材料英文文献翻译
英文文献翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿Sodium Polyacrylate:Also known as super-absorbent or “SAP”(super absorbent polymer), Kimberly Clark used to call it SAM (super absorbent material). It is typically used in fine granular form (like table salt). It helps improve capacity for better retention in a disposable diaper, allowing the product to be thinner with improved performance and less usage of pine fluff pulp. The molecular structure of the polyacrylate has sodium carboxylate groups hanging off the main chain. When it comes in contact with water, the sodium detaches itself, leaving only carboxylions. Being negatively charged, these ions repel one another so that the polymer also has cross-links, which effectively leads to a three-dimensional structure. It has hige molecular weight of more than a million; thus, instead of getting dissolved, it solidifies into a gel. The Hydrogen in the water (H-O-H) is trapped by the acrylate due to the atomic bonds associated with the polarity forces between the atoms. Electrolytes in the liquid, such as salt minerals (urine contains 0.9% of minerals), reduce polarity, thereby affecting superabsorbent properties, especially with regard to the superabsorbent capacity for liquid retention. This is the main reason why diapers containing SAP should never be tested with plain water. Linear molecular configurations have less total capacity than non-linear molecules but, on the other hand, retention of liquid in a linear molecule is higher than in a non-linear molecule, due to improved polarity. For a list of SAP suppliers, please use this link: SAP, the superabsorbent can be designed to absorb higher amounts of liquids (with less retention) or very high retentions (but lower capacity). In addition, a surface cross linker can be added to the superabsorbent particle to help it move liquids while it is saturated. This helps avoid formation of "gel blocks", the phenomenon that describes the impossibility of moving liquids once a SAP particle gets saturated.History of Super Absorbent Polymer ChemistryUn til the 1980’s, water absorbing materials were cellulosic or fiber-based products. Choices were tissue paper, cotton, sponge, and fluff pulp. The water retention capacity of these types of materials is only 20 times their weight – at most.In the early 1960s, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was conducting work on materials to improve water conservation in soils. They developed a resin based on the grafting of acrylonitrile polymer onto the backbone of starch molecules (i.e. starch-grafting). The hydrolyzed product of the hydrolysis of this starch-acrylonitrile co-polymer gave water absorption greater than 400 times its weight. Also, the gel did not release liquid water the way that fiber-based absorbents do.The polymer came to be known as “Super Slurper”.The USDA gave the technical know how several USA companies for further development of the basic technology. A wide range of grating combinations were attempted including work with acrylic acid, acrylamide and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).Since Japanese companies were excluded by the USDA, they started independent research using starch, carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), acrylic acid, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and isobutylene maleic anhydride (IMA).Early global participants in the development of super absorbent chemistry included Dow Chemical, Hercules, General Mills Chemical, DuPont, National Starch & Chemical, Enka (Akzo), Sanyo Chemical, Sumitomo Chemical, Kao, Nihon Starch and Japan Exlan.In the early 1970s, super absorbent polymer was used commercially for the first time –not for soil amendment applications as originally intended –but for disposable hygienic products. The first product markets were feminine sanitary napkins and adult incontinence products.In 1978, Park Davis (d.b.a. Professional Medical Products) used super absorbent polymers in sanitary napkins.Super absorbent polymer was first used in Europe in a baby diaper in 1982 when Schickendanz and Beghin-Say added the material to the absorbent core. Shortly thereafter, UniCharm introduced super absorbent baby diapers in Japan while Proctor & Gamble and Kimberly-Clark in the USA began to use the material.The development of super absorbent technology and performance has been largely led by demands in the disposable hygiene segment. Strides in absorption performance have allowed the development of the ultra-thin baby diaper which uses a fraction of the materials – particularly fluff pulp – which earlier disposable diapers consumed.Over the years, technology has progressed so that there is little if any starch-grafted super absorbent polymer used in disposable hygienic products. These super absorbents typically are cross-linked acrylic homo-polymers (usually Sodium neutralized).Super absorbents used in soil amendments applications tend to be cross-linked acrylic-acrylamide co-polymers (usually Potassium neutralized).Besides granular super absorbent polymers, ARCO Chemical developed a super absorbent fiber technology in the early 1990s. This technology was eventually sold to Camelot Absorbents. There are super absorbent fibers commercially available today. While significantly more expensive than the granular polymers, the super absorbent fibers offer technical advantages in certain niche markets including cable wrap, medical devices and food packaging.Sodium polyacrylate, also known as waterlock, is a polymer with the chemical formula [-CH2-CH(COONa)-]n widely used in consumer products. It has the ability to absorb as much as 200 to 300 times its mass in water. Acrylate polymers generally are considered to possess an anionic charge. While sodium neutralized polyacrylates are the most common form used in industry, there are also other salts available including potassium, lithium and ammonium.ApplicationsAcrylates and acrylic chemistry have a wide variety of industrial uses that include: ∙Sequestering agents in detergents. (By binding hard water elements such as calcium and magnesium, the surfactants in detergents work more efficiently.) ∙Thickening agents∙Coatings∙Fake snowSuper absorbent polymers. These cross-linked acrylic polymers are referred to as "Super Absorbents" and "Water Crystals", and are used in baby diapers. Copolymerversions are used in agriculture and other specialty absorbent applications. The origins of super absorbent polymer chemistry trace back to the early 1960s when the U.S. Department of Agriculture developed the first super absorbent polymer materials. This chemical is featured in the Maximum Absorbency Garment used by NASA.译文聚丙烯酸钠聚丙烯酸钠，又可以称为超级吸收剂或者又叫高吸水性树脂，凯博利克拉克教授曾经称它为SAM即：超级吸收性物质。
