建筑学毕业设计外文翻译范文
建筑学毕业设计外
文翻译
本科生毕业设计
外文资料翻译
专业建筑学
班级 092班
姓名 XXX
指导教师 XXX
所在学院 XXX
附件 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文
学校建筑规划设计漫谈
在校园内的功能和各种需求亦趋向于多元化，在规划、设计中必须要找出一种合适的方法来适应、符合现在及未来的世界潮流需要。
1、学校的功能和秩序
学校特别是高等学校的功能相对来说是比较复杂的，在规划设计中要充分考虑到学校中的功能分区和教学的秩序，才能做到有合理的设计和良好的规划。
教学区是校园的核心，是校园建设中的最关键的部分。
学校中的一切其它功能均是围绕其进行的。
教学区的布局主要有组团式与网络式两种主要设计方法。
组团式便于院系相对独立地组织教学活动与进行管理，更能适应建校周期较长而分期施工的现实。
“院落”是是中国传统的建筑布局形式，由建筑所围成的庭院形成社交性的公共空间，也有利于学校中的交流。
网络式的发展规划有利于不同的科系在今后的发展中专业更新与规模调整，并可灵活调节教学用房的使用性质，因此被现代的新型校园规划布局所偏爱，它利于当前国内的大学院校、院系合并和学科调整的教学改革大趋势。
学生宿舍生活区是大学校园内又一个重要的组成部分，无论改革后学生生活区社会化管理落实的力度有多大，还是由于扩招
形式的“不是数着床板招生”的局面到何种程度，在当前的实际情况下，新建的大学校园依然需要规划好学生生活区的建设。
当然要充分考虑到如何便于社会化的管理，有利于形成独立的管理系统，为以后的发展留有可能性。
2、学校的交通组织
高等学校交通组织中，首要的是要体现以人为本的思想。
根据教师、学生的心理及行为方式研究各种道路组织、形态和层次，创造一个满足校园使用者的物质和精神上要求的校园环境。
现代校园要求建筑物之间能联络方便、尽量通畅、便捷。
为此，各类建筑物的设计，多采用集中式的布局，建筑群体也多以成团的方式组合，尽量减少楼间的距离几交通路线。
各个相对独立的区域之间，也尽量打通分割界限，室内外都设有方便的连廊和通道，使建筑群体在整体上能联络通畅，达到提高和保证交通、交流、传递、沟通之最佳的效率。
3、学校的环境和可持续发展
环境对于人心理的影响，以及反馈对人情绪的感染，都会产生物质的效应。
人在良好的环境中，在使人精神振奋的条件下，无疑会更多的诱发思想的灵感和智慧的火花，这对教学、科研的作用虽是无形的，但肯定是有效的。
现代的校园的环境设计，应该立足于创造优美高雅有文化的校园环境，以适应人的精神需要，提高人的修养，陶冶人的情操……。
如立体绿化、室外美
术、雕塑、以及精心设计的叠石、草坪、流水、花丛、石灯及小建筑等，在这极富高雅格调、传统与现代交融、给人以美之享受的校园中，师生智慧之火花怎能不奔放呢？
在学校中除了正常的教学、科研工作外，大量的研讨、广泛的交流是十分必要的。
各种研讨和交流，能够是有计划、有组织的，也能够是无计划、无组织的，但往往是后者对参与者的作用是巨大的，而且更加有效。
为此需要创造一个能适应并满足师生们灵活、自由的交流的空间。
如在室内外设置各种适合于师生停留、小憩、谈话的场所、空间、角落，并放置一些桌椅板凳；有条件的地方能够放置自动售货机或小买部、咖啡屋。
这种良好的交流机会，有利于各种信息、情报、知识相互的交流、传递、碰撞，到到智慧的升华。
现代学校建筑要求个体建筑结构体系和内部空间的划分，更加通用化、模数化，以适应灵活、变化的要求。
为适应多功能的需要，教室、研究室、实验室的尺度均较大，可通用、可互换，多采用柱网较大的框架结构体系。
教室的种类不多，但适应性较强，以保证其多用途、多功能的各种教研环节的需要。
在校园的规划设计中也要注意到对环境的保护和可持续发展的问题。
建立即能满足当代人的需要，而又不对将来的发展规律产生破坏的校园。
首先要始终如一的保护环境、维持自然的生态平衡。
校园中不但要有足够的绿化面积，还要积极的促进生态的
良好发展，如校园的生物多样性，水面的净化、保持，以及推进原有山地、湿地的自然发展。
创造新的生态平衡，人造自然环境，制造小气候，充分利用阳关、风、雨等自然资源；使人们能够更好地享受自然、回归自然。
4、校园建筑的单体设计
校园建筑应有校园建筑的特色和品格，探求适应学校的学习生活，反映学生的心理与环境行为的崭新的建筑形式，是建筑师、规划师把握的关键。
校园建筑的风格会给人以强烈的第一印象，更是代代已毕业了的学子们的永久回忆。
校园建筑虽然有比较多的类型，有其各自的特色风格，可是也要注意加强建筑的群体效应，和谐中求统一，统一中再求变化。
在设计时要注重校园建筑的整体性，使其达到和谐统一的良好效果。
高校校园由多个部分组成，不大可能在一期内，一气呵成，由一次投资而建成。
由于方方面面的资金的制约，校园的建设往往周期很长，在规划设计中要做好分期实施的准备和余地。
同时还需考虑到其在建设周期内的合理使用和多种变化的可能性，而且要避免在后期的施工中对正常的教学、科研有过分大的干扰。
学校建筑特别是高等学校建筑往往被列为重点工程，学校及地方领导对其中建筑有着很高的期望值，最注重的就是“标志性”。
在校园建筑中占有主要地位的教学楼，却由于其功能的限制很难能做到体现标志性这一点。
因此相对来说功能限制较小的
图书馆和行政楼就要体现标志性的要求。
校园建筑整体特色形成该校园建筑独特的标志性，而标志性建筑群体的形成最能突出校园建筑的风貌。
主楼则是其标志性建筑群体的主导，占有重要的地位。
(文章来源：中国知网)
外文原文出处：。
建筑设计英文作文范文
建筑设计英文作文范文Architecture Design: The Fusion of Functionality and Aesthetics。
Architecture is not merely about erecting structures; it's a symphony of functionality and aesthetics. It's the art of transforming spaces into experiences, weaving together the practical and the beautiful seamlessly. In this discourse, we delve into the essence of architecture design, exploring how architects merge form and function to create spaces that inspire and enrich lives.At the heart of architecture design lies the concept of functionality. Buildings are not static entities; they are living, breathing organisms that cater to human needs. Whether it's a residential complex, a commercial hub, or a cultural landmark, every structure serves a purpose. Functionality dictates the layout, the spatial arrangement, and the flow of movement within a building. Architects meticulously plan every detail, ensuring that the design enhances usability and efficiency.Take, for instance, the design of a modern office building. The architect considers factors such as natural light, ventilation, and ergonomics to create a conducive work environment. Open floor plans promote collaboration, while designated breakout areas encourage creativity and relaxation. The integration of smart technology streamlines operations, making the workspace both efficient and adaptable.However, functionality alone does not define great architecture. True excellence lies in the harmonious integration of functionality with aesthetics. Architecture is an expression of human creativity, a canvas where form meets emotion. Aesthetics encompass more than just visual appeal; they evoke sensations, stir emotions, and imbue spaces with meaning.Consider the iconic Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, designed by Frank Gehry. Its undulating titanium facade is not merely a structural marvel but a testament to the power of architectural expression. The building's fluid forms evoke a sense ofmovement and dynamism, echoing the spirit of the artworks housed within. Its beauty transcends mere aesthetics; it becomes a symbol of cultural identity and aspiration.In architecture, form follows function, but it also transcends it. The interplay of light and shadow, the rhythm of lines and curves, the texture of materials—all contribute to the sensory experience of space. Architects leverage these elements to evoke specific moods, create focal points, and establish visual hierarchy.Moreover, architecture has the power to shape communities and redefine urban landscapes. Thoughtful design can foster social interaction, promote environmental sustainability, and preserve cultural heritage. From sustainable housing initiatives to revitalization projects in urban slums, architects are catalysts for positive change.In conclusion, architecture design is a delicate dance between functionality and aesthetics. It's about more than just erecting buildings; it's about crafting experiences, shaping identities, and enriching lives. As stewards of the built environment, architects bear the responsibility of creating spaces that inspire, uplift, and endure. In the fusion of form and function, lies the essence of great architecture—a testament to human ingenuity and creativity.。
建筑学专业毕业设计方案外文翻译二44
毕业设计英文资料翻译Tran slati on ofthe En glish Docume nts for Graduati on Desig n课题名称_____________________________________院< 系）_____________________________________专业 _____________________________________姓名 _____________________________________学号 _____________________________________起讫日期 _____________________________________指导教师 _____________________________________2018 年2月25日原文:Abstract：Gree n buildi ng refers to do its best to maximize con servati on of resources (en ergy, land, water, and wood> , protecti ng the environment and reduce polluti on in its life cycle. Provide people with healthy, appropriate and efficient use of space, and nature in harmony symbiosis buildings. Idescribed more details of green building design ' notion, green building ' design, as well as the sig ni fica nee of the concept of gree n buildi ng and improve the effect iven ess an alysis of the exter nal effects of gree n buildi ng measures,Key words green buildings。
