H.D.Brown《语言学习与语言教学的原则》(第3版)笔记和课后习题答案
《语言学习与语言教学的原则》 笔记及习题(第二语言习得理论)【圣才出品】
第11章第二语言习得理论11.1 复习笔记本章要点1. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis克拉申输入假说2. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Model麦劳林注意-处理模型3. Bialystok’s Analysis/Automaticity Model亚利斯托克分析/自动模型本章考点1. 有关第二语言习得的理论2. 克拉申输入假说内容及缺陷3. 掌握几大第二语言习得模型本章内容索引Ⅰ. Theories1. Some theories of second language acquisition2. Adult second language acquisitionⅡ. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis1. Definition2. DisagreementsⅢ. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing ModelⅣ. Bialystok’s Analysis/Automaticity ModelⅤ. Variability ModelsⅥ. From Theory to PracticeⅦ. Intuition: The Search for RelevanceⅧ. Out On A Limb: The Ecology of Language AcquisitionⅠ. Theories（理论）1. Some theories of second language acquisition（第二语言习得理论）(1) A theory of Second language acquisition includes an understanding, in general, of what language is, what learning is, and for classroom contexts, what teaching is.第二语言习得理论大体上包括理解什么是语言，什么是学习，什么是课堂教学。
语言学习与语言教学的原则修改版
Development of communicative competence
In Canale‘s definition, four different components make up the construct of communicative competence. first two cateThe 1). Grammatical competence: It encompasses ―knowledge gories reflect the use of the linguistic of lexical items and of rules of morphology, syntax, system itself. sentence-grammar semantics and phonology‖. 2). Discourse competence: It is the ability we have to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances. Differences between 1) and 2): The former focuses on sentence level grammar. While the latter is concerned with intersentential relationships.
The middle part of 20th century was characterized by a zeal for the scientific, linguistic analysis of the structures of the languages and for application of such analysis to behavioristic approaches to language teaching. And this research continue to be important as we head toward the 21st century. However, in the last two decades of the 20th century, a focus on communicative language teaching—teaching second languages for the ultimate goal of communication with other speakers of the second language. Such a focus has centered on speaking and listening skills, on writing for specific communicative purposes, and on ―authentic‖ reading texts. Underlying the communicative language teaching movement are a number of important theoretical principles of language behavior. So today we‘ll study these principles.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第3、4版)笔记和考研真题详解(1-6章)【圣才出品】
第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与特征2.The origin and the function of language语言的起源和功能3.Main branches of linguistics study语言学研究的范围和内容4.Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分本章考点：1.有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、文化传递和互换性)；语言的功能(提供信息、人际交往、施为、表达情感、寒暄、娱乐、元语言)；语言的起源(神授说，人造说(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“哟-嘿-吼”理论)，进化说)等。
2.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别。
(2)语言学研究的四个原则及其简要说明。
语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
本章内容索引：I.Definition of languageII.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Creativity4.Displacement5.Cultural Transmission6.InterchangeabilityIII.Origin of language1.The Biblical account2.The bow-wow theory3.The pooh-pooh theory4.The yo-he-ho theory5.The evolution theoryIV.Functions of languagermative function2.Interpersonal function3.Performative function4.Emotive function5.Phatic function6.Recreational function7.Metalingual functionV.Definition of linguisticsVI.Branches of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsVII.Important concepts and their distinctions1.Descriptive vs.Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs.Diachronicngue vs.Parolepetence vs.Performance5.Etic vs.Emic6.Traditional Grammar vs.Modern Grammar7.Linguistic Potential vs.Actual Linguistic BehaviorI.The definition of language(语言的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has revealed five essential factors of language:systematic,arbitrary,vocal,symbolic语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
《语言学纲要》思考题及答案
1．语言的社会功能包括什么？试作解释。
答：最基本的是信息传递功能，体现在语言上就是内容的表达。
信息传递是社会中人与人交流的基本方式，通过信息交流，人们才可以在社会中分享各自的经验感知，更好的分工协作。
语言社会功能另一个重要的方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，可称为语言的人际互动功能。
互动包括两方面，一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感态度意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。
2.语言和思维的关系。
答：（1）思维离不开语言：没有语言，思维活动不能进行；思维成果无法表达A、从认知学（认识论）角度看：语言是认知的伙伴→固定认识成果B、思维的形成过程和成果都离不开语言形成思维需要语言（词是思维的材料，语法是思维程序）——思维必须在语言材料的基础上进行，语言是思维的工具；思维成果需要通过语言表达记录下来（2）语言离不开思维A、语言是思维的工具，在运用中才有意义。
如果没有思维，无所谓交际。
B、语言中词和句子的意义是思维赋予的，层级关系，组合、聚合与逻辑思维的活动模式相合。
总之，二者相互依存，各以对方的存在为前提。
又相互适应，有思维就有语言。
3.什么是符号？语言符号与现实现象的关系。
答：所谓符号，就是指代某种事物的标记，记号，它是由一个社会的全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的标记和记号。
符号包括了形式和意义两个方面的要素。
关系：现实现象包括客观现实和心理现实。
客观现实是四维时空中外在于人的所有存在，而心理现实是客观现实通过人的认知储存在人的大脑中的各种知识信息。
A．语言符号与心里现实的关系：一方面，语言表达是对心里现实的编码，心理现实是语言符号所要表达的对象；另一方面，心理现实中很大一部分是间接通过语言文字获得的，语言符号也影响着作为心理现实的大脑信息的储存方式。
B．语言符号和客观现实以心理现实为中介。
心理现实存在于客观现实与语言符号之间的人脑中的信息存在状态，它既与客观现实互动，也与语言符号互动。
《语言教学的流派》笔记(可打印修改)
Task-Based Language TeachingDefinitionTask-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching.The relationships between TBLT and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Task-based language teaching:• a logical development of CLT•formed part of the communicative language teaching movement from the 1980s.Eg:◎Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning ◎Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning ◎Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process•The role of tasks has received further support from some researchers in second language acquisition (SLA), who are interested in developing pedagogical applications of SLA.•Task is regarded as the potential building blocks of SLA instruction.•SLA research has focused on the strategies and cognitive processemployed by second language learners•Language learning is believed to depend on immersing students not merely in “comprehensible input” but in tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic and meaningful communication.The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez（1998:17) as :The focus is on process rather than procedure. Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning. Learner learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasksActivities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to achieve in real life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support availablewhat is “task” ?A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map, and giving directions,making a telephone call etc.Nunan (1989:10) offers this definition: the task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. And also have a sense of complexity.•“Task” first appeared in the vocational training practices of the 1950s. Task focus here first derived from training design concerns of military regarding new military technologies and occupational specialties of the period. Task analysis initially focus on solo psychomotor tasks for which little communication or collaboration was involved, and largely manual tasks were translated into training tasks.Task-based training identified several key areas of concern: Analysis of real world task-use situationsThe translation of those into teaching task descriptionsThe detailed design of instructional tasksThe sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teaching Four major categories of team performance function in task-based instructionOrientation function:process for generating and distributing information necessary to task accomplishment to team membersOrganizational function:process necessary for members to coordinate actions necessary for performanceAdaption function:process occurring as a team members adapt their performance to each other to complete the taskMotivational function:defining team objectives and “energizing the group’ to complete the taskWhat is academic task?•The academic task is the mechanism through which the curriculum is enacted for students (Doyle 1983: 161)•Academic tasks are defined as four important dimensions:◎The products students are asked to produce◎The operations they are required to use in order to produce these products◎The cognitive operations required and resources available◎The accountability system involvedDefinition of a Task◆Prabhu: a task is “ an activities which requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.”◆Crookes :a task is “ a piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research.”Willis (1996) proposes six task types built on more or less traditional knowledge hierarchies.listing(列举型任务)work in groups: for a healthy lifestyle, what you should do and shouldn't do. make a list(brainstorming, fact-finding)ordering and sorting(排序与分类型任务)In the lesson of "How to make a milk shake?", disturb the main process, then rearrange them according to the actual ordercomparing (比较型任务）What things are the same at Spring Festival and Christmas Day? What things are different?problem solving(解决问题型任务)think of three low budget solutions to the problem of looking after a cat when the family is absent.sharing personal experiences(分享个人经验型任务)After students plant trees, ask them to talk about the significance of planting trees.creative tasks (创造型任务）work in groups: ask students to discuss their ideal bedroom, and make a sketch, with there be pattern.Pica, Kanagy and Falodun (1993) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that occurs in task accomplishment.Jigsaw tasks(拼图式任务)：These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a whole.Information-gap tasks(信息差型任务)：one set of information--a complementary set of information--negotiate and find out--complete an activityProblem-solving tasks (解决问题型任务): Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. Decision- making tasks(选择决定型任务)：Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.Opinion exchange tasks(交换观点型任务): Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement. Other characteristics of tasks have also been describedone-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or two-way exchange.convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several different goals.collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carryout a task or compete with each other on a task.single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different outcomes are possible.concrete or abstract language: whether the task involves the use of concrete language or abstract language.simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relatively simple or complex cognitive processing.simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are relatively simple or complex.reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a real-world activity or is a pedagogical activity not found in the real world.teacher rolesA central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting ,and /or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence in keeping with learner needs, interests and language skill level.任务型教学的优点:1.注重真实场景下的、以明确目标为导向；它要求学生通过完成任务的学习活动来掌握真实、实用和有意义的语言。
(完整word版)语言学习与语言教学的原则
Principles of Language Learning and TeachingAbout the author of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Principles of language learning and teaching, published in 1994, is a textbook inquiring into the theoretical foundation of language teaching. The author of the book is professor Brown who have studied second language acquisition and second language teaching for many years. He is one of the ac demic leaders in this field. About the aim of Principles of Language Learning and TeachingThe aim of this textbook is to make second language teaching more proper arranged and easy for the readers to understand. What’s more, based on the given theory the author expects the readers to formulate their own realization or theory of the question “ how to learn second language”.About the content of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Actually, when finished reading this book, you will see that this book have mostly fulfilled it’s aim .This book is well organized, it was divided into 11 chapters, among them eight are about language learning. From general to detail, from surface to deep inside, it have well shown us the theory that the main mission of teachers are to lead and help the students to learn second language, there would be no way to identify teaching without knowing about learning. The more teachers know about the rules of language learning process, the better they will do in leading language learners.About the arrangement of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching This book was arranged according to the study topics. As for the conceptions, it have expounded and discussed them in a auger-type. At first, they just lead in the concept without explain it in detail, but as the book goes, all the concepts will be described fully. For example, in the first chapter, the concept behaviorism has been lead in