现代语言学知识点

第一章、绪论Introduction
1、语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？
Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:
General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study
Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication
Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication
Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words
Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences
Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.
Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use
Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society
Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.
Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.
2、 现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.
3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？
The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？
1) Arbitrariness 。 It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it p

ossible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.
2) Productivity 。Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.
3) Duality 。It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.
4) Displacement 。It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
5) Cultural transmission 。While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.
5、 Chomsky的语言能力和语言使用各指什么？
American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.
6、 Saussure 是如何区分语言和言语的？
The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract;
It is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from

situation to situation.
7、什么是语言学？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.
8、口头语与书面语
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:
1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing
3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language
9、 语言与言语
Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use
10、能力与运用
Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
11、几个术语
Prescriptive:aims to lay down rules for "correct" behaviour.
Descriptive:describe and analyzes the language people actually use.
Synchronic:the description of a language at some point in time.
Diachronic:the description of a language as it changes through time .
Synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.
langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.
Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.
Competence: the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
12、Design features
American linguist Charles Hockett spedified 12 design features, five of which will be discussed here.
1) Arbitratiness。Difference sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. The language that imitate natural sounds and compound words are non-arbitrary words.It make up only a small ercentage of the total number of words used in a language.
2) Productivity.It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
3) https://www.360docs.net/doc/3712105239.html,nguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower or the basic level is a structure of meaningless sounds. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphimes and words.
4) https://www.360docs.net/doc/3712105239.html,nguages can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
5) Cultural https://www.360docs.net/doc/3712105239.html,nguage is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
13、名词解释
1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language
2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants
3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.
4 Morphology :The study of the way in

which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.
5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”
6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.
7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.
8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.
9、Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.
14.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written lan-guage . It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.
15.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?
The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de-scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.
16.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?
First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of lan-guage.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.
17. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?
The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person,

and from situation to situation.
18. How do you understand competence and performance ?
American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ugrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky,performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.
19. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?
Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
69.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements
“photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.
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第二章、语音学Phonetics
1、语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？
Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.
2、 语音学的三个分支是什么。它们研究的对象各是什么？
Articulatory phonetics: It studies the human speech organs and the way in which thee speech sounds are produced.
Acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the speech sounds; it deals with the sound waves through the use of such machines as a spectrograph.
Auditory phonetics is the study of the perception of sounds by the human ear.
3、什么叫浊音化？它是如何形成的？
Voicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a

way are voiceless. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced in this way are voiced.
4、宽式标音和严式标音有什么区别？
The broad transcription is the transcription of sounds by using one letter to represent one sound. The narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.
5、英语的辅音是如何分类的？
1) by place of articulation :
a. bilabial such as [p],[b],[m],[w]
b. labiodental such as [f],[v]
c. dental such as [θ],[T ]
d. alveolar such as [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]
e. palatal such as [∫], [V ],[ t∫ ], [dV ], [j]
f. velar such as [k], [g], [ N ]
g. glottal such as [h]
2) by manner of articulation.
a. Stops such as [p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]
b. Fricatives such as [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[ T ], [∫ ], [ V], [h]
c. Afficates such as [t∫], [dV ]
d. Liquids such as [l], [r]
e. Nasals such as [n],[m],[N]
f. Glides such as [w], [j]
6、英语的元音是如何分类的？
1) Vowels may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] [e] [A] [a], central vowels such as [\:], [[],[Q]and back vowels such as[u:] [J] [ C:] and [B:] in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.
2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels such as [i:],[ i],[u:],[J], semi-close vowels such as[e], [з: ] , semi-open vowels such as [ [ ], [ C: ] , and open vowels such as [?], [a], [Λ] and [ɑ:].
3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.
4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound. The long vowels include [i:] [\:] [ C: ] [u:] [ɑ:]，while the rest are short vowels.
7、语音学和音系学有什么区别？
They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
8、音素、音位和音位变体有什么区别？
Phones are the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a basic unit in phonology; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not a sound, but a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that ph

oneme.
9、什么是超音位特征？它是如何影响语义的？
1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compund noun a a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.
2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.
3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.
10、什么叫音位对立？什么叫互补分布？什么是最小对立对？
If two phonetically similar sounds can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. If two phonetically similar sounds are two allophones of the same phoneme and they occur in different environments, they are said to be in complementary distribution.
11、复合词有什么特点？
Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.
12、What is Phonitics
the study of the phonic medium of language. It is concernt with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.The three branchs of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed. Acoustic phoneticians discovered that the repetitions of what might be heard as the same utterance are physically identically only by coincidence, and they also confirmed that the speech is made up of continuous bursts of sounds.
Three important cavities: pharyngeal cavity - throat, the oral cavity - the mouth, the nasal cavity - the nose.
13、P

