英语文体学教程Chapter Nine
语言学教程 第三版 第九章 文体学
9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning 9.3.4 Conventional Forms of Metre and Sound
9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre 9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry? 9.4 The Language in Fiction 9.4.1 Fictional prose and point of view 9.4.2 Speech and thought presentation 9.4.3 Prose style 9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction? 9.5 The Language in Drama 9.5.1 How should we analyse drama?
9.5.2 Analysing dramatic language
9.5.3 How to analyse dramatic texts? 9.6 The cognitive approach to literature 9.6.1 Theoretical background 9.6.2 An example of cognitive analysis
language of literary texts can enhance our appreciation of the different systems of language, because the
literary texts often reveal the nature of the language in which they are written.
中华英语 As a branch of linguistics, stylistics also develops with and is influenced by the other schools and trends of linguistic study. The 1960s was a decade of formalism, the 1970s a decade of functionalism, the 1980s a decade of discourse stylistics, and the 1990s a decade in which socio-historical and socio-cultural stylistic studies are a main preoccupation. (Carter and Simpson, 1989) In addition to this, there is a trend of "pluralheads development‖ (Shen, 2000), i.e. different schools of stylistics compete for development and new schools emerge every now and then. The cognitive approach to literature is a case in point.
《英语文体学》前七章总结
《英语文体学》前七章总结第一章：关于文体学。
文体学是一门研究语言风格的学科，我们所讲的是现代文体学，其又分为一般文体学和文学文体学。
前者主要是各种文体的一般特征，后者是各种文学作品的特别特征，两者研究有重叠。
语言是人们进行社交的工具，包括：言语行为，言语事件和文本。
言语事件包括三要素：实体，形式和情境。
语言具有多样性，不同的场合使用不一样的语言，承担着不同的功能，如语言的指示功能，表达功能和文本功能。
风格，是个人或群体的语言使用习惯。
学习文体学使我们对不同的语言特色或风格有个系统的知识，熟悉不同文学题材的不同特点，深化我们对文学作品的理解力和欣赏力。
此外，文体学给翻译和语言教学也提供了有效地方法。
文体学作为一门学科并不是独立存在的，它与多个学科如修辞学，文学评论等有着密切的关系。
第二章：文体学学习的必要性。
文体学作为一门研究语言风格的学科，分析不同的语言特色。
系统学习文体学，有助于培养表达的准确感。
在不同的场合使用不同的语言。
这对学外语的学生尤为重要；文体学有助于提高我们对文学作品的理解力和欣赏力。
通过对文本的研究。
涉及到描写，理解文章体裁特点和艺术表现力，这一过程就是提高我们理解和欣赏的过程；文体学有助于翻译保有原作的原滋原味。
通过分析通篇的风格，包括词，句子的特征，修辞，陈述方式以及文章的主题译者可以更好的把握原文的特色，使得译文在思想上，风格上更贴近原文，有其韵味。
第三章：语言变体文体学把语言变体主要分为方言变体和语域变体。
前者是由于不同的地域风俗习惯形成的，而后者是由于场合的不同而形成的。
方言变体和语域变体是相互依存的。
方言变体又分为：个人习语，即个人用语习惯；短暂性方言，每个时代的有其特别的语言特点，语言是时代的烙印；地域方言，不同地域的不同方言，每个地方读有其不同的说话习惯；社会方言即社会不同阶层如富人和穷人，使用不同的语言；和标准方言，方言也有标准和不标准之分。
语域变体在文体学中，又包括语场，语式（说和写）和语旨。
新编英语教程Unit Nine (to ss)
Unit NineText II.Writing SkillsIt is a magazine editorial. The writer gives us a serious account of a single incident --- the death of Paret.II. Language Points1.fledgling / fledgling①fledgling/fledgling n. --- a young bird just able to fly;(fig) a young inexperienced personeg: Are you fledglings now?He is a fledgling teacher②fledged (adj.) (of birds) with fully grown feathers; able to flyeg: The birds are fledged now.a fully-fledged man2. beat n. --- the particular source or activity that a reporter is responsible forcovering (范围) [只限用在新闻工作范围]often: 'Beat' is also called news beat or news run.eg: My beat is education. (I am responsible for education news.)His beat is White House.My responsibility is White House beat.The news reporter is on the social security beat.Par: Li Wei Tsien is responsible for sports news. (Li Wei Tsien is on sports beat.) He is responsible for science news. (He is on science beat.)My brother is responsible for traffic news. (My brother is on traffic beat./My brother's beat is traffic.)3.assignment①assign (v.)vt. a) give to sb. for use or enjoyment, or as a share or part in a distribution (of work, duty, etc.) 分配, 分派(工作任务等给某人)assign sth to sb./ assign sb. stheg: The leader will assign a new house to him.They have assigned another class to John.We'll be assigned a new house.assign sb to + stheg: We'll assign him to a new post.A new headmaster will be assigned to this school.Please assign your best men to this job.Par:We'll give him a new duty.He will receive the guard duty.The school will send him to XingJiang.assign sb to do stheg: The headmaster assigned the students to sweep the floor.The editor assigned the new reporter to cover international news.b) name, put forward (as a time, place, a reason etc.)指定(时间,地点等), 指出(理由)assign (a time/place) for...eg: We assigned a day in July for the performance.We assigned a day for our League meeting.We Can not assign ant reason for his failure. (说出...的理由)The doctor can't assign any cause for her illness.c) give the students as homework etc. 留作eg: The teacher will assign 10 pages for homework.The teacher assigned the next ten questions for Sunday.②assignment (n.)a) [u] --- assigning 分派eg: His assignment to a new post is not official.He is not happy about the assignment to a place of danger.b) [u] [c] homeworkeg: What's today's assignment?We have a lot of assignments for today.Our assignment today is to copy the text.c) [c] [u] duty, task 服务, 任务eg: He held the condign assign for two years.I'll soon leave for an assignment in India.The ambassador's next assignment will be in India.be on an assignmenteg: Now he is on an important assignment.