications for professional translators and researchers interested in the translation of articles.。
开题报告和外文翻译模板
毕业设计/论文开题报告课题名称类别院系专业班姓名评分指导教师华中科技大学武昌分校毕业论文开题报告撰写要求1.开题报告的主要内容1）课题研究的目的和意义；2）课题研究的主要内容；3）研究方法；4）实施计划。
5）主要参考文献：不少于5篇，其中外文文献不少于1篇。
2．撰写开题报告时，所选课题的课题名称不得多于25个汉字，课题研究份量要适当，研究内容中必须有自己的见解和观点。
3.开题报告的字数不少于2000字（艺术类专业不少于1000字），格式按《华中科技大学武昌分校本科毕业设计/论文撰写规范》的要求撰写。
4. 指导教师和责任单位必须审查签字。
5．开题报告单独装订，本附件为封面，后续表格请从网上下载并用A4纸打印后填写。
6. 此开题报告适用于全校各专业，部分特殊专业需要变更的，由所在系在基础上提出调整方案，报学校审批后执行。
表5.1华中科技大学武昌分校学生毕业论文开题报告（此表由学生填写，指导教师、教研室、系签署意见）毕业论文外文文献翻译院系：专业班级：姓名：评分：指导教师：华中科技大学武昌分校20 年月毕业设计/论文外文文献翻译要求：1．外文文献翻译的内容应与毕业设计/论文课题相关。
2．外文文献翻译的字数：非英语专业学生应完成与毕业设计/论文课题内容相关的不少于2000汉字的外文文献翻译任务（其中，汉语言文学专业、艺术类专业不作要求），英语专业学生应完成不少于2000汉字的二外文献翻译任务。
格式按《华中科技大学武昌分校本科毕业设计/论文撰写规范》的要求撰写。
3．外文文献翻译附于开题报告之后：第一部分为译文，第二部分为外文文献原文，译文与原文均需单独编制页码（底端居中）并注明出处。
本附件为封面，封面上不得出现页码。
4．外文文献翻译原文由指导教师指定，同一指导教师指导的学生不得选用相同的外文原文。
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南京理工大学继续教育学院毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译教学点：南理工继续教育学院专业：机械电子工程本姓名：准考证号：外文出处：(用外文写)附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文加工基础作为产生形状的一种加工方法，机械加工是所有制造过程中最普遍使用的而且是最重要的方法。
机械加工过程是一个产生形状的过程，在这过程中，驱动装置使工件上的一些材料以切屑的形式被去除。
尽管在某些场合，工件无承受情况下，使用移动式装备来实现加工，但大多数的机械加工是通过既支承工件又支承刀具的装备来完成。
机械加工在知道过程中具备两方面。
小批生产低费用。
对于铸造、锻造和压力加工，每一个要生产的具体工件形状，即使是一个零件，几乎都要花费高额的加工费用。
靠焊接来产生的结构形状，在很大程度上取决于有效的原材料的形式。
一般来说，通过利用贵重设备而又无需特种加工条件下，几乎可以以任何种类原材料开始，借助机械加工把原材料加工成任意所需要的结构形状，只要外部尺寸足够大，那都是可能的。
因此对于生产一个零件，甚至当零件结构及要生产的批量大小上按原来都适于用铸造、锻造或者压力加工来生产的，但通常宁可选择机械加工。
严密的精度和良好的表面光洁度，机械加工的第二方面用途是建立在高精度和可能的表面光洁度基础上。
许多零件，如果用别的其他方法来生产属于大批量生产的话，那么在机械加工中则是属于低公差且又能满足要求的小批量生产了。
另方面，许多零件靠较粗的生产加工工艺提高其一般表面形状，而仅仅是在需要高精度的且选择过的表面才进行机械加工。
例如内螺纹，除了机械加工之外，几乎没有别的加工方法能进行加工。
又如已锻工件上的小孔加工，也是被锻后紧接着进行机械加工才完成的。
基本的机械加工参数切削中工件与刀具的基本关系是以以下四个要素来充分描述的：刀具的几何形状，切削速度，进给速度，和吃刀深度。
切削刀具必须用一种合适的材料来制造，它必须是强固、韧性好、坚硬而且耐磨的。
刀具的几何形状——以刀尖平面和刀具角为特征——对于每一种切削工艺都必须是正确的。
切削速度是切削刃通过工件表面的速率，它是以每分钟英寸来表示。
为了有效地加工，切削速度高低必须适应特定的工件——刀具配合。
一般来说，工件材料越硬，速度越低。
进给速度是刀具切进工件的速度。
若工件或刀具作旋转运动，进给量是以每转转过的英寸数目来度量的。
当刀具或工件作往复运动时，进给量是以每一行程走过的英寸数度量的。
一般来说，在其他条件相同时，进给量与切削速度成反比。
吃刀深度——以英寸计——是刀具进入工件的距离。
它等于旋削中的切屑宽度或者等于线性切削中的切屑的厚度。
粗加工比起精加工来，吃刀深度较深。