英文文献整篇翻译
英文文献整篇翻译Title: The Impact of Climate Change on BiodiversityClimate change is a pressing issue that has significant impacts on biodiversity worldwide. Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events are altering ecosystems and threatening the survival of many species. The loss of biodiversity not only affects the natural world but also has implications for human societies.One of the major impacts of climate change onbiodiversity is the shifting of habitats. As temperatures rise, many species are forced to move to higher latitudesor elevations in search of suitable conditions. This can disrupt ecosystems and lead to the decline or extinction of species that are unable to adapt to the new conditions.In addition to habitat loss, climate change is also causing changes in the timing of biological events such as flowering, migration, and reproduction. These changes can disrupt the delicate balance of ecosystems and lead to mismatches between species that depend on each other for survival.Furthermore, climate change is exacerbating otherthreats to biodiversity such as habitat destruction, pollution, and overexploitation. The combination of these factors is putting immense pressure on many species and pushing them closer to extinction.It is essential that we take action to mitigate the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. This includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, protecting and restoring habitats, and implementing conservation measures to safeguard vulnerable species. By addressing the root causes of climate change and protecting biodiversity, we canensure a sustainable future for both the natural world and human societies.气候变化对生物多样性的影响气候变化是一个紧迫的问题，对全球的生物多样性产生重大影响。
建筑结构设计及材料中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Structure in Design of ArchitectureAnd Structural MaterialWe have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic,preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic considerations .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic ofhis or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift to approximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasiswill be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specificform of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile forcewhich, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then ground into a power. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate small stones, crushed rock, or gravel, and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other.They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tensions will develop. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond─ the force that unites them─ that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors. Both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and longer spans.Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations.Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting.A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of pieces of steel by melting a steel materialbetween them under high heat.Priestess’s concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strengths. They are then used to priestess concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the other (and more common) method, the priestesses steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure, and the concrete is poured around them. Priestess’s concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it is a highly desirable material.Progressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern, sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.建筑中的结构设计及建筑材料建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。
塑料注射成型外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
塑料注射成型外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译外文翻译原文：Injection MoldingMany different processes are used to transform plastic granules, powders, and liquids into product. The plastic material is in moldable form, and is adaptable to various forming methods. In most cases thermosetting materials require other methods of forming. This is recognized by the fact that thermoplastics are usually heated to a soft state and then reshaped before cooling. Theromosets, on the other hand have not yet been polymerized before processing, and the chemical reaction takes place during the process, usually through heat, a catalyst, or pressure. It is important to remember this concept while studying the plastics manufacturing processes and polymers used.Injection molding is by far the most widely used process of forming thermoplastic materials. It is also one of the oldest. Currently injection molding accounts for 30% of all plastics resin consumption. Since raw material can be converted by a single procedure, injection molding is suitable for mass production of plastics articles and automated one-step production of complex geometries. In most cases, finishing is not necessary. Typical products include toys, automotive parts, household articles, and consumer electronics goods.Since injection molding has a number of interdependent variables, it is a process of considerable complexity. The success of the injection molding operation is dependent not only in the proper setup of the machine hydraulics, barrel temperaturevariations, and changes in material viscosity. Increasing shot-to-shot repeatability of machine variables helps produce parts with tighter tolerance, lowers the level of rejects, and increases product quality (i.e., appearance and serviceability).The principal objective of any molding operation is the manufacture of products: to a specific quality level, in the shortest time, and using repeatable and fully automaticcycle. Molders strive to reduce or eliminate rejected parts in molding production. For injection molding of high precision optical parts, or parts with a high added value such as appliance cases, the payoff of reduced rejects is high.A typical injection molding cycle or sequence consists of five phases;1. Injection or mold filling2. Packing or compression3. Holding4. Cooling5. Part ejectionPlastic granules are fed into the hopper and through an in the injection cylinder where they are carried forward by the rotating screw. The rotation of the screw forces the granules under high pressure against the heated walls of the cylinder causing them to melt. As the pressure building up, the rotating screw is forced backward until enough plastic has accumulated to make the shot. The injection