(完整版)建筑学本科外文翻译毕业设计论文
本科毕业设计外文翻译题目：德黑兰城市发展学院: 城市建设学院专业: 建筑学学号:学生姓名:指导教师:日期: 二零一一年六月First Chapter：Development of the city of TehranAli MadanipourTehran :the making of a metropolis，First Chapter：Development New York John Wiley，1998，page five to page eleven。
第一章：德黑兰市的发展阿里.马丹妮普尔德黑兰：一个大都市的建造，第一章：德黑兰市的发展，阿1998，第五页到第十一页。
德黑兰市的发展全市已长成了一定的规模性和复杂性，以这样的程度，空间管理需要另外的手段来处理城市组织和不断发展的复杂性，并为城市总体规划做准备。
第二次世界大战后，在盟军占领国家的期间，有一个时期的民主化，在冷战时开始的政治紧张局势之后，它们互相斗争对石油的控制权。
这个时期已经结束于1953年，结果是由政变产生了伊朗王，那个后来担任了25年的行政君主的人。
随着高出生率和农村向城市迁移，德黑兰和其他大城市增长加剧甚至比以前更快地。
到1956年，德黑兰的人口上升到150万，到了1966至300万， 1976至450万，其规模也从1934年46平方公里到1976年的250平方公里。
从石油行业的收入增长创造的盈余资源，需要流通和经济的吸收。
50年代中期，特别是在工业化的驱动下德黑兰许多大城市有了新工作。
20世纪60年代的土地改革释放了大量来自农业的农村人口，这是不能吸收的指数人口增长。
这种新的劳动力被吸引到城市：到新的产业，到似乎始终蓬勃发展建筑界，去服务不断增长公共部门和官僚机构。
德黑兰的角色是国家的行政，经济，文化中心，它坚定而巩固地通往外面的世界。
德黑兰战后的城市扩张，是在管制、私营部门的推动，投机性的发展下进行的。
房屋一直供不应求，并有大量可用的富余劳动力和资本，因此在德黑兰建筑行业蓬勃发展，土地和财产的价格不断上涨。
建筑学毕业外文翻译
（2016届）毕业设计文献翻译题目：姓名：学院：专业：建筑学班级：学号：指导教师：导师学科：导师职称：教务处制年月日嘉兴学院外文文献翻译译文1外文题目：Analysis of and Study on the Difficulties in the Fire ProtectionDesign of Large Commercial Complex专业班级：学生姓名：学号：一、外文原文AbstractFire properties of the large commercial complex has been summarized. Based on the fact that there are contradictions between what is required for the large commercial complex in the fire code and the real application in practice, difficulties in fire protection of designing large commercial complex have been analyzed.Key words:large commercial complex; fire protection design; difficulty; research status 1. IntroductionIn recent years, more and more large commercial complexes have appeared in China. These complexes integrate different businesses into on large building, where customers can do shopping, eat or enjoy themselves. According to the statistics, nearly 200 large complexes in China now have indoor walking street, with different kinds of shops standing along both sides. And what’s more, the indoor walking street shares the large space with the atrium.Generally speaking, the large commercial complex is multi-functional with high fire load and large assembly of people. The mechanism of the occurrence of fire is different from that of the ordinary buildings and the fire loss is also heavier. As a result, this kind of commercial complex needs higher fire safety. However, the current national fire code only gives the minimum requirements. No specific fire safety objectives are provided. Therefore, it is quite important to understand the design and research status of the large commercial complex and to provide safe, reasonable and economical fire design method.2.Characteristics of large commercial complex fire2.1 High fire occurrenceThere are heavy fire loads inside the large commercial complex, which include merchandises like clothes, shoes, hats and combustible decorations. It is widely recognized that electricity is the important factor to cause fire hazard. Therefore, to provide electricity among these combustibles is very dangerous. However, in the large commercial complex, electric systems and equipment are installed to provide electricity for lighting, ventilating and air conditioning. If there is short circuit, spark, poor contact or long time electrifying of the lights or electric heater, fire may be caused. In addition, other factors like improper welding, lighted cigarette ends or arson can cause fire too. 2.2 Quick spread of fire and smokeIf fire occurs in a large commercial complex, it can spread very quickly and grow into a large fire in a short time, while the shelter of the rack usually decrease the sensitivity of the fire detection system and cause delay. As a result, fire can’t be detected and controlled timely. The other reason for quick fire spreading is that the vertical space formed by the atrium and escalators in the complex may help fire and smoke to spread to the whole building.2.3 Large casualties and property lossThe large commercial complex usually accommodates valuable merchandises and facilities. Once there is a fire, big property loss is inevitable. And what’s more fatal is that there are usually large assemblies present. The heavy smoke with CO, CO2, NOx, HCN not only affects the safe and quick evacuation of the people, but also put them in danger. According to the statistics of Japan and UK, the percentage of deaths caused by suffocation in the fire can be as high as 78.9%. As a result of a complicated layout, large assembly of people, long time to evacuate, the large commercial complex is susceptible to fatal fire accidents which usually suffer heavy casualties. For example, on Sept. 30, 1997, a fire occurred in a supermarket on the third floor of a shopping mall in Changchun, Jilin province. It caused 11 deaths and 2 injuries. The burning area reached 4500m2 andmost of the commodities inside the supermarket were burnt. The direct property loss was RMB 14,611,000 Yuan.3.Analysis of difficulties in fire protection design of large commercial complexComparing with the ordinary building, the commercial complex is large and usually multi-functional. During the construction, new materials, technologies and structures are employed, which often bring about difficulties in its fire protection design.3.1 There are no applicable requirements for the fire protection design of the complex in the current national fire codeFor the fire protection design of a large commercial complex, the current national standard has covered the following points:（1）the building style and the distribution of business operations inside the complex; （2 ）the style of the indoor walking street;（3 ）how to determine the fire load of the complex;（4）if the walking street inside the complex can be