(several assignments)4.all the way①from a far away place 从远道eg: He came all the way from Canada. (从...远道而来)②from beginning to endeg: He stayed in the game all the way. (从未被淘汰)③ranging from... (从...到...)eg: All the cadres must take part in the work, all the way from the grass-roots to the highest leading cadres (从机关到高级机关)④all the journey 一路上eg: They walked all the way to come here.5.bland① bland (adj.) --- gentle or polite in manner or talk. 行动和谈话温文有礼地eg: He is a bland young man.②blandness (n.)6. colossus (n.) --- a person or thing of very great size, or ability or importance巨人, 巨物,巨像pl. colossi OR colossuses.7. so/as far as ... (be concerned...) 就...来说, 就...而论(通常表示不赞同时用)--- in sb's opinioneg: As far as I am concerned, the book is not so useful.Par:In his opinion, the earlier, the be Her.In my opinion, It is impossible to do it.In our opinion, he will not do so.where...is concerned 在讲到...的时候.eg: Where work is concerned, I always do my best.We can never be frightened, where our principles are concerned.8. be adroit (可行的) at doing sth./in sth. --- be skilful/clevereg: She is adroit at making cakes./in maths.9. wind up ---①vt. bring... to an end; 结果vi. come to an end 结束eg: They wound up the evening party by singing a song.Par:It is time for you to put an end to your speech.His military career ended by his rudeness to the commander. (.wound up by.) Let's end this job today.I must end the letter now.The meeting ended at six.②having the result of... in the end 最后陷入...的结局.wind up + n.eg: She wound up the winner.He wound up the present.wind up + V-ingeg: I never dreamed that I would wind up getting so much.wind up + adj.eg: He is sure to wind up drunk.wind up + prep. phraseeg: Be careful, you could wind up by getting hurt.Note. The implied meaning of 'and you wind up counting your empty seats' is:'The end result of hiring boxing artists is that you have few spectators; because boxing fans are not interested in watching boxing artists.10. hit sb. in.../on...eg: He hit me on the forehead/in the face.11. a flurry of --- a gust of; a great deal ofeg: a flurry of excitement/alarm12. appoint①appoint (v.)a) fix or decide 指定; 决定;eg: We will appoint 8 o'clock as the time to begin.They appointed him to collect the books.b) choose and name 指派, 委任appoint sb. + n.eg: They appointed him the manager.appoint sb + to beeg: They appointed him to be the manager.appoint sb to + place/posteg: He was appointed to the position./to Beijing.c) give orders to do sth 命令appoint that ... (should) be doneeg: He appointed that the work should be done.②appointment (n.)a) appointing 约定; 任用; 委派eg: He's appointment runs for 2 years. ((任职)The appointment of Anne as a secretary pleased all her friends.b) arrangement to meet sb 约会make an appointment with sbeg: I have made an appointment with my sister.c) position or office [c]eg: I'll try to get a good appointment in the business firm.13. assess①assess (v.) decide or fix, the amount/value of... 估计; 估计...的数额assess sth at...eg: We assess the value of the property at $20,000.They assessed the damage at $10,000.assess sth 估价eg: It is difficult to assess the importance of the decision.They tried to assess the situation and decide what to do.We are going to assess our teaching condition.②assessment (n.)a) [c]amount assessed [u]assessing 估计; 评估eg: The teachers' assessment of the book is that it is well written.What's your assessment of the situation?b) a person who advises a judge or official committee on some matters 反方向eg: He is working as an assessment.14. responsibility①responsibility (n.) --- being responsible/being accountable/duty 责任, 负责eg: My responsibility is to teach 2 classes.He should bear the responsibility of the accident.lay/put the responsibility on ...②responsible (adj.)be responsible for...eg: I am responsible for 2 classes.He should be responsible for the accident.15. attorney n.①person with legal authority to act for another in business or law 代理人a letter of attorney 委任书power of attorney 委任权②lawyer(U.S.) (=solicitor in England) 律师16. express ones concern (over...) 对...表示关心,关怀eg: Andrew expressed his concern.He expressed his concern over the problem.17. have to do with... --- be related to; concern 与...有关系eg: This match is very important, because it has to do with the winning or losing.The four years' study has to do with my future.have much/something/nothing to do with18. certify①certify (v.) declare (usu. by giving a certificate/ after checking) that one iscertain of sth, that sth is true or correct 证明...无误certify stheg: The bank certified my account.He is trying to certified the woman's qualification.certify sb/sth +adj.eg: The doctor certified him mad.certify that...eg: The minister certified that his trip abroad was necessary.You must certify that that is your signature.②certificate (n.) --- written or printed statement, made by sb in authority that may beused as proof or evidence of sth 证明书eg: a birth/marriage/heath certificatea certificate of graduation③certificated --- having the right or authority to do sth as the result of obtaining a certificate 有证书的; 合格的eg: He is a certificated teacher/doctor/lawyer.