ram (or screw) forces molten plastic from the barrel, through the nozzle, sprue and runner system, and finally into the mold cavities. During injection, the mold cavity is filled volumetrically. When the plastic contacts the cold mold surfaces, it solidifies (freezes) rapidly to produce theskin layer. Since the core remains in the molten state, plastic follows through the core to complete mold filling. Typically, the cavity is filled to 95%~98% during injection. Then the molding process is switched over to the packing phase.Even as the cavity is filled, the molten plastic begins to cool. Since the cooling plastic contracts or shrinks, it gives rise to defects such as sink marks, voids, and dimensional instabilities. To compensate for shrinkage, addition plastic is forced into the cavity. Once the cavity is packed, pressure applied to the melt prevents molten plastic inside the cavity from back flowing out through the gate. The pressure must be applied until the gate solidifies. The process can be divided into two steps (packing and holding) or may be encompassed in one step(holding or second stage). During packing, melt forced into the cavity by the packing pressure compensates for shrinkage. With holding, the pressure merely prevents back flow of the polymer malt.After the holding stage is completed, the cooling phase starts. During, the part is held in the mold for specified period. The duration of the cooling phase depends primarily on the material properties and the part thickness. Typically, the part temperature must cool below the material’s ejection temperature. While cooling the part, the machine plasticates melt for the next cycle.The polymer is subjected to shearing action as well as the condition of the energy from the heater bands. Once the short is made, plastication ceases. This should occur immediately before the end of the cooling phase. Then the mold opens and the part is ejected.When polymers are fabricated into useful articles they are referred to as plastics, rubbers, and fibers. Some polymers, forexample, cotton and wool, occur naturally, but the great majority of commercial products are synthetic in origin. A list of the names of the better known materials would include Bakelite, Dacron, Nylon, Celanese, Orlon, and Styron.Previous to 1930 the use of synthetic polymers was not widespread. However, they should not be classified as new materials for many of them were known in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The failure to develop them during this period was due, in part, to a lack of understanding of their properties, in particular, the problem of the structure of polymers was the subject of much fruitless controversy.Two events of the twentieth century catapulted polymers into a position of worldwide importance. The first of these was the successful commercial production of the plastic now known as Bakelite. Its industrial usefulness was demonstrated in1912 and in the next succeeding years. T oday Bakelite is high on the list of important synthetic products. Before 1912 materials made from cellulose were available, but their manufacture never provided the incentive for new work in the polymer field such as occurred after the advent of Bakelite. The second event was concerned with fundamental studies of the nature polymers by Staudinger in Europe and by Carohers, who worked with the Du Pont company in Delaware. A greater part of the studies were made during the 1920’s. Staudinger’s work was primarily fundamental. Carother’s achievements led t o the development of our present huge plastics industry by causing an awakening of interest in polymer chemistry, an interest which is still strongly apparent today.The Nature of ThermodynamicsThermodynamics is one of the most important areas ofengineering science used to explain how most things work, why some things do not the way that they were intended, and why others things just cannot possibly work at all. It is a key part of the science engineers use to design automotive engines, heat pumps, rocket motors, power stations, gas turbines, air conditioners, super-conducting transmission lines, solar heating systems, etc.Thermodynamics centers about the notions of energy, the idea that energy is conserved is the first low of thermodynamics. It is starting point for the science of thermodynamics is entropy; entropy provides a means for determining if a process is possible.This idea is the basis for the second low of thermodynamics. It also provides the basis for an engineering analysis in which one calculates the maximum amount of useful that can be obtained from a given energy source, or the minimum amount of power input required to do a certain task.A clear understanding of the ideas of entropy is essential for one who needs to use thermodynamics in engineering analysis. Scientists are interested in using thermodynamics to predict and relate the properties of matter; engineers are interested in using this data, together with the basic ideas of energy conservation and entropy production, to analyze the behavior of complex technological systems.There is an example of the sort of system of interest to engineers, a large central power stations. In this particular plant the energy source is petroleum in one of several forms, or sometimes natural gas, and the plant is to convert as much of this energy as possible to electric energy and to send this energy down the transmission line.Simply expressed, the plant does this by boiling water andusing the steam to turn a turbine which turns an electric generator.The simplest such power plants are able to convert only about 25 percent of the fuel energy to electric energy. But this particular plant converts approximately 40 percent;it has been ingeniously designed through careful application of the basic principles of thermodynamics to the hundreds of components in the system.The design engineers who made these calculations used data on the properties of steam developed by physical chemists who in turn used experimental measurements in concert with thermodynamics theory to develop the property data.Plants presently being studied could convert as much as 55 percent of the fuel energy to electric energy, if they indeed perform as predicted by thermodynamics analysis.The rule that the spontaneous flow of heat is always from hotter to cooler objects is a new physical idea. There is noting in the energy conservation principle or in any other law of nature that specifies for us the direction of heat flow. If energy were to flow spontaneously from a block of ice to a surrounding volume of water, this could occur in complete accord