honology and phonetics
The difference between phonology and phonetics: phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human language. phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language.
14、Phone, phoneme, and allophone
Definition of phone[音素]: can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
Phoneme[音位]: it is the basic unit in phonology and is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit.To be exact, a phoneme is not a sount, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
Allophone[音位变体]: in actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic enviorments are called the allophone of that phoneme.
15、Phonemic contrast, complemently distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立对
Phonemic contrast: two phonemes can occur in the same enviorments and they distinguish meaning.
Complemently distribution:two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
Minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
16、Some rules in phonology
1、 Sequential rules[序列规则]。Definition: the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
2、 Assimilation rules[同化规则].The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
3、 Deletion rule[省略规则]。
17、 uprasegmental features - stress, tone, intonation 超切分特征-重音，声调，语调
Definition of suprasegment featrues: distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.
1、 Stress.Word stress: the syllable is pronounced with greated force that the other or others.
sentence stress: refers to the relative foce which is given to the words in a sentence.
2、Tone.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.
3、 Intonation.It plays a important role in the conveyance of meaning in amlost every language. English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone.
Different ways to divide the same sentence into intonation units give rise to different meanings.
18、Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.
19、Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.
20、 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the spee

ch sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.
21、Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.
22、allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.
23、 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in compkenebtary distribution.
24、Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
25、Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.
26、tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.
27、intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English

三章、形态学Morphology
1、词素可以划分成哪些类别？
Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.
Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.
2、Definition.
Morphology[词态学]: study the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
It has two sub-branches: Inflectional morphology[曲折词态学]：study the inflection；
Lexical[词汇] or derivational[派生] morphology: study of word-formation
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of langua

ge
Roots: is seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combine with another root or an affix to form a word.
Affixes are of two types: inflectional[曲折词缀] and derivational[派生词缀].Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.
Derivational affixes: are added to an existing form to creat a word. such a way of word-formation is called derivation[派生法] and the new word formd by derivation is called a derivative[派生词]. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem[词干].
Affixes are divied into two kinds: prefixes[前缀] and suffixes[后缀]. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, except the prefixes "be-",and "en-". Suffixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
3、 Features of compounds
1) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.
2) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.
3) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.
4) phonetically, the stess of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
4、 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
5、 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
6、derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.
7、morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
8、free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.
9、bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
10、root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
11、affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.
12、prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.
13、suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
14、 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.
15、compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and i

mportant way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.
16、 Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes:
They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound,to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.
第四章、句法学 Syntax
1、linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
2、sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.
3、transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
4、D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.
5、Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а
6、什么是X-标杆理论?
X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.
7、英语的句子中的三种基本类型是什么？
Traditionally, three major types of sent

ences are distinguished. They are simple sentence, coordinate or compound sentence and complex sentence. (1) A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example, ① John reads extensively. ② Mary decided to take a linguistic class the next semester. Each of the two sentences contains a single clause and can stand structurally independent. (2) A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. For example, ③ John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. ④ John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history. (3) A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix sentence. For example, ⑤ Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics]. ⑥ [That John likes linguistics] puzzles everyone. ⑦ Mary showed interest in linguistics [after John gave her a lecture]. In the above three examples, the clauses in the square brackets are embedded clauses. They are subordinate to the clauses outside the brackets which are called matrix clauses.
8、Sentence structure
The basic components of a sentence.Nomarly a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or verb phrase.
The referring expression is grammatically called subject.The part of a sentence which comprise a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.
Types of sentences：simple sentence, coordinate(compound) sentence[复合句]， complex sentence
1、The simple sentence。A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause[定式从句].
2、The coordinate sentence.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction[并列连词]. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence.
3、The complex sentence.The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause[从句], and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause[主句].
1）An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.
2）Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator[从属连词].
3）An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands imdependently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.
9、The hierarchical structure of a sente