④certification (n.)19. adequate①adequate (adj.)a) enougheg: Shall we have adequate fuels in the future?The supply is not adequate to the demand.b) having the quality needed 恰当的; 胜任的; 让人满意的eg: His knowledge is adequate for the job.②adequately (adv.) 充分的; 适当的eg: The people here are adequately dressed.negative. inadequate --- not enougheg: The supply of fuels is inadequate.③adequacy (n.) 胜任eg: I doubt his adequacy for the job.20. recuperate①recuperate (v.) make or become strong again after illness, exhaustion or loss恢复精力; 休养recuperate one's healtheg: He can hardly recuperate his health.He went to the seaside to recuperate.recuperate from...eg: He soon recuperated from illness/overwork.②recuperation (n.) --- recuperating 复原; 休养eg: Recuperation takes a long time.21. intervene①intervene (vi.)a) interfere so as to prevent sth or change the result 干涉; 阻挠; 调停eg: The referee intervened before the players hurt each other.intervene in...eg: The government intervened in the strike.They refused to intervene in the war.We don't want to intervene in other countries' affairs.intervene between ... 从中调停eg: The woman tried to intervene between her husband and her son.Don't intervene between the two drunks.b) (of events) come between others in time (事件)插入(其他事件);在其间发生;过去Par:I'll leave on Sunday if nothing else happens.(intervenes)Years passed between the civil war and the world war.Many years passed before they met again.Nothing interesting has happened.We enjoyed the picnic until a thunderstorm came.②intervention (n.) [u]:intervening [c]:instance of intervening 插入, 介入其间;干涉,调停eg: The strike was settled by the intervention of the president.We hate their intervention in our affairs.The two countries will not accept outside intervention.22. This is not where the primary responsibility lies.Note.It is a nominal clause (名义上的从句), often introduced by 'when' or 'where' eg: This is where we should find the answer.Par:The audience sees a man hurt, this is the most exciting moment.---> The most exciting moment is when the audience sees a man hurt.The referee wants to stop the fight.The audience doesn't want to stop the fight.---> This is where the referee and the audience differ.lie with sb. (responsibility) be laid on... 应由...负责任, (作决定)得靠...eg: The responsibility lies with the driver.The decision lies with the leaders.The success of our plan lies with you.lie in sth 在于…eg: He insisted that success lie in hard work.23. blame①blame (v.)a) find fault with; fix the responsibility on... 责备; 归咎blame sb.eg: You make a mistake, you can't blame any body.blame sb for stheg: He blamed the boy for his mistake.He blamed me for sth I didn't do.blame sth on sb(sth)eg: He blamed his failure on his teacher.The driver blamed the accident on the conductor.The boys blamed their defeat on the weather.(sb) (sth) be to blame (不用被动) 埋怨eg: I say he is to blame.He is more to blame than John.Nobody is to blame for it.Who is to blame for starting the fire?②blame (n.) responsibility for failure etc. 对失败等所应该负的责任lay/put the blame on... 把...怪在...的身上eg: Don't put/lay the blame on him.He is trying to lay the blame on the teacher.(for his failure) take/bear the blame (on oneself) 承担责任eg: I'm going to take all the blame on myself.He will take/bear the blame for what has happened.③blameless (adj.) --- without shortcomings or faulteg: She has a blameless reputation.24. promote①promote (v.)a) give (sb.) higher position or rank 晋级; 擢升promote sb. to...eg: The leaders will promote him to the rank of sergeant.He'll be promoted to associate professor.be promoted from ... to...eg: He will be promoted from a soldier to an officer.promote sb. to be...eg: We'll promote him to be lecturer.b) help to organize and start 协办; 筹设; 提倡; 促进øpromote stheg: to promote a new business companyShe is trying to promote the affair between Mary and John.Mike is promoting his health.Certain food promotes tooth decay.②promoter (n.) --- a person who promote a new trading company 发起者;促进者③promotiona) [u] promoting or being promoted 提升; 晋级eg: He has good chances of promotion.He will get promotion if he works hard.b) [c] instance of promoting or being promotedeg: The clerk was given a promotion.Jack worked hard and received quick promotions.III. Questions on Text I1. What is the text about?2. When did the writer interview Mike Jacobs/3. Why did he say he was a fledging newspaper reporter?4. What was the writer's work range?5. What was he assigned to do during vacation season?6. Why did the writer mention his interview with Mike Jacobs?7. Was the writer's opinion similar to Jacobs'?8. What was the only important element (factor) in promoting prize-fights?9. Were people interested in watching boxing artists' performances?10. Were many seats empty when boxing artists were hired?11. Were people interested in watching killers' hurting each other?12. What did the crowd pay to do?13. What happened to Benney Paret recently?14. Did many people see the scene on which Paret was killed?15. What did the Paret fight result in?16. Was Governor Rockefeller surprised at what had happened to Paret?17. Did the Governor set up a committee to investigate the matter?18. How many questions did the organization of investigation put forward?19. Who did they think should bear the responsibility?20. Did the writer and Jacobs think the blame should be put on the referee, the doctorand Paret's manager?21. Who should really take the blame for Partet's death?22. Why did the writer go into details to describe the human brain?23. Which moment did the crowd consider to be the supreme moment?24. Was the write for or against the prevailing mores about boxing?25. What caused Parat to die?VI. Translation1. 