with energy conservation. But such a process never happens. This idea is the substance of the second law of thermodynamics.Clear, a refrigerator, which is a physical system used in kitchen refrigerators, freezers, and air-conditioning units must obey not only the first law (energy conservation) but the second law as well.To see why the second law is not violated by a refrigerator, we must be careful in our statement of law. The second law of thermodynamics says, in effect, that heat never flowsspontaneously from a cooler to a hotter object.Or, alternatively, heat can flow from a cooler to a hotter object only as a result of work done by an external agency. We now see the distinction between an everyday spontaneous process, such as the flow of heat from the inside to the outside of a refrigerator.In the water-ice system, the exchange of energy takes place spontaneously and the flow of heat always proceeds from the water to the ice. The water gives up energy and becomes cooler while the ice receives energy and melts.In a refrigerator, on the other hand, the exchange of energy is not spontaneous. Work provided by an external agency is necessary to reverse the natural flow of heat and cool the interior at the expense of further heating the warmer surroundings.译文：塑料注射成型许多不同的加工过程习惯于把塑料颗粒、粉末和液体转化成最终产品。
中英文文献以及翻译(化工类)
Foreign material：Chemical Industry1.Origins of the Chemical IndustryAlthough the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin’s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939).Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although this has slowed significantly in recent years. The lion’s share of this growth has been in the organic chemicals sector due to the development and growth of the petrochemicals area since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970s was largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins.The chemical industry today is a very diverse sector of manufacturing industry, within which it plays a central role. It makes thousands of different chemicals whichthe general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. These products are purchased because they have the required properties which make them suitable for some particular application, e.g. a non-stick coating for pans or a weedkiller. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce.2. Definition of the Chemical IndustryAt the turn of the century there would have been little difficulty in defining what constituted the chemical industry since only a very limited range of products was manufactured and these were clearly chemicals, e.g., alkali, sulphuric acid. At present, however, many intermediates to products produced, from raw materials like crude oil through (in some cases) many intermediates to products which may be used directly as consumer goods, or readily converted into them. The difficulty cones in deciding at which point in this sequence the particular operation ceases to be part of the chemical industry’s sphere of activities. To consider a specific example to illustrate this dilemma, emulsion paints may contain poly (vinyl chloride) / poly (vinyl acetate). Clearly, synthesis of vinyl chloride (or acetate) and its polymerization are chemical activities. However, if formulation and mixing of the paint, including the polymer, is carried out by a branch of the multinational chemical company which manufactured the ingredients, is this still part of the chemical industry of does it mow belong in the decorating industry?It is therefore apparent that, because of its diversity of operations and close links in many areas with other industries, there is no simple definition of the chemical industry. Instead each official body which collects and publishes statistics on manufacturing industry will have its definition as to which operations are classified as the chemical industry. It is important to bear this in mind when comparing statistical information which is derived from several sources.3. The Need for Chemical IndustryThe chemical industry is concerned with converting raw materials, such as crude oil, firstly into chemical intermediates and then into a tremendous variety of other chemicals. These are then used to produce consumer products, which make our livesmore comfortable or, in some cases such as pharmaceutical produces, help to maintain our well-being or even life itself. At each stage of these operations value is added to the produce and provided this added exceeds the raw material plus processing costs then a profit will be made on the operation. It is the aim of chemical industry to achieve this.It may seem strange in textbook this one to pose the question “do we need a chemical industry?” However trying to answer this question will provide(ⅰ) an indication of the range of the chemical industry’s activities, (ⅱ) its influence on our lives in everyday terms, and (ⅲ) how great is society’s need for a chemical industry. Our approach in answering the question will be to consider the industry’s co ntribution to meeting and satisfying our major needs. What are these? Clearly food (and drink) and health are paramount. Other which we shall consider in their turn are clothing and (briefly) shelter, leisure and transport.(1)Food. The chemical industry makes a major contribution to food production in at least three ways. Firstly, by making available large quantities of artificial fertilizers which are used to replace the elements (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) which are removed as nutrients by the growing crops during modern intensive farming. Secondly, by manufacturing crop protection chemicals, i.e., pesticides, which markedly reduce the proportion of the crops consumed by pests. Thirdly, by producing veterinary products which protect livestock from disease or cure their infections.(2)Health. We are all aware of the major contribution which the pharmaceutical sector of the industry has made to help keep us all healthy, e.g. by curing bacterial infections with antibiotics, and even extending life itself, e.g. ß–blockers to lower blood pressure.(3)Clothing. The improvement in properties of modern synthetic fibers over the traditional clothing materials (e.g. cotton and wool) has been quite remarkable. Thus shirts, dresses and suits made from polyesters like Terylene and polyamides like Nylon are crease-resistant, machine-washable, and drip-dry or non-iron. They are also cheaper than natural materials.Parallel developments in the discovery of modern synthetic dyes and the technology to “bond” th em to the fiber has resulted in a tremendous increase in the variety of colors available to the fashion designer. Indeed they now span almost every color and hue of the visible spectrum. Indeed if a suitable shade is not available, structural modification of an existing dye to achieve this canreadily be carried out, provided there is a satisfactory market for the product.Other major advances in this sphere have been in color-fastness, i.e., resistance to the dye being washed out when the garment is cleaned.