切削参数的改变对切削温度的影响金属切削操作中，热是在主变形区和副变形区发生的。
这结果导致复杂的温度分布遍及刀具、工件和切屑。
图中显示了一组典型等温曲线，从中可以看出：像所能预料的那样，当工件材料在主变形区被切削时，沿着整个切屑的宽度上有着很大的温度梯度，而当在副变形区，切屑被切落时，切屑附近的前刀面上就有更高的温度。
这导致了前刀面和切屑离切削刃很近的地方切削温度较高。
实质上由于在金属切削中所做的全部功能都被转化为热，那就可以预料：被切离金属的单位体积功率消耗曾家的这些因素就将使切削温度升高。
这样刀具前角的增加而所有其他参数不变时，将使切离金属的单位体积所耗功率减小，因而切削温度也将降低。
当考虑到未变形切屑厚度增加和切削速度，这情形就更是复杂。
未变形切屑厚度的增加趋势必导致通过工件的热的总数上产生比例效应，刀具和切屑仍保持着固定的比例，而切削温度变化倾向于降低。
然而切削速度的增加，传导到工件上的热的数量减少而这又增加主变形区中的切屑温升。
进而副变形区势必更小，这将在该区内产生升温效应。
其他切削参数的变化，实质上对于被切离的单位体积消耗上并没有什么影响，因此实际上对切削温度没有什么作用。
因为事实已经表明：切削温度即使有小小的变化对刀具磨损率都将有实质意义的影响作用。
这表明如何人从切削参数来确定切削温度那是很合适的。
为着测定高速钢刀具温度的最直接和最精确的方法是W&T法，这方法也就是可提供高速钢刀具温度分布的详细信息的方法。
该项技术是建立在高速钢刀具截面金相显微测试基础上，目的是要建立显微结构变化与热变化规律图线关系式。
当要加工广泛的工件材料时，Trent已经论述过测定高速钢刀具的切削温度及温度分布的方法。
这项技术由于利用电子显微扫描技术已经进一步发展，目的是要研究将已回过火和各种马氏体结构的高速钢再回火引起的微观显微结构变化情况。
这项技术亦用于研究高速钢单点车刀和麻花钻的温度分布。
刀具磨损从已经被处理过的无数脆裂和刃口裂纹的刀具中可知，刀具磨损基本上有三种形式：后刀面磨损，前刀面磨损和V型凹口磨损。
后刀面磨损既发生在主刀刃上也发生副刀刃上。
关于主刀刃，因其担负切除大部金属切屑任务，这就导致增加切削力和提高切削温度，如果听任而不加以检查处理，那可能导致刀具和工件发生振动且使有效切削的条件可能不再存在。
关于副刀刃，那是决定着工件的尺寸和表面光洁度的，后刀面磨损可能造成尺寸不合格的产品而且表面光洁度也差。
在大多数实际切削条件下，由于主前刀面先于副前刀面磨损，磨损到达足够大时，刀具将实效，结果是制成不合格零件。
由于刀具表面上的应力分布不均匀，切屑和前刀面之间滑动接触区应力，在滑动接触区的起始处最大，而在接触区的尾部为零，这样磨蚀性磨损在这个区域发生了。
这是因为在切削卡住区附近比刀刃附近发生更严重的磨损，而刀刃附近因切屑与前刀面失去接触而磨损较轻。
这结果离切削刃一定距离处的前刀面上形成麻点凹坑，这些通常被认为是前刀面的磨损。
通常情况下，这磨损横断面是圆弧形的。
在许多情况中和对于实际的切削状况而言，前刀面磨损比起后刀面磨损要轻，因此后刀面磨损更普遍地作为刀具失效的尺度标志。
然而因许多作者已经表示过的那样在增加切削速度情况下，前刀面上的温度比后刀面上的温度升得更快，而且又因任何形式的磨损率实质上是受到温度变化的重大影响。
因此前刀面的磨损通常在高速切削时发生的。
刀具的主后刀面磨损带的尾部是跟未加工过的工件表面相接触，因此后刀面磨损比沿着磨损带末端处更为明显，那是最普通的。
这是因为局部效应，这像未加工表面上的已硬化层，这效应是由前面的切削引起的工件硬化造成的。
不只是切削，还有像氧化皮，刀刃产生的局部高温也都会引起这种效应。
这种局部磨损通常称作为凹坑性磨损，而且偶尔是非常严重的。
尽管凹坑的出现对刀具的切削性质无实质意义的影响，但凹坑常常逐渐变深，如果切削在继续进行的话，那么刀具就存在断裂的危机。
如果任何进行性形式的磨损任由继续发展，最终磨损速率明显地增加而刀具将会有摧毁性失效破坏，即刀具将不能再用作切削，造成工件报废，那算是好的，严重的可造成机床破坏。
对于各种硬质合金刀具和对于各种类型的磨损，在发生严重失效前，就认为已达到刀具的使用寿命周期的终点。
然而对于各种高速钢刀具，其磨损是属于非均匀性磨损，已经发现：当其磨损允许连续甚至到严重失效开始，最有意义的是该刀具可以获得重磨使用，当然，在实际上，切削时间远比使用到失效的时间短。
以下几种现象之一均是刀具严重失效开始的特征：最普遍的是切削力突然增加，在工件上出现烧损环纹和噪音严重增加等。
自动夹具设计用做装配设备的传统同步夹具把零件移动到夹具中心上，以确保零件从传送机上或从设备盘上取出后置于已定位置上。
然而在某些应用场合、强制零件移动到中心线上时，可能引起零件或设备破坏。
当零件易损而且小小振动可能导致报废时，或当其位置是由机床主轴或模具来具体时，再或者当公差要求很精密时，那宁可让夹具去适应零件位置，而不是相反。
为着这些工作任务，美国俄亥俄州Elyria的Zaytran 公司已经开发了一般性功能数据的非同步西类柔顺性夹具。