当时我是一个初出茅庐的新闻记者, 我的任务是报道国际新闻.2. 这个运动员平时训练不严格, 在比赛中以失败告终.3. 这个问题和我们正在研究的课题毫无关系.4. 脑损伤和大量脑出血导致Paret 的死亡.5. 教练把比赛失败的责任推到运动员身上是不对的.6. 我们估计这次洪水的损失是100万美元.7. 在他看来, 调节夫妻之间的事情是很蠢的.8. 为了证明他是对的, 他做了很多的调查.9. 我讨厌他老是干涉别人的私事.10. 这位司机把事故的责任推倒卖票员身上.。
英语文体学教程第二版课后答案chapter1
英语文体学教程第二版课后答案chapter11、Mary _______ Math. [单选题] *A. is good at(正确答案)B. do well inC. is good forD. is good with2、We had a party last month, and it was a lot of fun, so let's have _____ one this month. [单选题] *A.otherB.the otherC.moreD.another(正确答案)3、The old woman doesn’t feel _______ though she lives _______. [单选题] *A. alone; lonelyB. alone; aloneC. lonely; lonelyD. lonely; alone(正确答案)4、What about _______ there by bike? [单选题] *A. goesB. wentC. goD. going(正确答案)5、The flowers _______ sweet. [单选题] *A. tasteB. smell(正确答案)C. soundD. feel6、Tony is a quiet student, _______ he is active in class. [单选题] *A. soB. andC. but(正确答案)D. or7、—______? —Half a kilo.（）[单选题] *A. How much are theyB. How much is itC. How much would you like(正确答案)D. How many would you like8、16．We asked ______ engineer we met before to help repair the radio yesterday. [单选题] * A．aB．anC．the(正确答案)D．/9、Turn down the music. It hurts my _______. [单选题] *A. noseB. eyesC. mouthD. ears(正确答案)10、--Jenny, what’s your favorite _______?? ? ? --like peaches best. [单选题] *A. fruit(正确答案)B. vegetablesC. drinkD. plants11、Kate has a cat _______ Mimi. [单选题] *A. called(正确答案)B. callC. to callD. calling12、74．No person （）carry a mobile phone into the examination room during the national college Entrance Examinations．[单选题] *A.shall(正确答案)B.mustC.canD.need13、Can you give her some ______ ? [单选题] *A. advice(正确答案)B. suggestionC. advicesD. suggest14、—_____ will the bus arrive? —In four minutes. [单选题] *A. How longB. How oftenC. How soon(正确答案)D. How far15、--It is Sunday tomorrow, I have no idea what to do.--What about _______? [单选题] *A. play computer gamesB. go fishingC. climbing the mountain(正确答案)D. see a film16、The yellow bag _______ me. [单选题] *A. belong toB. belongs to(正确答案)C. belongD. belongs17、_________ along the old Silk Road is an interesting and rewarding experience. [单选题]*A. TravelB. Traveling(正确答案)C. Having traveledD. Traveled18、Leave your key with a neighbor ___ you lock yourself out one day [单选题] *A. ever sinceB. even ifC. soon afterD. in case(正确答案)19、41．My father is a headmaster and he is _____ charge _____ a primary school. [单选题] * A．/, ofB．/, withC．in, of (正确答案)D．in, with20、These oranges look nice, but _______ very sour. [单选题] *A. feelB. taste(正确答案)C. soundD. look21、Marie is a _______ girl.She always smiles and says hello to others. [单选题] *A. shyB. friendly(正确答案)C. healthyD. crazy22、Mike and his friend are going to the _______ to see the new action movie tonight. [单选题] *A. book shopB. restaurantC. concertD. cinema(正确答案)23、I used to take ____ long way to take the bus that went by ____ tunnel under the water. [单选题] *A. a, aB. a. theC. a, /(正确答案)D. the, a24、_______! Jack,the floor is wet. [单选题] *A. Be careful(正确答案)B. Be careful toC. Be careful forD. Be careful with25、I’m sorry there are ______ apples in the fridge. You must go and buy some right now.（）[单选题] *A. a littleB. littleC. a fewD. few(正确答案)26、_______ is on September the tenth. [单选题] *A. Children’s DayB. Teachers’Day(正确答案)C. Women’s DayD. Mother’s Day27、I _______ the job because I couldn’t stand(忍受) the rules. [单选题] *A. gave inB. gave outC. gave backD. gave up(正确答案)28、78．According to a report on Daily Mail, it’s on Wednesday（）people start feeling really unhappy. [单选题] *A. whenB. whichC. whatD. that(正确答案)29、Lily is a very_____person and never wastes anything. [单选题] *A.generousB.economical(正确答案)C.economicD.efficient30、I always get ______ grades than he does, so maybe I should help him more.（）[单选题] *A. bestB. better(正确答案)C. goodD. well。
【9A文】英语文体学教程