(4)Shelter, leisure and transport. In terms of shelter the contribution of modern synthetic polymers has been substantial. Plastics are tending to replace traditional building materials like wood because they are lighter, maintenance-free (i.e. they are resistant to weathering and do not need painting). Other polymers, e.g. urea-formaldehyde and polyurethanes, are important insulating materials f or reducing heat losses and hence reducing energy usage.Plastics and polymers have made a considerable impact on leisure activities with applications ranging from all-weather artificial surfaces for athletic tracks, football pitches and tennis courts to nylon strings for racquets and items like golf balls and footballs made entirely from synthetic materials.Like wise the chemical industry’s contribution to transport over the years has led to major improvements. Thus development of improved additives like anti-oxidants and viscosity index improves for engine oil has enabled routine servicing intervals to increase from 3000 to 6000 to 12000 miles. Research and development work has also resulted in improved lubricating oils and greases, and better brake fluids. Yet again the contribution of polymers and plastics has been very striking with the proportion of the total automobile derived from these materials—dashboard, steering wheel, seat padding and covering etc.—now exceeding 40%.So it is quite apparent even from a brief look at the chemical industry’s contribution to meeting our major needs that life in the world would be very different without the products of the industry. Indeed the level of a country’s development may be judged by the production level and sophistication of its chemical industry4. Research and Development (R&D) in Chemical IndustriesOne of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in the developed world has been its great commitment to, and investment in research and development (R&D). A typical figure is 5% of sales income, with this figure being almost doubled for the most research intensive sector, pharmaceuticals. It is important to emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales income, i.e. the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staff salaries, etc. as well. In the past this tremendous investment has paid off well, leading to many useful and valuable products being introduced to the market. Examplesinclude synthetic polymers like nylons and polyesters, and drugs and pesticides. Although the number of new products introduced to the market has declined significantly in recent years, and in times of recession the research department is usually one of the first to suffer cutbacks, the commitment to R&D remains at a very high level.The chemical industry is a very high technology industry which takes full advantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are very widely used for all sorts of applications, from automatic control of chemical plants, to molecular modeling of structures of new compounds, to the control of analytical instruments in the laboratory.Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a few tones per year in the fine chemicals area to the real giants in the fertilizer and petrochemical sectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capital investment, since a single plant of this size can now cost $520 million! This, coupled with the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why the chemical industry is capital-rather than labor-intensive.The major chemical companies are truly multinational and operate their sales and marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also have manufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outlook for operations, or globalization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, with companies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in other countries or by taking over companies which are already operating there.化学工业1.化学工业的起源尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。
英文文献全文翻译
英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：LeGuin, Ursula K. (December 18, 2002). "Dancing at the Edge of the World: Thoughts on Words, Women, Places".《世界边缘的舞蹈：关于语言、女性和地方的思考》Introduction:In "Dancing at the Edge of the World," Ursula K. LeGuin explores the intersection of language, women, and places. She writes about the power of words, the role of women in society, and the importance of our connection to the places we inhabit. Through a series of essays, LeGuin invites readers to think critically about these topics and consider how they shape our understanding of the world.Chapter 1: LanguageConclusion:第二篇示例：IntroductionEnglish literature translation is an important field in the study of language and culture. The translation of English literature involves not only the linguistic translation of words or sentences but also the transfer of cultural meaning and emotional resonance. This article will discuss the challenges and techniques of translating English literature, as well as the importance of preserving the original author's voice and style in the translated text.Challenges in translating English literature第三篇示例：Title: The Importance of Translation of Full English TextsTranslation plays a crucial role in bringing different languages and cultures together. More specifically, translating full English texts into different languages allows for access to valuable information and insights that may otherwise be inaccessible to those who do not speak English. In this article, we will explore the importance of translating full English texts and the benefits it brings.