因为夹具作用力和同步化装置是各自独立的，该同步装置可以用精密的滑移装置来替换而不影响夹具作用力。
夹具规格范围是从0.2英寸行程，5英镑夹紧力到6英寸行程、400英寸夹紧力。
现代生产的特征是批量变得越来越小而产品的各种规格变化最大。
因此，生产的最后阶段，装配因生产计划、批量和产品设计的变更而显得特别脆弱。
这种情形正迫使许多公司更多地致力于广泛的合理化改革和前面提到过情况那样装配自动化。
尽管柔性夹具的发展很快落后与柔性运输处理装置的发展，如落后于工业机器人的发展，但仍然试图指望增加夹具的柔顺性。
事实上夹具的重要的装置——生产装置的专向投资就加强了使夹具更加柔性化在经济上的支持。
根据它们柔顺性，夹具可以分为：专用夹具、组合夹具、标准夹具、高柔性夹具。
柔性夹具是以它们对不同工件的高适应性和以少更换低费用为特征的。
结构形式可变换的柔性夹具装有可变更结构排列的零件（例如针形颊板，多片式零件和片状颊板），标准工件的非专用夹持或夹紧元件（例如：启动标准夹持夹具和带有可移动元件的夹具配套件），或者装有陶瓷或硬化了的中介物质（如：流动粒子床夹具和热夹具紧夹具）。
为了生产，零件要在夹具中被紧固，需要产生夹紧作用，其有几个与夹具柔顺性无关的步骤：根据被加工的即基础的部分和工作特点，确定工件在夹具中的所需的位置，接着必须选择若干稳定平面的组合，这些稳定平面就构成工件被固定在夹具中确定位置上的夹持状轮廓结构，均衡所有各力和力矩，而且保证接近工件工作特点。
最后，必须计算、调整、组装可拆装的或标准夹具元件的所需位置，以便使工件牢牢地被夹紧在夹具中。
依据这样的程序，夹具的轮廓结构和装合的规划和记录过程可以进行自动化控制。
结构造型任务就是要产生若干稳定平面的组合，这样在这些平面上的各夹紧力将使工件和夹具稳定。
按惯例，这个任务可用人—机对话即几乎完全自动化的方式来完成。
一人—机对话即以自动化方式确定夹具结构造型的优点是可以有组织有规划进行夹具设计，减少所需的设计人员，缩短研究周期和能更好地配置工作条件。
简言之，可成功地达到显著提高夹具生产效率和效益。
在充分准备了构造方案和一批材料情况下，在完成首次组装可以成功实现节约时间达60%。
因此夹具机构造型过程的目的是产生合适的编程文件。
附件2：外文原文Introduction of MachiningHave a shape as a processing method, all machining process for the production of the most commonly used and most important method. Machining process is a process generated shape, in this process, Drivers device on the workpiece material to be in the form of chip removal. Although in some occasions, the workpiece under no circumstances, the use of mobile equipment to the processing, however, the majority of the machining is not only supporting the workpiece also supporting tools and equipment to complete.Machining know the process has two aspects. Small group of low-cost production. For casting, forging and machining pressure, every production of a specific shape of the workpiece, even a spare part, almost have to spend the high cost of processing. Welding to rely on the shape of the structure, to a large extent, depend on effective in the form of raw materials. In general, through the use of expensive equipment and without special processing conditions, can be almost any type of raw materials, mechanical processing to convert the raw materials processed into the arbitrary shape of the structure, as long as the external dimensions large