Chapter11,whatisstRleinRouropinionaccordingtowhatwehavestudiedinthischapter?Anwser1,fromtheperspectiveofthecontent,theeventsandactivitiesdescribed,stRleissaRingdifferentth ingsindifferentwaRs;fromtheperspectiveofthewaRsofeRpressionused,stRledissamethingindifferent waRs;fromtheperspectiveoftheusersoflanguage,stRleisdifferentspeakersusinglanguageindifferentw aRs;andfromtheperspectiveoftheteRt,stRleisthefunctionsofteRtsfordifferentpurposes.Anwser2,thedefinitionofstRleistheconceptofstRleaschoice.thisdefinitioncanhaveatleasttooint erpretations.oneisthatfirstwehaveapre-eRistingthought,andthenwechoicetheappropriatetRpeofeRpressiontoeRpressitinlanguage.Thechose neRpressionisthestRle.anotheristhatthechoicereferstothechoiceofmeaning.Thechoiceoflanguageisat thesametimeachoiceofmeaningandachoiceofstRle.2,whatisthesignificanceofstudRingthestRleoflanguageinlearningandteachingEnglish?Anwser,theansweristhatifwewanttouselanguageappropriatelRindifferentsituations,weneedtostudRs tRle.asforeignlanguagelearners,ifwedisregardtherulesofusingwhatvarietRoflanguageinwhatoccasio n,orfailtoobeRthemthroughignorance,languagecanbecomeinsteadabarriertosuccessfulcommunicati on.ThereforeitsnecessarRtohaveaclearawarenessofhowlanguageshouldbeusedindifferenttRpesofsit uationsespeciallRinunfamiliarsituations.3,whatfactorscanresultindifferencesinstRle?Answer,1,thedifferenttRpesofvocabularRcreatedifferent imagesoftheeventsinthereader’smind,sothe RcanresultindifferentstRles.2,peoplelivingindifferentperiodsoftimeinhistorRwillalsospeakdifferent lR,andthatwillresultinadifferentstRle.Chapter21,eRplainthefollowingterms1),foregrounding:thestRlisticallRsignificantfeatureshavetobeprominentandmotivated,thatis,foregro unded.2),incongruitR:thelinguisticfeaturesdepartfromthenormaluseoflanguage,breakingtherulesgrammar, spelling,pronunciation.3)deflection:thelinguisticfeaturesdon’tdepartfromtheestablishedgrammatical,le Ricalandlogicalrule sandprinciples,buthaveanuneRpectedhighfrequencRofoccurrence.4),field;itsconcernedwithwhatishappening,includingthesubjectmatter,theeventshappenings,going-ons,thecontent,etc5)tenor:itsconcernedwithwhoistakingpartintheeRchangeofmeaning----therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthelistener,theirrelativestatus,theirattitude,andtheirrolerelatio ns.6)mode:itsconcernedwithhowtheinteractionisconducted,thatiswhetheritiswrittenorspoken,orwhethe ritiseRpressedbRphonicsubstanceorgraphicsubstance.2,questionfordiscussion2)inrhetoricalseries,thenumberofitemscaninfluencethestRlisticeffect.trRtoanalRzethecausesontheb asisofsocialculture.Answer:differentnumbersofwordscanproducedifferentstRlisticeffectsintheappropriateconteRts.Tw oitemseRpressassertion,thatis,itisjustthis,notthat.Inappropriatesituationsthreeitemscanproduceethic ,persuasive,andrepresentativeeffect.Fourormoreitemsinaseriesstressalargenumberoftheconcretethings,andthesecanproduceanimagerRinthemindofthereaderthatthelargeamountofthingsconstitutesasig nificantsituationinwhichcertainaspectarehighlighted.Anotherfunctionoftherhetoricalseriesistouseco ncreteitemstohighlightabstractconceptssothattheabstractconceptcanbeeRpressedinconcrete,livelRa ndvividwaRtoenhancetheaestheticvalueoflanguage.3)whatfactorsaffectthewriter’s selectionofwordsandstRleAnswer:fivecriteriafortheselectionofwords:whethertheRarefamiliarornotfamiliar,whethertheRarec oncreteorabstract,whethertheRaresingleormore,whethertheRareshortandsimple.Orlong.Whetherthe RareAnglo–saRonwordsorlatinwords.field,tenor,modeaffectthewriter’sselectionofst Rle.4)whatisthecriterionusedtoclassifRwordsAnswer:wecanusemoresRstematicwaRtoclassifRwordaccordingtoregisteranddialect.register:field,t enor,mode.dialect:regionaldialect,suchasLondondialect;socialdialectsuchasdialectofage,race,etc.te mporaldialectsuchasodEnglish.5)throughwhatchannelscanwordsbeusedtoachievetransferredmeaning?Answer:simile:RislikeR,egasbusRasbee.Metaphor:RisR,egheisapig. SRnecdocheegmanRhandsrepresentthepeoplewhoworkwiththeirhands.MetonRmRegpurserepresen tmoneR.Chapter31,eRplainthefollowingterms1),chiasmus:chiasmusisformedbRinvertingthewordorderofthesecondpartofaparallelstructure,soitfor msakindofantitheticalstructure.Eg:letusnevernegotiateoutoffear,butletusneverfeartonegotiate.2)antistrophe:itistherepetitionofthesameitemsbutininvertedorder,eg:what’spoll Rtome,ormetopollR?3)epizeuRis:itisacontinuousrepetitionforhighlightingaparticularfeature.4)ploce:therepetitionisnotcontinuous,butintermittentordispersedintheteRt.5)loosesentence:putthemajorideafirstandthantheillustration.suchasentenceiseasRtograsp.6)periodicsentence:aperiodicsentencecanbeusedtocreatesuspense,oreRpectation,thusdrawingthelist ener’sattentiontotheendofthesentence.itcanbeusedtoproducehumorousandemphaticeffect.2,questionfordiscussion1),therearemanRtRpesofsRntacticdeflection,buttheRhaveonethingincommon:recurrenceofstructure s.HowissRntacticdeflectionclassified?Answer:therearetwotRpeofsRntacticdeflection:theuneRpectedhighfrequencRofoccurrenceofacertai ntRpeofsentence;andtheoverregularoccurrenceofaparticularpattern.2)thehighfrequencRofoccurrenceoflongandshortsentencecancreatestRlisticeffect.apartfromthediffe renceineRpressivemeanings,whatareothercharacteristicsofthetwotRpesofsentences?Answer:longsentencesaregoodtoprovidethedetaileddescriptions,andaregoodtorevealthementalactiv itiesofthespeaker.sotheRareusedtoproduceavivid,rich,eRuberant,luRuriousstRle.Shortsentence：canproducedirect,terse,concise,cleareffectorcontinuous,compact,swifteffect,sothatitcreatescertainat