第四篇示例：Abstract: This article discusses the importance of translating English literature and the challenges translators face when putting together a full-text translation. It highlights the skills and knowledge needed to accurately convey the meaning and tone of the original text while preserving its cultural and literary nuances. Through a detailed analysis of the translation process, this article emphasizes the crucial role translators play in bridging the gap between languages and making English literature accessible to a global audience.IntroductionEnglish literature is a rich and diverse field encompassing a wide range of genres, styles, and themes. From classic works by Shakespeare and Dickens to contemporary novels by authors like J.K. Rowling and Philip Pullman, English literature offers something for everyone. However, for non-English speakers, accessing and understanding these works can be a challenge. This is where translation comes in.Translation is the process of rendering a text from one language into another, while striving to preserve the original meaning, tone, and style of the original work. Translating afull-length English text requires a deep understanding of both languages, as well as a keen awareness of the cultural andhistorical context in which the work was written. Additionally, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to convey the beauty and complexity of the original text in a new language.Challenges of Full-text TranslationTranslating a full-length English text poses several challenges for translators. One of the most significant challenges is capturing the nuances and subtleties of the original work. English literature is known for its rich and layered language, with intricate wordplay, metaphors, and symbolism that can be difficult to convey in another language. Translators must carefully consider each word and phrase in order to accurately convey the author's intended meaning.Another challenge of full-text translation is maintaining the author's unique voice and style. Each writer has a distinct way of expressing themselves, and a good translator must be able to replicate this voice in the translated text. This requires a deep understanding of the author's writing style, as well as the ability to adapt it to the conventions of the target language.Additionally, translators must be mindful of the cultural and historical context of the original work. English literature is deeply rooted in the history and traditions of the English-speaking world, and translators must be aware of these influences in orderto accurately convey the author's intended message. This requires thorough research and a nuanced understanding of the social, political, and economic factors that shaped the work.Skills and Knowledge RequiredTo successfully translate a full-length English text, translators must possess a wide range of skills and knowledge. First and foremost, translators must be fluent in both the source language (English) and the target language. This includes a strong grasp of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary in both languages, as well as an understanding of the cultural and historical context of the works being translated.Translators must also have a keen eye for detail and a meticulous approach to their work. Every word, sentence, and paragraph must be carefully considered and translated with precision in order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. This requires strong analytical skills and a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of language.Furthermore, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to craft a compelling and engaging translation. Translating a full-length English text is not simply a matter of substituting one word for another; it requires creativity, imagination, and a deep appreciation for the beauty of language. Translators mustbe able to capture the rhythm, cadence, and tone of the original work in their translation, while also adapting it to the conventions of the target language.ConclusionIn conclusion, translating a full-length English text is a complex and challenging task that requires a high level of skill, knowledge, and creativity. Translators must possess a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural and historical context of the work being translated. Through their careful and meticulous work, translators play a crucial role in making English literature accessible to a global audience, bridging the gap between languages and cultures. By preserving the beauty and complexity of the original text in their translations, translators enrich our understanding of literature and bring the works of English authors to readers around the world.。
铜英文文献翻译
通过退火硬化来改善烧结和铸造Cu-Ag合金的性能S. Nestorovic*, I. Rangelov and D. Markovic分别用烧结方法和粉末冶金方法制得含Ag4%的铜合金。
将铸造和烧结得到的铜合金进行相同的形变和热处理。
在再结晶温度以上进行退火，然后进行硬度和电导率的测量。
本次试验显示，在160-400℃下进行退火，由于退火硬化效果，冷变形后的Cu-4%Ag合金的硬度和电导率都增加。
研究表明，随着预变形程度的增加，强度（由退火硬化造成的）会增加，并且，烧结方法制得的Cu-4%Ag合金的增加量大于铸造Cu-4%Ag的增加量。
烧结合金的电导率随着冷轧程度的增加而增加，而铸造合金相反，铸造合金的电导率随着冷轧程度的增加而降低。
随着退火过程的进行，两种合金的电导率都缓慢增加。
关键词：Cu-4Ag合金，形变热处理，铜，退火硬化的影响介绍在很多以Cu为基体的合金系中，在再结晶温度以上进行退火，强度性能提高。
这种强化作用被称作退火强化1,2，它主要应用于机电设备中弹簧材料的生产，这种弹簧材料属于铜合金。
在以这种现象为特征的所有合金系中，有三大主体趋势应当引起重视：强度增加的量会随着预变形程度的增加而增加；置换元素的浓度增加，则强度增加；强度增加，这造成塑性应变功能下降。
用于解释这种硬化效应的机制已经被试验过，试验用的金属是以铜为基体的合金，这些合金被冷轧，然后又在150-300℃范围内进行退火。
这种效果主要用于铜基合金，并且一些发现表明，原子排列方式是这种硬化效果的主要原因1。
另一方面，在最近的一份关于Cu-Al合金退火硬化的详细的调查中，得出了一个结论，溶质的偏析以及位错是产生这种强化效果的主要机制。
铜有很好的导电性，但是容易软化并且高温强度低。
这就向设计电气设备的工程师和设计师提出了一个大问题。
在过去的几年里，研究人员付出很多努力，致力于研究改善铜基合金的性能，如导电性，强度以及高温下强度的稳定保持。
pdf英文文献翻译
pdf英文文献翻译 PDF English Literature Translation With the advances in technology, the use of electronic documents has become increasingly popular. PDF, short for Portable Document Format, is one of the most widely used file formats for sharing and distributing electronic documents. For researchers and academicians, access to Englishliterature is critical as it contributes to the expansion of knowledge and encourages global collaboration. However, not all scholars are proficient in English, which creates a need for the translation of English literature, especially in the form of PDFs. In this document, we will explore the importance and challenges of translating English literature into PDF format, along with some best practices for effective translation. 1. Importance of PDF English Literature Translation Translation of English literature into PDF format enables scholars from non-English speaking backgrounds to access and understand research findings from across the globe. It promotes inclusivity and fosters collaboration among academics, thereby facilitating the advancement of knowledge in various fields. Additionally, translated PDF literature helps in disseminating research in conferences and seminars, extending the reach and impact of the work. 2. Challenges in PDF English Literature Translation Translating English literature into PDF format presents several challenges. Firstly, the accuracy of the translation is paramount to ensure the intended meaning is not lost. Translators must possess a strong command of boththe source and target languages to accurately capture the nuances and essence of the text. Additionally, the formatting and layout of the PDF document must be preserved during the translation process. Maintaining the structure ensures that the translated document remains visually appealing and user-friendly. 