used as a safe evacuation area? If yes, what kind of conditions should be provided;（5）the occupancy density, fire fighting equipment, smoke control pattern as well as other important design parameters;（6）the size and separation of the shops along the both sides of the walking street.3.2 There are limitations in the fire code for the fire designing of the large commercial complexHere just gives an example to illustrate the limitation. The requirements for the evacuation of the people in “Code for design of shop buildings”JGJ48-88 can’t meet the need of the evacuation system of the large commercial complex. Personnel convert quantity in JGJ48-88 is based on the business area and the area of the storage, which is totally unfit for the new layout of a complex with modern ideas and novelties. The evacuation width calculated according to the method given in JGJ48-88 is usually too big. As a result, more staircases will be required, which not only brings great difficulties in the designing of the evacuation system, but also create enormous waste. At the sametime, the layout, structure as well as the aesthetic quality of the complex will be affected too.[68~70] Therefore, it is improper to determine the evacuation width or other parameters according to the calculation method given in the current standard.3.3 Some of the requirements in the current code can’t be implemented easily in the fire protection design of large commercial complex（1）Fire compartmenttion.It is required in the current fire code that the fire compartment of the commercial buildings shall not be larger than 5000m2. However, the building area of a large commercial complex is usually as big as hundreds of thousands of square meters. If the fire compartment is divided strictly according to the requirements of the fire code, many many fire compartments, staircases and exits will be provided. The result of this is that the arrangements of the business area will be greatly affected and the function of the complex will be completely limited.（2）Fire separation.The typical problem for the fire protection design of large commercial complex is that its travel distance and evacuatio n width can’t meet the requirements of the code.“Code for design of building fire protection and prevention” GB 50016-2006 requires that the linear distance between any point in the shopping areas inside the Class A and Class B buildings and the nearest exit should not be larger than 30m; when the building is protected completely by sprinkler system, the maximum safe travel distance shall be 37.5m; the end of the staircase on the first floor shall be provided with exit directly leading to outdoor or shall be enlarged. When the building is not more than 4 stories, the exit directly leading to outdoor can be located at the place that is not more than 15m away from the staircase. But in practice, it is not enough for large commercial complex to provide emergency staircases only at the periphery of the building because the complex is usually quite long and deep. Therefore, more staircases shall be provided in the middle. According to the requirements of the fire code, these staircases in the middle part of the building must have exits directly leading to the outdoor, which is completely out of the question.“Code for fire protection design of tall buildings” GB 50045-95(2005 edition) requires that the linear distance between any point in the shopping areas and the nearest exit should not be larger than 30m. In practice, the emergency staircases of the high-rise commercial buildings are also provided at the periphery of the building. The linear distance between the least favorable point to the nearest staircase is often larger than 30m. But in order to meet the requirement of the tall building code, staircases in the middle of the building must be provided. However, the staircases in the middle of the building can’t directly lead to outside.（3）Fire fighting.Both “Code for design of building fire protection and prevention” and “Code for fire protection design of tall buildings” require that where the length of the building along the street is more that 150m or the total length of the building is more than 220m, a well situated fire vehicle access shall be provided to cross the building. For large commercial complex, it is quite difficult to provide fire vehicle access to cut the building apart. Therefore, in practice, many designers propose to use the walking street as the fire vehicle access, but it can’t meet the fire fighting need of the fire vehicles.4.Current research status at home and abroadCurrently in China, the researches on the fire protection design of large commercial complex mainly focus on the analysis of some fire protection system.Zhao Hualiang analyzed the commonly used index and parameters of evacuation design. Parameters used for design of evacuation system of large commercial complex such as number of people, evacuation width, travel distance as well as emergency lighting have been discussed.Aim at the difficulties in designing of the fire partition in commercial construction, Zheng Yanqiu analyzed the general requirements for the design of the sunk plaza, fire compartment, protected evacuation passage and atrium. The application of cesium and kalium fire protection glass and toughened glass protected by water sprinkler as the fire partition was also studied.Guo Jinjun and Zhao Lijun introduced the difficulties in the designing of water based fire fighting systems as well as the solution.Guo Xiaolong and Wang Lingjian introduced a method to solve the problem of fire separation of a large commercial complex as well as atrium smoke extraction by separating inner atrium and horizontal sliding skylight.