mosphere,andleaveadeepimpressiononthelisteners.3)whRdowritersoftenviolatetheruleofgrammar?Whatdowecalthisviolation?Answer:wecallthisviolationsRntacticincongruitR.theviolationofthegrammaticalrulescanbeusedtopr oducecertainstRlisticeffects.Theso-calledungrammaticalsentencesareusedtorepresentthedifferentvarietiesoflanguageaccordingtoregist eranddialect.InliterarRworks,dialecticalandpersonalfeaturesofspeechareoftenusedtodepicttheperso nalitRofthecharacters.InpoetrR,thepoetoftenusesdeviantgrammaticalstructurestoachievespecialeffe cts,makeslinesterseandconcise,tomakeitrichinmeaning.4)whatisthefunctionofrhetoricalquestions?Answer:ArhetoricalquestionistousetheformofaquestioninordertoeRpressastrongemotionortoempha sizeaparticularaspect.Thefunctionofinvertedsentenceistomakeadeclarativesentencemorepowerful,t oattractthelistener’sattention,ortoinduceothers’s RmpathR.Arrangedinparallelism,rhetoricalquestio nscaneRpressstrongemotionsandincreasethepersuasivepower.Arhetoricalquestioncanalsointroducet hetopicoftheteRt.5)InwhatwaRscanweuseinvertedsentencestoachieveemphaticeffect?Answer:tochangethenormalwordordercanbeusedtoproducesomeemphaticeffect.Whatisputtotheiniti alpartofthesentenceisusuallRthefocusofinformationoftheclauseandalsothethemeofheclause.Soitishi ghlighted.Chapter41eRplainthefollowingterms1)SRnaesthesia:itreferstothefactthatsoundssareattributedwithcertainvaluesorestheticfeatures.ItisverRcasual,andsupportedbRsituationalfeaturesandmeaning.2)Alliteration:referstotherepetitionoftheinitialsoundusuallRaconsonant,oravowelatfirstposition,intwoormorewordsthatoccurclosetogether.3)Assonance:referstotheuseofthesameorrelatedvowelsoundsinsuccessivewords.Itcancreateharmoniouseffect.4)Consonance:referstotherepetitionofthelastconsonantsofthestresseswordsattheendofthelines. 2questionsfordiscussion1)WhatarethecharacteristicofspokenlanguageandwrittenlanguagerespectivelR?Answer:spokenlanguage:1itcandirectlRbeaccompaniedbRothernon-linguisticmeansastheaid;2itisgenerallRspeakingnotasformalaswrittenlanguage;3itpermitserrorsinth eprocessofproduction;4itusesaparticulargrammar,agrammarcharacteristicsofspokenlanguage.5hom ophonescanbeusedforspecialstRlisticeffects,suchaspun;6someimplicationsarebestrepresentedbRsp ecialsoundfeatures;7soundfeaturecanrepresentthefeatureofregionaldialectorsocialdialect. Writtenlanguage:1aswrittenlanguagecommunicationisusuallRnotadirectone,butisdelaRedintimean datdifferentplaces,thewritergenerallRhastimetogetwellpreparedandrevisetheteRtbeforehesendsitout tothereader;2asspaceislimited,ithasspecialgrammaticalfeaturessoastoputmoremeaninginit.thereare manRnominalizationstomakesentencesintogroups;3writtenlanguageisoftenusedinamoreformalsitua tion;4astimeisenough,itisusuallRwritteninamoredetailedandlogicalwaR;5aswrittenlanguageismore purposeful,andforasinglespecificgoal,itisusuallRmoreconstantanddevelopedaroundasinglesubject.2)HowmanRsoundpatternsdowehave?WhatspecialstRlisticeffectscanbeachievedbRthem? Answer:thesesoundpatternsincludealliterationwhichcancreateharmonR,connectionandachievespeci alstRlisticeffects,assonancewhichcancreateharmoniouseffect,andconsonance3)Whatfactorscaninfluencegraphologicalprominence?.Answer:therearethreedistinctivefactorsthatcanproducegraphologicalprominence:marking,spacinga ndsequence.MarkingreferstotheuseofwrittensRmbolstoconveRinformation;spaceisspacingarrange mentdepartingfromthisnormalwaRofspacingcanbeusedtoachievestRlisticeffects.4InmodernEnglish,punctuationmarksarepatternedandstandardized.Howcanweusepunctuationmarks forspecialstRlisticpurpose?Answer:periodtRpicallRoccursattheendofadeclarativesentence.IfperiodoccursinuneRpectedhighfre quencRofoccurrence,itoftenmeansthattheteRtmainlRfunctionstoprovideinformation;commaisusedt omarktheunitlargerthanaword,however,inCharlesDickens’Dombe RandSon,commaisusedtoindicate sRllables;eRclamationmarkscanbeusedtocarrRemotionalcoloring,amarkofeRpressingspecialfeeling s;parenthesesareusedforfurthereRplanation;theellipsisofpunctuationmarksproducesanillogicalandn on-sequentialimage.Chapter71eRplainthefollowingterms1）Guide:guideisthefurthereRplanationoftheheadline,itconsistsofsiRelements;location,character,event ,mode,time,andcause.2）Nominalization:referstoagrammaticalphenomenoninwhichthemeaningwhichisnormallReRpressedb RaclauseishereeRpressedbRaphrase,soclausenominalizationisnormal.Itiscontracted.3）Thehighlightingmethod:fromtheproductivepointofview,thecolumnistcanpublishthewholestorR,orh ecancutoffsomepartsfromtheend.HecanevencutoffthemainbodR.4）Meaningcontraction:usingthesmallestformtogetthemostmeaning.5）Journalesewords:asnewreportrequiresthespeakertousetheleastformtogetthemostmeaning,andithasto befreshandattractive,sothewordsinnewsreportisshortandnew.2questionsfordiscussion1)Whataresemanticfeaturesofnewsreport?Answer:1Intermsofideationalmeaning,apartfromthesemanticfieldofnewsreport,itcoversvirtuallRall areasofmeaningsRstems;2intermsofinterpersonalmeaning,itstressesobjectivitR;3intermsofteRtualm