3. Best Practices for Effective PDF English Literature Translation To ensure successful translation of English literature into PDF format, adhering to these best practices is imperative: a. Engage professional translators with subject matter expertise: It is crucial to collaborate with professional translators who possess knowledge in the specific field of the English literature being translated. Their expertise ensures accurate rendering of technical terms and concepts. b. Use industry-standard translation tools: Employing computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools like SDL Trados or MemoQ enhances efficiency and consistency. These tools support translation memory, maintaining consistency across the translated documents. They also allow for easy management of terminology glossaries. c. Preserve the formatting and layout: Implementing a robust translation workflow that includes preserving the formatting and layout of the PDF document is essential. This can be achieved by using specialized software that preserves the structure and visual appeal of the original document. d. Proofread and edit thoroughly: After the initial translation, it is crucial to invest time in thorough proofreading and editing. This ensures the accuracy and quality of the translated PDF document. A fresh pair of eyes can detect any errors or inconsistencies that might have been overlooked during the translation process. e. Obtain feedback from target audience: Feedback from the target audience can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of the translated PDF document. This feedback can help improve future translations and ensure theaudience's needs are met. In conclusion, the translation of English literature into PDF format plays a crucial role in enabling worldwide collaboration and knowledge exchange. By recognizing the importance of accuracy, formatting preservation, andutilizing professional translators and industry-standard tools, the effective translation of English literature can be achieved. Adopting best practices ensures that the translated PDF documents are of high quality, visually appealing, and accessible to scholars from non-English speaking backgrounds.。
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The development of plastic mouldChina's industrial plastic moulds from the start to now, after more than half a century, there has been great development, mold levels have been greatly enhanced. Mould has been at large can produce 48-inch big-screen color TV Molded Case injection mold, 6.5 kg capacity washing machine full of plastic molds, as well as the overall car bumpers and dashboards, and other plastic mould precision plastic molds, the camera is capable of producing plastic mould , multi-cavity mold small modulus gear and molding mold. --Such as Tianjin and Yantai days Electrical Co., Ltd Polaris IK Co. manufactured multi-cavity mold VCD and DVD gear, the gear production of such size precision plastic parts, coaxial, beating requirements have reached a similar foreign the level of product, but also the application of the latest gear design software to correct contraction as a result of the molding profile error to the standard involute requirements. Production can only 0.08 mm thickness of a two-cavity mold and theair Cup difficulty of plastic doors and windows out of high modulus, and so on. Model cavity injection molding manufacturing accuracy of 0.02 to 0.05 mm, surface roughness Ra0.2 μ m, mold quality, and significantly increase life expectancy,non-hardening steel mould life up to 10~ 30 million, hardening steel form up to 50 ~ 10 million times, shorten the delivery time than before, but still higher than abroad,and the gap between a specific data table.Process, the multi-material plastic molding die, efficient multicolor injection mould, inserts exchange structure and core pulling Stripping the innovative design has also made great progress. Gas-assisted injection molding, the use of more mature technologies, such as Qingdao Hisense Co., Ltd., Tianjin factory communications and broadcasting companies, such as mold manufacturers succeeded in 29 ~ 34-inch TV thick-walled shell, as well as some parts on the use of gas-assisted mould technology Some manufacturers also use the C-MOLD gas-assisted software and achieved better results. Prescott, such as Shanghai, such as the new company will provide users with gas-assisted molding equipment and technology. Began promoting hot runner mold, and some plants use rate of more than 20 percent, the general heat-thermal hot runner, or device, a small number of units with the world's advanced level of rigorous hot runner-needle device, a small number of units with World advanced level of rigorous needle-hot runner mould. However, the use of hot runner overall rate of less than 10%, with overseas compared to 50 ~ 80%, the gap larger. In the manufacturing technology, CAD / CAM / CAE technology on the level of application of a new level to the enterprise for the production of household appliances representatives have introduced a considerable number of CAD / CAM systems, such as the United States EDS UG Ⅱ,the United States Parametric Technology Pro / Engineer, the United States CV CADS5 company, the British company DOCT5 Deltacam, HZS's CRADE Japan, the company's Cimatron Israel, the United States AC-C-Tech Mold Company and Australia's MPA Mold flow Mold analysis software, and so on. These systems and the introduction of the software, although a lot of money spent, but in our country die industry, and achieving a CAD / CAM integration, and to support CAE technology to forming processes such as molding and cooling, such as computer simulation, and achieved certain The technical and economic benefits, promote and facilitate China's CAD / CAM technology. In recent years, China's own development of the plastic mould CAD / CAM system has achieved significant development, the main guarantor Software Engineering Institute, is the development of CAXA, Huazhong University of Science HSC5.0 development of the system and injection mold CAE software, and so on, these Die of domestic software with the specific circumstances in the application of computer and lower prices, and other characteristics, in order to further universal CAD / CAM technology has created good conditions.In recent years, China has been more extensive use of some new plastic mold steel, such as: P20, 3Cr2Mo, PMS, SM Ⅰ, SM Ⅱ, and the quality of