“Code for fire protection design of large commercial complex in Chongqing” provides a method to calculate the width of exit and series of parameters that are applicable for Chongqing city. In the code, the concept of calculating the width of the exit based on the fire compartment was put forward for the first time. The requirements that the exit can be borrowed or shared by the adjoining fire compartments are provided and the calculation method to calculate this kind of exit is given. For the shopping malls with quite many stories above ground, this local code of Chongqing introduces the concept of “refuge space”, which provides favorable conditions for the emergent evacuation of the people.Aiming at the problems in the requirement of the fire code-“if the building area of an underground shopping mall is larger than 20000m2, fire wall shall be used to separate it and there shall be no openings in the fire wall”, Kang Dasheng and Wang Jinling suggested to provide a so-called “open fire isolating area” (sunk space) and “closed fire isolating area” . They also suggested to provide an emergency passageway less than 55m long on the first underground floor to directly lead to the outside of the building. For those large space areas like the atrium and indoor walking street, they suggested to install intelligent sprinkler system especially for large space areas.The above mentioned researches mainly focus on the problems in the design of the commercial buildings. Solutions from the experiences during design, review and construction have been proposed, but they are not complete and thorough. The results can’t be generalized.Some foreign building and fire codes have some requirements for the fire protection of commercial buildings. For example, building code of Canada, fire code of Singapore, building code of New Zealand and the “Uniform Building Code” of NFPA etc. However,these requirements are mainly applicable to ordinary shops, not the large commercial complexes in China.5.ConclusionIn order to solve so many practical problems encountered in the fire protection design of the large commercial complex, to evaluate the fire safety performance of this kind of building scientifically, and to define the scientific, reasonable and economic fire safety system, it is necessary to study the key technology of fire protection based on the practical fire loads and occupant density in the large commercial complex in China. Through this research, the related technical requirements of fire protection design were determined, and the scientific, reasonable and economical method of fire protection design was proposed. It is very important to understand the method and to prevent the occurrence of fire so as to safeguard the life safety and reduce property loss.References[1]Fire Bureau of MPS. Anthology of disastrous fire cases of China,2008.[2]LI Yin-qing. Performance Design for Building Fire Protection. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press.2005.141~171.[3]LI Yu. Study on Performance-based Fire Protection Design of Large Sho pping Centre. MA thesis of Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology,2005.[4]ZOU He. The key technology research for performance-based design of underground commercial building. Engineering Master Degree Dissertation of Chongqing University,2007.[5]LI Xin, GU Yu. Discussion on the problems in the evacuation design of large commercial complex.. Fire Technology and Products Information,2007,12,31~33.[6]Chongqing Construction Committee. DBJ 50-054-2006 Code for fire protection design of large-scale commercial buildings of Chongqing,2006.[7]HUO Ran, YUAN Hong-yong. Performance-based Fire Protection Design and Analysis.Hefei:Anhui Science & Technology Publishing House, 2003.[8]ZHAO Wei. Evaluation of performance-based design on giant commercial building.Fire Science and Technology, 2009,28(11),817~819.[9]The Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China. GB50016-2006 Code of Design on Building Fire Protection and Prevention. Beijing: China Planning Press,2006.[10]The Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China. GB50045-95 Code for fire protection design of tall buildings(2005Edition).Beijing: China Planning Press,2005.[11]Civil Air Defence Office of China, The Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of Chi na. GB 50098-2009 Code for fire protection design of civil air defense works. Beijing:China Planning Press,2009.[12]Central-south Architectural Design Institute. Code for Design of Shop Buildings(draft) JGJ 48-88. Beijing:China Architecture & Building Press,1988.[13]LIN Feng. Studies on the Fire Safe of Large-scale Commercial Buildings. MA thesis of Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology,2009.[14]ZHAO Hua-liang. Discussion on Safe Evacuation from Commercial Buildings.Fire Technology and roducts Information,2005,2,9~11.[15]JING Jian-sheng, NI Zhao-peng, ZHUANG Jing-yi. Calculation method of the number of safe egress occupants in commercial building.Fire Science and Technology,2003,22(5),351~353.[16]ZHANG Shu-ping, JING Ya-jie. Research of evacuation crowd in the business hall of large department stores. Fire Science and Technology,2004,23(2),133~136.[17]QI Xiao-xia, PAN Jing. Research of evacuation crowd in the large specialized stores. Fire Science and Technology,2005,24(1),60~64.[18]YAN Xiao-long,WANG Ling-jian. Fire protection design of large-scale commercial building. Fire Science and Technology,2007.26(5),523~525.[19]ZHENG Yan-qiu. Analysis of fire protection separate design in commercial construction [J]. Fire Science and Technology,2009,28(1),43~46.[20]GUO Jin-jun, ZHAO Li-jun. Design difficulties and solutions for water fire-extinguishing system in the mall [J]. Water & Wastewater Engineering,2008,7(34),86~88.[21]GUO Sheng-you, LIU Mei-mei. Idea and characteristic of code for the fire prevention design of large-scale commercial buildings of Chongqing [J]. Fire Science and Technology, 2007, 26(1), 49~51.[22]KANG Da-sheng, WANG Jin-ling. The Measures of Large-Scale Shop Fire Prevention Designing [J]. Journal of Chinese People's Armed Police Force Academy,2008,24(10),15~17.[23]National Research Council of Canada.National Building Code of Canada[S].2005ˈVolume 1.[24]Singapore Civil Defence Force.Singapore Fire Code[S].[25]NFPA. NFPA1 Fire Code 2009 Edition[S],2009.[26]R.L.P. Custer & B. J. Meacham. Introduction To Performance based Fire Safety. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1997.[27]SFPE engineering guide to performance–based fire protection:analysis and design of buildings.First Edition,National Fire Protection Association,Society of Fire Protection Engineers,USA,2000.[28]British Standards Institution. Draft British standard BSDD240 fire safety engineering in building,Part l: Guide to the application office safety engineering Principles,1997.[29]Building Code of Australia, Australia Building Code Board, October 1996.[30]Hadjisophocleous GV,Benichou N.Development of performance-based codes, performance criteria and fire safety engineering methods.International Journal on Engineering Performance-based Fire Code, 2000, 2(4), 127~142.二、翻译结果分析与研究大型商业综合体中消防难点的设计摘要总结了大型商业综合体的火灾特性。