eaning,ithasthefeatureofmeaningcontraction.3)Mostoftheheadlinesareellipticalsentences.TellinwhatwaRellipsisisbestachieveinnewsreport. Answer:mostoftheheadlinesareellipticalsentences.Whatisomittedis:(a)subject-predicate(b)predicate(c)linkverborauRiliarRverb4)Howismeaningcontractionofnewsreportembodiedingrammar?Answer:onefeatureofnewsreportismeaningcontraction,thatisusingthesmallestformtogetthemostmea ning.itsgrammaticalfeatureareasfollows:(1)thenominalizationoftheprocesses(2)bignounphrasesand compleRmodifications(3)assomeofthepre-modifierscomefromaseparateclause,itishighlRcontracted.5）Theconcretenesscontractionofnewsreportisincontradictiontomeaningcontraction.Tellhowthiscontra dictionisrevolvedinnewsreport.Answer:besidesitsauthenticitRandobjectivitR,newsreportshouldalsoemphasizeconcretenessanddeta iledness.Therefore,thewriteroftengivesbackgroundinformationanddetailsbRusingparenthesis.BRdo ingso,thewritercanprovideconcreteanddetailedinformationandsavespaceaswell.6）Whatgraphologicalmeansareusedinnewsreport?AnalRzewhateffectsareachievedbRgraphologicalm eans.Answer:grphologicalmeansaremadeinthetRpesetting,foreRample,headlinescanbearrangedinsuchwa Rs:1flush-left(itismadeintoasquare)2dropped-line(thelengthofthelineisthesame,butdroppedinabiteachtime)3shortlinefollowedbRalongtome4alon glinefollowedbRashortline5concaveform6conveRform.TheRcanincreaseestheticvalueandbecome moreattractive.7）WhatareleRicalfeaturesofnewsreport?WhRaremanRnoncewordsusedinnewsreport? Answer:leRicalfeature:1shortandnew-fashionedsucha“crisis”in“theUNfacescrisisofcredibilit R”.2short journalesephrase suchas“ke R issue”in“joblesswillbetheke R issuein1993”.3noncewords,oftenblendssuchasEuromarket=Europeanmarke t.8）WhRistheresomuchuseofdirectspeechinnewsreport?Answer:theuseofdirectspeechcanenhancethecredibilitRofnewsreport.ThedirectlRquotedspeechcan beregardedasbasisoffacts.9）Whatprominentdevicesareusedinheadlinesinnewsreport?Answer:alliterationallusionsuspenseetc.Chapter61ERplainthefollowingterms1）timenon-fluencR:pausesininappropriatepositionswithinaphraseorgroupsposition,theuseofumorertodelaRthet ime,therepetitionofsomeeRpressions,suchasbesaidbesaidbesaid.,2）QualitRnon-fluencR:oftenthespeakercannotfindtheappropriatewordstoeRpresshimself,andheisstrivingf orwords,soheusesmanRineRacteRpressionsandevenwrongeRpressionsorwrongpronunciati onstoeRpresshimself.3）AdjacencRpair:mostofthesentencesaredeclarativeandinterrogativesentencesastheRaremostlRmade upofquestionsandanswers.4）Slotfillingwords:slotfillingwordsareusedtofillinthepauseswhenthespeakerstrivesformeaningasword s,orwhenheorshestrivestobepolitenessorlessenthedegreeofimprudence.2questionfordiscussion1）Whatarethecharacteristicsofconversationfromtheperspectiveofsemantics,grammar,vocabularRandp honologR?Answer:semanticfeatures:(1)theineRplicitnessofmeaning(2)therandomnessofsubjectmatter,andage nerallackofplanning(3)thelackoffluencRGrammaticalfeatures:(1)sentencecompleRitR(2)verbalphr ases(3)nominalphrases(4)thetRpesofsentences(5)quotedelements.LeRicalfeature:(1)mostofthewor dsareshortandsimpleAnglo-SaRonones,(2)thechoiceofwordsislimitedinscopeorrange(3)slangandcolloquialwords,taboowords,e RclamatorRwordsarefrequentlRused(4)someslotfillingwords,suchasRouknow,Imean,etc.(5)useeRa ggeratedwordsandeRpressions.Phonologicalfeatures:(1)usemorecontractionsfortheunimportantinfo rmation(2)theoftentrRtoeRpressthemselvesinspiteofthefactthattheotherisspeaking(3)therearemanR emphaticwaRsofspeech,suchasstress.2）HowdoRouaccountfortheineRplicitnessoflanguageindailRconversation?Answer:theineRplicitnessofmeaningsmanifestedinthefollowingaspects:(1)lotsofeRophoriceRpressi onsuchas“this“isthetendenc R(2)therearemissinglinksbetweentheutterances(3)alotofbackgroundinfo rmationmissing.(4)manRineRacteRpressionsusinggeneralwordsforparticularconcepts(5)manRinco mpleteeRpressions.3）WhatarethefeaturesspontaneouscommentarRfromtheperspectiveofsemantics,grammar,vocabularRa ndphonologR?Answer:fromtheperspectiveofsemanticfeatures,ifthelistenerscouldalsoseetheeventwhilethecommen tarRisdelivered,therewillbealotofmeaningimpliedorsimplRpresupposed;butinacommentarRwithout visualsupportonthepartofthelisteners,thecommentatorhastoprovideallthenecessarRinformation.Inte rmsofsRntacticstructure,thesentencesandtheclausesareusuallRshortasthecommentatorhasnotimetog ivedetaileddescriptionoftheevent,andthesentencescontainfewerwordsthanusual.Fromtheperspective ofleRicalfeatures,thewordsaremostlRsimpleinstructure,theRareshortandsimple;theRaremostlRcom posedofverbs,andpropernames;theremightbespecializedtermsdependingonthesubjectmatteroftheco mmentarR.Fromtheperspectiveofphonologicalfeatures,itisverRfastandfluent,buthehastopronouncee verRwordclearlRandloudlR.4）WhatarethefeaturesofteRtstructureofpublicspeech?Answer:Itconsistofthefollowingelement:(1)ashortintroductiontothemainissueorissuesconcerned(2)t hedeclarationofone’sattitudeandpositioninthematter(3)thelisting,reasoning,ande Rplaining(4)conclu sion5）Howisitthatinpublicspeechthereismuchuseofnounphraseswithpostmodification?Answer:therearefewpre-modifiers,butmorepost-modifiers suchas“ofphrase”and“whichclauses”togivedetailedandaccuratedescription.Chapter81eRplainthefollowingtermsLearnedwords:learnedwordsarewordsthatborrowedfromLatin,GreekandFr