life of mold has a direct significant impact on the overall use of the still less . Plastic Moulds standard model planes, such as standard putter and spring has given more applications, and there have been some of the commercialization of domestic hot runner system components. However, at present China Die level of standardization and commercialization in the general level of below 30 percent and foreign advanced industrial countries has reached 70 percent compared to 80 percent, still a large gap. Table 1, at home and abroad plastic mould technology comparison table，Domestic projects abroad cavity injection model accuracy of 0.005 ~ 0.010.02mm ~ 0.05mm cavity surface roughness Ra0.01 ~ 0.05 μ mRa0.20 μ m non-hardened steel die life 10 to 60 million 10 ~ 30 million hardened steel die life 160 ~ 300 million of 50 ~ 100 million hot runner mould overall utilization rate of more than 80 per cent less than 10 per cent level of standardization of 70 ~ 80% less than 30% of medium-sized plastic mould production cycle about a month 2 ~ 4 months in the mold industry in the amount of 30 to 40% 25 to 30% According to the parties concerned forecast, the market's overall vigorous mold is a smooth upward, in the next Die market, the development of plastic mould faster than the other Die, die in the proportion of industry will gradually improve. With the continuous development of the plastics industry, put on the plastic mold growing demands is a normal, and so sophisticated, large-scale, complex, long-life plastic mould development will be higher than theoverall pace of development. At the same time, imports in recent years because of the mold, precision, large, complex, long-life die in the majority, therefore, reduce imports perspective, in the mold of such high-end market share will gradually increase. The rapid development of the construction industry so that the various Profile Extrusion Die, PVC plastic pipe fittings Die Die market become a new economic growth point, the rapid development of highways, car tires also put a higher demand, radial tire Die, Die particularly active pace of development will also be higher than the overall average level of the plastic and wood, plastic and metal to make plastic molds in the automotive, motorcycle industry in the demand for huge household appliances industry in the "10th Five-Year Plan" period ave greater development, especially refrigerators,air-conditioners and microwave ovens, and other parts of the great demand for plastic moulds, and electronics and communications products, in addition to audio-video products, such as color televisions, laptop computers and set-top boxes will be given a wider network development, which are Plastic Mold market is the growth point.China's industrial and technological plastic mould the future direction of the major developments will include: 1, raising large, sophisticated, complex, long-life mold design and manufacturing standards and proportion. This is due to the molding plastic mould products increasingly large, complex and high-precision requirements, as well as requirements for high productivity and the development of a multi-mode due. 2, in the design and manufacture of plastic mould fully promote the use of CAD / CAM / CAE technology. CAD / CAM technology has developed into a relatively mature technology common in recent years CAD / CAM technology hardware and software prices has been reduced to SMEs generally acceptable level of popularity for further create good conditions; based on network CAD / CAM / CAE system integration structure the initial signs of emerging, and it will solve the traditional mixed CAD / CAM system can not meet the actual production process requirements of the division of collaboration; CAD / CAM software will gradually improve intelligence plastic parts and the 3-D mold design and prototyping process 3-D analysis will be in our plastic mould industries play an increasingly important role. 3, promote the use of hot runner technology, gas-assisted injection molding technology and high-pressure injection molding technology. Using hot runner mould technology can improve the productivity and quality of parts and plastic parts can be substantial savings of raw materials and energy conservation, extensive application of this technology is a big plastic mould changes. Hot Runner components formulate national standards, and actively produce cheap high-quality components, the development ofhot runner mold is the key. Gas-assisted injection molding product quality can be guaranteed under the premise of substantially lower cost. Currently in the automotive and appliance industries gradually promote the use of the Chiang Kai-shek.Gas-assisted injection molding of the ordinary than the traditional injection of more parameters need to identify and control, and its more commonly used in large, complex products, mold design and control more difficult, therefore, the development of gas-assisted molding flow analysis software It seems very important. On the other hand in order to ensure precision plastic parts to continue to study the development of technology and high-pressure injection molding and injection-compression molding mould and die technology is also very important. 4, the development of new plastics molding technology and rapid economic mold. To adapt to more variety, less volume of production. 5, and improve standardization of plastic mould standard parts usage. China's mold and die level of standard parts standardization still low, the gap between the large and foreign, to a certain extent constraining the development of industries in our country die, die to improve quality and reduce manufacturing costs Die, Die standard parts to vigorously promote the application. To this end, first of all, to formulate a unified national standards, and in strict accordance with the standards of production, secondly it is necessary to gradually scale production, to improve the commercialization of the standard of quality, and reduce costs again it is necessary to further increase the standard specifications of varieties. 6, Die application quality materials and advanced surface treatment technology for improving the quality of life and mold it is necessary. 7, research and application of high-speed die measurement technology and reverse engineering. CMM-use 3D scanner or reverse engineering is the realization of plastic moulds CAD / CAM one of the key technologies. Research and Application of diversity, adjustment, cheap detection equipment is to achieve the necessary precondition for reverse engineering.塑料模具的发展中国塑料模工业自从开始到现在，已经经过了半个多世纪，有了非常伟大的发展，模具水平有了很大的提高。