建筑学毕业设计英文翻译
建筑学毕业设计英文翻译Graduation Design of ArchitectureIntroductionThe key focus of the graduation design project is urban renewal, and the project site is located in a rundown area of the city center. The overall goal of the project is to provide a comprehensive plan for the urban renewal of this area, which is currently occupied by old and deteriorating buildings, and to create a vibrant and sustainable neighborhood.Research BackgroundUrban renewal is an ongoing challenge for many cities around the world, with a significant proportion of city centers struggling with abandoned and aging buildings. This not only results in negative visual impacts but also poses potential safety and health risks to residents. Furthermore, such areas are often perceived as unsafe, deterring investors from establishing businesses in the neighborhood. Thus, urban renewal projects are perceived not only as social projects but also as an economic tool to attract enterprises and create jobs.Design ApproachIn addressing the urban renewal challenge, the graduation design project adopts a multidisciplinary approach, which combines architecture, sustainability, and urban planning principles. The core idea is to revitalize the area and provide a multifunctional and harmonious living and working environment for residents and businesses.Design ProposalThe proposed urban renewal comprises three major components: revitalization of buildings, improvement of public spaces, and promotion of sustainable strategies.Revitalization of BuildingsThe renovation of old and deteriorating buildings and the conversion of redundant buildings into new commercial, cultural, and residential spaces is one of the main objectives of the project. These buildings will be transformed into modern, energy-efficient, and trendy spaces. The overall aim is to bring a fresh and exciting look to the area, which will enhance the liveability and attractiveness of the neighborhood.Improvement of Public SpacesPublic spaces are vital in creating a sense of community, socializing, and promoting physical activity. The project will include the creation of new parks, squares, and green spaces, which are designed to provide a balanced mix of recreational and functional spaces. This approach will encourage social interaction and physical activity while providing a safe environment for children to play.Promotion of Sustainable StrategiesSustainability is a critical aspect of the project. The proposals will include the use of renewable energy sources, the implementation of rainwater harvesting systems, green roofs, and the recycling of waste materials. These strategies are expected to contribute to the reduction of the neighborhood's carbon footprint, increasing the ecological value of the urban environment, and promoting social responsibility.ConclusionThe proposed urban renewal design for the project site addresses the challenges of a deteriorating urban center while ensuring social, economic, and environmental sustainability. This design proposal provides a comprehensive and holistic solution to urban renewal, creating a vibrant, functional, and sustainable neighborhood.。
建筑设计毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献Architecture StructureWe have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic, preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic consideration s .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic of his or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift toapproximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasis will be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specific form of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.1.Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice ofconcrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.2. EarthworkBecause earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with thedragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.The disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m ³ heaped. The largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m ³struck capacity ( 25 m ³ heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m ³, and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m ³. Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m ³ and the articulated type of about 0.5 m ³. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks.3.Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also asunserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. Ther e are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );(2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults andimperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4) Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .文献翻译建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。
建筑工程技术专业毕业作业范文
建筑工程技术专业毕业作业范文（中英文实用版）Title: Example of Graduation Project for Architectural Engineering Technology MajorThe graduation project is an essential part of the Architectural Engineering Technology program.It serves as a platform for students to demonstrate their understanding and application of the knowledge and skills acquired throughout their studies.This example of a graduation project provides a comprehensive guide for students to develop their own projects.毕业设计是建筑工程技术专业学生展示自己对这个专业知识和技能掌握及运用的重要环节。
本文将提供一份建筑工程技术专业毕业设计的范例，供学生参考。