without detailed explain. This concept also be mentioned in chapter two. But the chapter that gives out academic evaluation of behaviorism was chapter four. The same was to many other concepts and topics in this book. The most part I appreciated is the “in the classroom”part. It’s just like a lifelike teacher who tells the teacher-to-be how to do in class as well as puts the theories into practice. This part has well shown the aim of this book, help the readers to practice. By the way, the best part to help fulfill the aim is the “topics and questions for study and discussion” part. This part puts up a few topics to lead the readers to think deeply. As long as the readers think over by themselves, they will formulate their own opinion about principles of language learning and teaching theories.ConclusionAll in all, used as a guider, this book has fulfilled it’s destiny. It has al mostly introduced the principles about language learning and teaching to it’s readers. For further study, one can just chose a topic from this book and search for detailed information as he/she interested in.。
语言学教程第三版 配套笔记
《语言学教程》第三版胡壮麟主编配套笔记Stella 整理Chapter 1 What is language?重点：design features of language ;Why study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.[A] The origins of languageSome speculations of the origins of language:① The divine sourceThe basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language. Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.② The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The ―Yo-heave-ho‖ theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.Onomatopoeic sounds③ The oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication.The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④ Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and transactions Physical adaptation:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language:Interactional: a social function of language.Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and information [B] The properties of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.a) System: combined together according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word ―pen‖ and the thing in the world which it refers toc) V ocal: the primary medium is sound for all languagesd) Human: language is human-specific（交际性与信息性）Communicative vs. Informative:Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate something Informative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sentDesign features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication① Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西② Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compound words③Creativity（创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (novel utterances are continually being created.)④ Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.⑤ Discreteness（可分离性）Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.⑥ Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless.The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.The above 6 properties may be taken as the core features of human language.V ocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of distinguishing it from other systems of communication.[C] The development of written language① pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogramHieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字② Logograms（语标书写法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.―Arbitrariness‖—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence. Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system. Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.③ Syllabic writing（音节书写法）When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)④ Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the RomansLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)⑤ Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?重点：some important distinctions in linguistics[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a major branch of social science. Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.Process of linguistic study: observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theory① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. [B] The scope of linguistics普通语言学General linguistics: the study of language as a whole语音学Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)音韵学Phonology:is essentially the description of the systems and patterns语音of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)形态学Morphology:the study of the way in which are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form句法学Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 语义学Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 抽象语用学Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use使用情境社会语言学Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics① Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveThey represent two different types of linguistic study.规定式Prescriptive---a term used to characterize any approach which attempt to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used. （how they ought to be）描写式Descriptive---to describe the fact of linguistic usage as they are, and not how they ought to be, with reference to some real or imagined ideal state.（how things are）② Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‗state‘ of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development–for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological音韵学的, grammatical语法的and semantic语义学terms.T he description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; thedescription of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. Most grammars are synchronic. That is, they try to give a description of how a language is used at the present day. Diachronic study may recall to us the changes a language has undergone, for example, what phonological, grammatical and semantic changes have taken place from Old English period to the present day English.③ Speech and writing语言和言语Spoken language is primary, not the written1)Historically, speech is prior to writing.2)Genetically, children learn to speak before they are able to write.3）Functionally, spoken form is more important than written form in language use.④ Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)--―father of modern linguistics‖.现代语言学之父现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语。
语言学习与语言教学的原则
difficult
Implications:lateralization of the brain; psychomotor, cognitive, affective and linguistic considerations.