nce.Sentences are organized with words of the same syntacitc catigory, such as noun phrase(NP) or verb phrase(VP), grouped together.
10、Syntactic categories
Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to.
Lexical category[词类]and phrasal category[词组类]. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntatic category.[可以相互替换而又不改变语法属性的成分属于同一句法类型。]
Lexical categories.Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added. Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories. Major: noun, verb, adjective, adverb Minor: determiner[限定词], auxiliary[助动词]，preposition, pronoun, conjunction, and interjection[感叹词]
Phrasal categories.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase(NP), verb phrase(VB), prepositional phrase(PP), and adjecive phrase(AP).
Grammatical relations.Grammatical relations: Awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents. We usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and direct object of. structural subject[结构主语] and structural object[结构宾语] Only in terms of structural concepts,the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.logical subject[逻辑主语] means the doer of the action.logical object[逻辑宾语] means the rcipient of the action.
11、 Combinational rules
Phrase structure rules
The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule[重写规则].
1) S -> NP VP .The arrow is read as "consist of ", or "is rewritter as". The rule in 1) is read as "A sentence consist of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase."
2) NP -> (Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S) "A noun phrase consist of, or is rewritten as an optional determiner, an optional adjective, an obligatory[必用的] noun, an optional prepositional phrase, and /or optional sentence.
3) VP -> V(NP)(PP)(S)
4) AP -> A(PP)(S)
5) PP -> P NP
The recursiveness of phrase structure rules [短语结构规则的循环性] .Recursive properties: An S contains a VP that may contain another S; a VP may inclued an S that contains another VP; a PP consists of an NP that may be followed by another PP; and an NP may take a PP that includes an NP and/or a S!
12、 X-bar theory
XP -> (Spec[指示词]) X (Compl[补语]) A format using the symbol" (read as double bar) and '(read as single bar) can then be abstracted, given both in a tree diagram (见课本81页) and in a formula (7)
7) X" -> Spec X'
X' -> X Compl
13、Synatactic movement and movemen

t rules[句法位移和移位规则]
Synatactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new positon. Synatactic movement is dictated by rules traditonall called transformational rules[转换规则].
NP-movement and WH-movement
NP-movement occur when a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice.
WH-movement is obligatory[强制性的] in English which changes a sentencd from affirmative to interrogative.
14、D-structure and S-structure
A sentencd may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement takes place, named D-structure (or the deep structure[深层结构])，the other occurs after movement takes place named S-structure (roughly meaning the surface sturcture[表层结构])
Transformational-generative line of analysis: it is believed that phrase structure rules with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of synatctic movement rules transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-sturcture.
phrase structure rules + the lexicon ----> D-structure ----> movement rules ----> S-structure
15、 Move α -- a general movement rule 。Move α(or move Alpha) is move certain constituent to certain place.
16、Toward a theory of universal grammar[普遍语法理论]
Since early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar(UG)[普遍语法] known as the Principles-and-parameters theory.[原则及参数理论]
General principles of Universal Grammar。One such principle, or conditon, is the case condition[格条件]. As is required by the case conditon principle, a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V(verb) or P(preposition) to the object position, or by AUX(auxiliary) to the subject position.
Another condition is what is known as the Adjacency condition[毗邻条件] on case assignment, which states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.
The parameters of Universal Grammar。Adjacency parameter[毗邻参数]: UG is believed to contain a parameter with the values [+strict adjacency] and [- strict adjacency] set on the Adjacency Condition.
Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, known as the Directionality parameter.[方位参数] Two directionality values [rightward directionality]左向位 and [leftward directionality] 右向位。
17、 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
18、 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.
19、transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the

transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
20、D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.
21、 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а
22、 syntax studies the sentence structure of language.
23、Types of sentences
simple sentence, coordinate(compound) sentence[复合句]， complex sentence

第五章、 语义学Semantics
1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.
2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.
3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.
5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.
6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.
7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.
10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.
11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.
12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
13、 语义研究的主要流派有哪些？
1) The naming theory: It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.
2) The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.

In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3) Contextualism: It is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized:the situational context and the linguistic context .For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined according to the context in which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.
(seal meaning an aquatic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried.
(seal meaning the king's stamp)
4) Behaviorism The contextualist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield . He drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer". (Bloomfield, This behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism. It is linked with psychological interest.
14、所指与意义有什么关系？
Sense and reference are two terms in the study of meaning. (1) Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning that dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. (2) Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. On the other hand, there are less frequent occasions when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. “morning star” and “evening star”.
15、同义词可以分为哪些类别？
Dialectal synonyms : Dialectal synonyms are words which have more or less the same meaning and are used in different regional dialects such as petroleum in British English and gasoline in American English. Dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect.
Stylistic synonyms: Stylistic synonyms are words which have the same meaning but differ in style, or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal , others tend to be casual , and still others are neutral in style. For example:old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent.
Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning :They are words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about, such as thrifty and miser.
Collocational synonyms : Some synonyms differ in their collocation. That is, they go together