In this example, a student has chosen to focus on the design and implementation of a sustainable building.The project begins with a thorough analysis of the site, taking into consideration factors such as climate, topography, and surrounding environment.This analysis helps to inform the design decisions for the building, ensuring that it is well-suited to its location.在这个范例中，学生选择以设计并实施一个可持续建筑作为毕业设计主题。
建筑类毕业设计之--外文翻译
译文标题东西方的会合原文标题WEST MEETS WAET作者MIES VAN DER ROHE 译名密斯·凡·德·罗国籍德国原文出处密斯·凡·德·罗导读系列日本人安藤忠雄的建筑是当代建筑神话的绝佳范例。
他的建筑和平而静谧：它们是敏感的，同时又保持着朴素的、自然的要素。
然而，恰恰又是这朴素给虚空之美赋予了生命。
只有借助超乎寻常的专注，以及与古典主义密切相联的深思熟虑的专业训练，才能创造出这样的虚空之美。
“材料、结构与设计”是一条引人实现上述美学含义的途径——在心有灵犀的宁静气氛中，这种美学含义仿佛是卓有成效，然而又出乎意料的呼唤，使得无论建筑的使用这还是旁观者，都会稍作停留并发现内在的和平，进而被吸引到世界的本质的和谐当中。
感觉自己是宇宙的一部分，是开敞空间与自由的一部分，这种东方建筑的显著特色，已经深深地融入了现代主义的核心。
关注人类思想和行为的东方文化引导我们进入冥想世界。
日本的禅宗不仅以强调朴素和自然而闻名，还以专注于沉思和日常生活的感受而著称。
有充分的理由表明，在安藤忠雄的建筑方案中蕴含的创造激情同样源于类似的精神观，并表露出一种非比寻常的敏感。
我们在密斯的作品中已经遇到了这种现象。
凭借这样的精神观，建筑就能触及到人性的根本——全部人性——并创造出一种超凡脱俗的高贵和美丽的感觉。
对于短暂的、难以存在的方式，安藤忠雄的基本观点同样与东方的思想保持一致，就如他寻觅一种几乎是抽象的，或者说至少是解放的然而又是动态的设计一般。
不过不管建筑的组织方式再怎么变化或开放，他创造的空间所特有的形式上的和美学上的协调，都反反复复提醒我们那句禅宗格言：“万物生一，一生万物”。
亭的意义无言的建筑——“无”中生“有”亭——即现代拉丁语中“papilio”，意为愉悦的帐篷——是独立的建筑物，它朝多个方向敞开，并成为约定俗成的与自然景观或园林相关的事物。
植被，蜿蜒的流水以及与之相称的围墙，是来自周围环境的美学要素，它们更衬托出亭的美。
建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文
建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：《Advanced Encryption Standard》文献、资料发表（出版）日期:2004.10.25系（部）：建筑工程系生：陆总LYY外文文献：Modern ArchitectureModern architecture, not to be confused with Contemporary architecture1, is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.1. OriginsSome historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions.Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his "fireproof design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, πDark satanic millsπof places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan∙ Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright,s Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner,s Second Goetheanum, built from1926 near Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities- The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.2. Modernism as Dominant StyleBy the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.Frank Lloyd Wright r s career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modem Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as πmachines for living,∖but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines- Even Philip Johnson admitted he was πbored with the box∕,Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a πstyleπthat threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin ,,At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion/1At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question πModern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?11In New York, the coup d r etat appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of πair rights,∖[l] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to ,,severπthe Park Avenue streetscape and πtarnishπthe reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and thebuilders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.中文译文:现代建筑现代建筑，不被混淆与‘当代建筑’，是一个词给了一些建筑风格有类似的特点，主要的简化形式,消除装饰等.虽然风格的设想早在20世纪,并大量造就了一些建筑师、建筑教育家和展品，很少有现代的建筑物，建于20世纪上半叶.第二次大战后的三十年，但最终却成为主导建筑风格的机构和公司建设.1起源一些历史学家认为进化的现代建筑作为一个社会问题，息息相关的工程中的现代性, 从而影响了启蒙运动，导致社会和政治革命.另一些人认为现代建筑主要是靠技术和工程学的发展，那就是获得新的建筑材料，如钢铁，混凝土和玻璃驱车发明新的建筑技术，它作为工业革命的一部分.1796年，Shrewsbury查尔斯bage首先用他的‘火’的设计，后者则依靠铸铁及砖与石材地板.这些建设大大加强了结构，使它们能够容纳更大的机器.由于作为建筑材料特性知识缺乏,一些早期建筑失败.直到1830年初，伊顿Hodgkinson预计推出了型钢梁，导致广泛使用钢架建设，工业结构完全改变了这种窘迫的面貌,英国北部领导的描述，〃黑暗魔鬼作坊〃的地方如曼彻斯特和西约克郡.水晶宫由约瑟夫paxton的重大展览，1851年,是一个早期的例子, 钢铁及玻璃施工；可能是一个最好的例子，就是1890年由William乐男爵延长和路易沙利文在芝加哥附近发展的高层钢结构摩天楼.早期结构采用混凝土作为行政手段的建筑表达（而非纯粹功利结构），包括建于1906年在芝加哥附近，劳埃德赖特的统一宫，建于1926 年瑞士巴塞尔附近的鲁道夫斯坦纳的第二哥特堂,.但无论原因为何，约有1900多位建筑师，在世界各地开始制定新的建筑方法,将传统的先例（比如哥特式）与新的技术相结合的可能性.路易沙利文和赖特在芝加哥工作,维克多奥尔塔在布鲁塞尔，安东尼高迪在巴塞罗那，奥托瓦格纳和查尔斯景mackintosh格拉斯哥在维也纳，其中之一可以看作是一个新与旧的共同斗争.2现代主义风格由1920年代的最重要人物，在现代建筑里确立了自己的名声.三个是公认的柯布西耶在法国，密斯范德尔德罗和瓦尔特格罗皮乌斯在德国.密斯范德尔德罗和格罗皮乌斯为董事的包豪斯，其中欧洲有不少学校和有关团体学习调和工艺和传统工业技术.赖特的建筑生涯中，也影响了欧洲建筑的现代艺术,特别是通过瓦斯穆特组合但他拒绝被归类与他们.赖特与格罗皮乌斯和Van der德罗对整个有机体系有重大的影响.在1932年来到的重要moma展览,是现代建筑艺术的国际展览，艺术家菲利普约翰逊. 约翰逊和合作者亨利-罗素阁纠集许多鲜明的线索和趋势，内容相似,有一个共同的目的, 巩固了他们融入国际化风格这是一个重要的转折点.在二战的时间包豪斯的代表人物逃到美国，芝加哥，到哈佛大学设计黑山书院.当现代建筑设计从未成为主导风格单一的住宅楼，在成为现代卓越的体制和商业建筑，是学校（专业领导）的唯一可接受的，设计解决方案，从约1932年至约1984 年.那些从事国际风格的建筑师想要打破传统建筑和简单的没有装饰的建筑物。
建筑毕业设计外文翻译---建筑材料—混凝土与砂浆
CONCRETE AND MORTAR1. Early History of Cement and ConcreteShelter from the very beginning of man/ existence, has demanded the application Of the best , available technology of the contemporary era. In the earliest ages, structures consisted of rammed earth, or stone blocks laid one on another without benefit of any bonding or cementing medium. Stability of the stone structures depended on the regular setting of the heavy stones , The earliest masonry probably consisted of sun-dried clay bricks, set in regular courses in thin layers of moist mud. When the moist mud dried, a solid clay wall resulted. Construction: of this kind was common in the dry desert areas of the world.Burnt gypsum as a cementing material was developed early in the Egyptian period and was apparently used in construction of some of the pyramids. Later the Greeks and Romans discovered methods of burning limestone to produce quicklime which was subsequently slaked for use in making mortar. Both the Greeks and the Romans learned that certain fine soil or earth, when mixed with the lime and the sand, produced a superior cementing material. The Greek material, a volcanic tuff from the island of Santorin , is still used in that part Of the world. The best of the materials used by the Romans was a tuff or ash from the vicinity of Pozzuoli near Mt. V esuvius, hence the name “pozzolan”used to identify a certain type of mineral admixture used in concrete today.The cement produced by the Romans was a hydraulic cement, that is, it had the capability of hardening under water. Many of the Roman structures were constructed of a form of concrete, using these materials, and stone masonry was bonded with a mortar similarly composed.During the Middle Ages of history, the art of making good