Past tense: separate items: walked, broke, drank
Teaching must enable learners to grasp the five components of communicative competence, but not just the linguistic competence.
Bibliography
Adamson,H.D.1988.Variation Theory and Second Language Aquisition.Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.
Five components of communicative competence(Hedge, 2000) Linguistic competence
Pragmatic competence
Discourse competence Strategetic competence Fluency
Universal
Language and Thought
Imitation
Practice
Input
Discourse
Competence and Performance
What are the language competence and performance? Chomsky(1965) regarded competence as an "idealized" speakerhearer who does not display performance variables.
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第1章语言，语言学习和语言教学
1.1复习笔记
本章要点：
1.The definition of language语言的定义
2.The Grammar Translation Method语法翻译法
本章考点：
1.语言的定义；
2.学习和教学的定义；
3.课堂教学：语法翻译法。
本章内容索引：
Ⅰ.Language
Ⅱ.Learning and teaching
1.Learning
2.Teaching
Ⅲ.The Grammar Translation Method
Ⅰ.Language（语言的定义）
A consolidation of the definitions of language yields the following composite definitions.
nguage is systematic and generative.
nguage is a set of arbitrary symbols.
3.Those symbols are primarily vocal,but may also be visual.
4.The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer.
nguage is used for communication.
nguage operates in a speech community or culture.
nguage is essentially human,although possibly not limited to humans.
nguage is acquired by all people in much the same way-language and language learning both have universal characteristics.
语言的定义可以从以下8个方面来理解：
1.语言是系统的、生成的；
2.语言是一套任意的符号；
3.这些符号主要是声音的，但也可能是视觉的；
4.符号有特定的含义；
5.语言用于交际；
6.语言在语言社区或文化中起作用；
7.语言从根本上来说是人类语言，尽管语言可能不只限于人类世界；
8.人们学习语言的方式大体相似，语言和语言学习具有普遍特征。
Ⅱ.Learning and teaching（学习和教学的定义）
1.Learning（学习）
Breaking down the components of the definition of learning,we can extract domains of research and inquiry:
(1)Learning is acquisition or“getting”.
(2)Learning is retention of information or skill.
(3)Retention implies storage systems,memory,cognitive organization.
(4)Learning involves active,conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the organism.
(5)Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting.
(6)Learning involves some form of practice,perhaps reinforced practice.
(7)Learning is a change in behavior.
学习的定义可以从以下7个方面来理解：
（1）学习是习得或“获得”；
（2）学习是保留信息或技巧；
（3）保留需要存储系统，记忆力，认知结构；
（4）学习包括对有机体的内外事件做出主动的、有意识的关注，并对其做出反应；
（5）学习相对持久，但会遗忘；
（6）学习涉及某些形式的练习，也许是强化练习；
（7）学习是行为的改变。
2.Teaching（教学）
A theory of instruction should specify the following features:
(1)The experiences which most effectively implant in the individual a predisposition toward learning.
(2)The ways in which a body of knowledge should be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner.
(3)The most effective sequences in which to present the materials to be learned.
(4)The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments in the process of learning and teaching.
教学的定义应该包含以下4个方面：
（1）在个体学习的倾向中最有效收获的经验；
（2）将一定量的知识以学习者最容易理解的方式进行组织；
（3）呈现学习材料的最有效的顺序；
（4）学习和教学过程中的奖惩的本质和频率。
Ⅲ.The Grammar Translation Method（语法翻译法）
The major characteristics of Grammar Translation:
1.Classes are taught in the mother tongue,with little active use of the target language.
2.Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3.Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4.Grammar provides the rules for putting words together,and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
5.Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
6.Little attention is paid to the content of texts,which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.
7.Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.。