with different words, for example: accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. .-for.
Semantically different synonyms: They refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, " astound" imples difficulty in believing. "
16、在语义上，反义关系可以分为哪几个类别？各有什么特征？
1) gradable antonys: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair such as old/young, hot/cold.
2) Complementary antonyms: a pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.
3) Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.
17、什么是述谓结构？它有那些类型？
The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, the predications may be classified into two-place predication (containing two arguments), one-place argument (containing one argument), and no-place predication ( containing no argument). For example:
His car is next to my car. (Two-place predication)
He is singing. (One-place predication)
It is raining. (No-place predication)
18、句子的意义是构成句子的每个单词意义的总和吗？
The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components. It cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. Eg; The dog bit the man. The man bit the dog.
The two sentences consist of exactly the same words, but they arc widely different in their meanings.
19、语义变化的主要类型有哪些？
Semantic change refers to the change of meaning of a word. The major types of semantic change are as follows: (1) Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. For example, the word “holiday” was originally used to mean a day of religious significance because it was a “holy day”. Today everyone enjoys a holiday, whether he or she is religious or not. (2) Semantic narrowing is the reverse process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example, the word “liquor” in contemporary English is an alcoholic drink, b

ut it was once synonymous with “liquid”, be it alcoholic or not. (3) Semantic shift refers to the process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning, e.g. the word “silly”. Quite surprisingly, a “silly” person was a happy person in Old English, and a naive person in Middle English, but a foolish person in Modern English.

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第六章 语用学Pragmatics
1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.
3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.
5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.
6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
7、语用学和传统语义学有什么区别？
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context of use, while traditional semantics treats meaning as something intrinsic, abstract and de-contextualized.
8、句子和话语有什么区别？
A sentence is a grammatical unit. Its meaning is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. Utterance is what people actually utter in the course of communication. It should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered or used. Most utterances take the form of sentences, i.e. most utterances are complete sentences in terms of syntax; however, some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.
9、句子的语义与话语语义有什么区别？
The meaning of a sentence is abstract and de-contextualized, while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent. Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
10、言内行为、言外行为和言后行为有什么区别，举例说明。
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying

something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. For example: You have left the door wide open.
The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean. The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door. The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully performed .
11、Searle是如何对言外行为进行分类的？它们各自的言外之的是什么？
1) Representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.
2) Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.
3) Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.
4) Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
5) Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something.
12、合作原则的四个准则是什么？违反合作原则的四个准则是如何产生会话含义的？
1)The maxim of quantity
(1) Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .
(2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
2) The maxim of quality
(1) Do not say what you believe to be false.
(2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
3)The maxim of relation
Be relevant.
4)The maxim of manner
(1) Avoid obscurity of expression.
(2) Avoid ambiguity.
(3) Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .
(4) Be orderly.
13、 What is context?
It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before; knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the hearer's interpretation of what is said to him.
14、Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义和话语意义
If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence.
If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.
The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualizd, that of an utterance is concrete, and context dependent.
15、Searle's classification of speech acts Searle's的言语行为

分类
1. representatives（阐述类）: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true
2. directives（指令类）: trying to get the hearer to do something
3. commissives（承诺类）: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
4. expressives（表述类）: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state
5. declarations（声明类）: bringing about immediate changes by saying something

第七章、 历史语言学 Historical linguistics
1、historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.
2、 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.
3、epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.
4、metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.
5、compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.
6、derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.
7、blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.
8、back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.
9、semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..
10、semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.
11、semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.
12、protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.
13、sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes
14、英语语言的发展可分为哪几个主要阶段？各个阶段的转变是以什么历史事件为标志的？
English has undergone dramatic changes throughout the three major periods, i.e. Old English (roughly from 449 to 1100), Middle English (roughly from 1100 to 1500), and Modern English (roughly from 1500 to the present). (2) Historical Events: The Old English period began with the invasion of the British Isles by English-speaking Anglo-Saxons from Europe, and ended with the arrival of Norman French invaders historically known as the Norman Conquest. The Middle English period is distinguished from the Old English period by the Norman Conquest, and from the Modern English period as the result of the cultural influence of the European renaissance movement.
15、语言变化的本质有什么特征？
All living languages change with time and language change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is univ