mortar was nearly lost, the low point having been reached in about the llth century, when much inferior material was used. Quality of the lime started to improve at this time and in the 14th century or later the use of pozzolans was again practised.One of the most famous projects of the comparatively recent period was the construction of the new Eddystone Lighthouse off the coast of England in 1757--59. John Smeaton, the engineer and designer of the structure, investigated many materials and methods of bonding the stones for the building.Engineering and scientific development was beginning to move rapidly at this time, and many researchers in several countries were investigating cementing agents made from gypsum, limestoneand other natural materials. One discovery was a method of making a cement by burning a naturally occurring mixture of lime and clay. properties of the natural cement were very erratic because of variations in the proportions in the natural material, although use of this natural cement continued for many years.In 1824 Joseph Aspdin , a brickmason of Leeds, England, took out a patent on a material he called Portland cement, so called because concrete made with it was supposed to resemble the limestone quarried near Portland, England. Aspdin is generally credited with inventing a method of proportioning limestone and clay, burning the mixture at high temperature to produce clinkers, then grinding the clinkers to produce a hydraulic cement. His small kiln, producing about 16 tons of clinker at a time, required several days/or each burn. Expansion and development of cement manufacturing was slow for a number of years. About 1850, however, the industry had become well established not only in England, but also in Germany and Belgium.Shipments to the United States were started in 1868 and reached a peak about 1895, at which time production was well under way in the United States.Meanwhile the United States production of natural cement had been started early in the 19th century as a result of the demand for cement for construction of the Erie Canal and related works. Subsequent development of the rotary kiln led to large scale production of cement throughout the world.The use of concrete was expanded by the construction of railroads, bridges ,buildings and street pavements. Research in reinforcing concrete with steel rods had been started in France, and the year 1875 saw first use of reinforced concrete in the United States. Much'of the concrete at this time contained barely enough water to enable the concrete to be rammed into place by the application of much hand labor. There then ensued a period of wet concrete in which the concrete was flowed into place. Many users of concrete, however, realized the folly of wet mixes, and about 1920 Duff Abrams revealed the results of his research and observations. He stated that the quality of concrete was directly affected by the amount of water in relation to the amount of cement ; within reasonable limits, the quality of the concrete decreases as the water-cement ratio goes up. This has become one of the basic laws of concrete technology.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete and Its Water-Cement RatioConcrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, sand, and crushed gravel or stone. The waterand cement form a cement paste in which the sand and stone or gravel are mixed. The sand and stone or gravel together make up the aggregate of a concrete mixture. The aggregate serves no structural function. It is merely ,a filler that adds low-cost bulk to the cement paste; it usually makes up about 75 percent of a given mass of concrete, by volume, although a poor aggregate can reduce the strength of a batch of concrete considerably, good aggregate adds only slightly to the strength of the cement.The two principal advantages of concrete as a construction material are its relative cheapness and the ease with which it can be handled and placed while it is in the plastic state.The principal structural advantages of concrete are its great compressive strength and its durability , Concrete can withstand very high compressive loads. This is what makes concrete so suitable for the foundations, walls, and columns of buildings, and for driveways and walks as well.The principal structural disadvantage of concrete is its poor tensile strength. That is, it cannot withstand pulling or bending loads without cracking or breaking. For this reason, steel rods, or reinforcement steel, are often embedded in concrete, the reinforcement steel providing the tensile strength the concrete lacks. Concrete with reinforcement steel embedded in it is reinforced concrete.In addition to its poor tensile strength, concrete, like most construction materials, expands in hot weather and when wet and contracts in cold weather and as it dries out. Unless these movements are allowed for during construction, the concrete will crack.And, contrary to common belief, solid concrete is not impervious to water. Some moisture will migrate into the best-made concrete. But if the concrete should be excessively porous ,which can happen if too much water has been used in mixing it, moisture can easily enter the concrete after it has cured. If this moisture should be present within the concrete when cold weather comes, the moisture may freeze, which may result in serious frost damage to the structure.Despite these limitations, concrete is an inherently strong and durable construction material. If the proportions of water, cement, and aggregate are carefully calculated and if the concrete is placed and allowed to cure according to simple but definite rules, it is possible to obtain from the concrete all the strength and durability that is inherent in it.The ratio of water to cement in a batch of concrete is the principal determinant of the concrete's final strength. At one time the instructions for preparing a batch of concrete would have contained proportions such as 1:2:4, indicating that 1 part of Portland cement to 2 parts of sand to 4 parts of gravel by volume were to be mixed together, after which