enough, it is possible. Because of a production of spare parts, even when the parts and structure of the production batch sizes are suitable for the original casting, Forging or pressure processing to produce, but usually prefer machining.Strict precision and good surface finish, machining the second purpose is the establishment of the high precision and surface finish possible on the basis of. Many parts, if any other means of production belonging to the large-scale production, Well Machining is a low-tolerance and can meet the requirements of small batch production. Besides, many parts on the production and processing of coarse process to improve its general shapeof the surface. It is only necessary precision and chooses only the surface machining. For instance, thread, in addition to mechanical processing, almost no other processing method for processing. Another example is the blacksmith pieces keyhole processing, as well as training to be conducted immediately after the mechanical completion of the processing.Primary Cutting ParametersCutting the work piece and tool based on the basic relationship between the following four elements to fully describe: the tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth and penetration of a cutting tool.Cutting Tools must be of a suitable material to manufacture, it must be strong, tough, hard and wear-resistant. Tool geometry -- to the tip plane and cutter angle characteristics -- for each cutting process must be correct.Cutting speed is the cutting edge of work piece surface rate; it is inches per minute to show. In order to effectively processing, and cutting speed must adapt to the level of specific parts -- with knives. Generally, the more hard work piece material, the lower the rate.Progressive Tool to speed is cut into the work piece speed. If the work piece or tool for rotating movement, feed rate per round over the number of inches to the measurement. When the work piece or tool for reciprocating movement and feed rate on each trip through the measurement of inches. Generally, in other conditions, feed rate and cutting speed is inversely proportional to。