sufficient water was to be added to obtain aworkable mixture. This procedure ignored entirely the importance of the water-cement ratio. It also resulted very often in the preparation or a very weak concrete, since the natural tendency is to add enough water to make placement of the concrete as easy as possible-the sloppier the better, as far as the workmen are concerned. This manner of specifying the proportions of concrete is obsolete and should never be followed.In theory, it takes only 3 gal of water to hydrate completely 1 cu ft of cement. (A sack of cement contains 1 cu ft exactly, and the sack weighs 94 lb). But this water-cement ratio produces a mixture that is too stiff to be worked. In practice, therefore, additional water, between 4 and 8 gal per sack of cement, is used to obtain a workable mixture.But the greater the proportion of water in a water-cement ratio, the weaker the final concrete will be. The additional water that is necessary to achieve a workable batch will only evaporate from the concrete as the concrete sets, and it will leave behind in the concrete innumerable voids. This is the reason there will always be some porosity in concrete. When an excessive amount of water has been used, there will be an excessive number of voids, which may cause the concrete to leak badly. If these voids should be filled with moisture when cold weather comes, they will cause the frost damage alluded to above.As a general rule, therefore, 6 gal of water per sack of cement should be the maximum amount used for making concrete; and the less the amount of water that is used, the stronger the concrete will be. Also included in the 6 gal is whatever surface moisture is contained in the sand that is part of the aggregate.3.MortarMortar is a mixture of a cementitious material (which may be portland cement or lime or both) and sand. When water is added to these ingredients, the result is a plastic substance that is used to bind together bricks, tiles, concrete blocks, and other kinds of masonry units. After the mortar has set, the masonry units are bound together by the ,mortar in such a way that they form a single structural unit.Mortar is closely related to other cementitious materials such as concrete, plaster, and stucco, but it would be a mistake to confuse mortar with these other materials or attempt to use them as a substitute for mortar; the properties required of each are distinctive and differ from the others.By a mistaken analogy with a chain and its weakest link, it is a common belief that for anymasonry construction to be strong, the mortar must be strong also. V ery often, for example, a person who is familiar with concrete will infer that mortar, being a cementitious material like concrete, should have properties similar to those of concrete and be mixed and used in much the same way. w Since, for example, concrete has, or should have, a high compressive strength, mortar should have a high compressive strength also. But the primary function of mortar is to bind the masonry units together, not to resist compressive loads or add to the strength of the masonry units.A great many tests have been made of brick walls built with mortars having a wide range of strength characteristics. ~ These tests show uniformly that a brick wall is strongest when the mortar used to bind the brick is weaker than the brick. Indeed, the mortar can be substantially weaker than the brick Without much affecting the overall strength of the construction. As long as the mortar is strong enough to resist the erosive effects of the weather and of freezing water, it is strong enough for use in the ordinary exterior wall.But suppose for the sake of argument that a brick wall has been built using a mortar that does have a compressive strength greater than that of the brick. ~Any stress this wall may be subjected to-the result of the settlement of the soil under the wall, say-will cause the brick to fracture along the line of greatest stress. This fracture will run in a single jagged crack right through the brick, from the top of the wall to the bottom.But when the mortar is weaker than the brick, as it should be, any stresses in the construction will be absorbed entirely by the mortar. The mortar will absorb these stresses in the form of a multitude of minute cracks invisible to the eye that leaves the basic strength of the construction unimpaired. The overall appearance of the wall and its structural integrity will be unchanged.Masonry constructions can, however, suffer from another type of failure. Sometimes stresses are relieved by a separation of the mortar from the brick. The result is a zig-zag crack through the mortar that follows the brick pattern. What has happened here is that the bond between the brick and the mortar was too weak, a consequence either of ignorance or poor workmanship, or both, since the last thing that should happen in a well-made masonry wall is for there to be a poor bond between the masonry units and the mortar. Either the mortar was incorrectly proportioned and mixed or it was improperly applied to the brick, or both,Freshly prepared mortar in which the cement, lime, and sand are accurately proportioned and mixed with the requited amount of water has a quality called workability or, sometimes, plasticity. Workability is as difficult to describe in words as the consistency of pancake batter or soft butter, butfresh mortar that doesn't have this quality will be incapable of bonding masonry units together as tightly as they should be, A workable mortar can be spread with a trowel smoothly, evenly, and without effort. The mortar has a cohesive quality that enables it to hold its shape and keeps it from falling of its own weight when it is troweled onto the side of a brick. A workable mortar has a give to it that enables a bricklayer to bed masonry units solidly into place. One can say that on a microscopic scale a workable mortar makes such intimate contact with the surface of a masonry unit that the bond between the mortar and the masonry unit is as strong as possible.建筑材料—混凝土与砂浆一、水泥与混凝土的早期历史自从人类开始存在时起，人的住处一直要求应用每个时代所能提供的最好的技术。