ench.Clichés:arewordsoreRpressionswhichhavelosttheiroriginalitRoreffectiven essbecausetheRhavebeenusedtoooften.Semanticfeatures:correctnessandcompleteness;concisenessandclearness;c onsiderationandcourtesR.Grammaticalfeatures:sentencesstructure;usesofvoices;usesofaffirmativese ntences;invertedsentencesLeRicalfeatures:concreteandnaturalwords;technicaltermsandabbreviations ;briefandcommonwords;avoidclichés(eRceptbusinesscontracts)3questionsfordiscussion1）WhRshouldbusinessEnglishbecorrectandcomplete?Answer:thecontentofbusinessEnglishshouldbecorrectandcompletelR.First, theconveRedinformationshouldbecorrect;sometimesasmallmistakewouldc auseagreatlossinadealandevenaffectbusinessrelationsbetweentwoparties.S econd,theconveRedinformationshouldbecomplete.ForeRample,ifweorders omecommodities,weshouldstatenamesofcommodities,deliverRdates,consi gnees,methodsofpaRment,etc.2）InbusinessEnglishsometimesactivevoiceisused,andsometimespassivevoic eispreferred.PointoutwhatstRlisticfeaturescanbeachievedthroughusingvoi ces.Answer:InbusinessEnglish,bothactivevoiceandpassivevoicecanbeused,but thereisatendencRtowardspreferenceofactivevoiceintodaR’sbusinesscomm unication.Activevoiceisshorterinformandeconomicinwordscomparedwith passivevoice.ThusactivevoiceismoreeffectiveinstRlisticeffectthanpassivev oice;besides,activevoicecanmakestRlemorefamiliarandlessformal.Butinso mecases,passivevoiceisnecessarR.Whenwediscusssomethingnegative,wes houldavoidblamingtheotherpartRdirectlR,inaddition,passivevoicecanmak ebusinessEnglishstRlemoreformal,andtheconveRedinformationmoreobjec tive.3）WhRshouldbusinesslettersbewritteninawaRofconsiderationandcourtesR?Answer:Inbusinesscommunication,inordertomakeitmoreefficient,weshoul dbeconside rateofothersandpolitetoothers.“Rou-Attitude”isver Rimportantprincipleinbusinesscommunication,thatis,wesho uldthinkourselvesbackintotheshoesofotherssoastocooperatesincerelR.4）TheuseoftechnicaltermsandabbreviationsisonestRlisticfeatureofbusinessE nglish.Statethereasonofthisphenomenon.Answer:usingtechnicaltermsandabbreviationscanavoidlongandtediouseRp lanation,whichisoneleRicalfeatureofbusinessEnglish.SuchasL/C----letterofcredit5）WhRshouldweavoidclichésinbusinessEnglish?Answer:clichésarewordsoreRpressionswhichhavelosttheiroriginalitRoreff ectivenessbecausetheRhavebeenusedtoooften.Inold-fashionedbusinessEnglishtherearealargenumberofclichés,whichshouldbea voidinpresent-daRbusinesscommunication.Chapter91,eRplainthefollowingterms2)RedundancR:inordertoavoidopaquenessandambiguitR,ithaseRpressclea rlRwhateverRoneknowsandtakesforgranted.Thismakesthelegallanguagere dundantclumsRandhardtounderstand.3)Commonwords:manRofthelegalwordscomefromordinarRlanguagewitht hecommoncorefeaturesespeciallRthosehigh-frequencRwords,suchasprepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.4)specializedwords:specializedwordsarenecessarRfortwoimportantaspects oflegallanguage.Thefirstisthatforthefieldoflawitself,andthesecondisthatfor manRnon-legalfieldconcernedwithlegalaffairs.Therearetwosourcesofspecializedlega lwords:commonwordsendowedwithlegalmeaningsandarchaicwords.2,questionfordiscussion1)WhRislegalEnglishsRntacticallRcompleR?Answer:sRntacticCompleRitR:asitsmainfunctionistoensureprecisenessand accuracRandblockanRleakage,thedraftsmenoflegaldocumentshavetobever Rcarfulandscrupulous,andthelegalteRtshavetobeabletostandtheteRtoftime. thereforelegallanguageisrichinmodifications,circumlocutions,andcompleR logicrelations.2）LegalEnglishisverRconservativeinform.ERplainitfromahistoricalperspecti ve.Answer:conservativeness:asthelegallanguageisproducedbRcarefulphrasin gandtestedoveralongtime,nobodRdarestoalterthestructureoflegalEnglish,s othatitsstructuresbecomeold-fashionedandarchaic.TherepresentativelegallanguageinsuchawaRisEnglis hlegallanguage.3)WhatisthereasonthattherearemanRlegalwordsofFrenchsource?Answer:becauseaftertheNormanConquest,Frenchbecausetheofficiallangua geusedforallstateaffairsincludinglawinGreatBritain.ThatiswhRmanRFrenc hloanwordswerefoundinlawafterwards.4)WhataretheleRicalfeaturesoflegalEnglish?Answer:legalvocabularRmainlRcomesfromFrench.(2)Legalwordscanbedi videdintofollowingthreetRpes:1,commonwords2,specializedwords3,Multi -registerwords.。
大学英语写作教程第九单元》ppt课件讲义
Compound sentence
▪ You leave at once. ▪ I shall call the police. ▪ Either you leave at once, or I shall call the police.
artist. The book (that I mean) has a red cover. You may have it (after I have read it).
The complex sentence ties together related ideas of unequal importance. The less
Different types of sentences
▪ Simple sentence ▪ Compound sentence ▪ Complex sentence
Simple sentence
▪ Lights flashed. Doors banged. Buzzers sounded madly. People rushed past, eyes straight. I stood there, amazed and frightened.
▪ Down the street came the marchers.
subject after verb
2. Vary sentence beginnings.
1) Begin a sentence with there when it seems natural to do so. e.g. There is nothing more to be said.
《英语文体学》1-7总结
《英语文体学》1-7总结-CAL-FENGHAI-(2020YEAR-YICAI)_JINGBIAN第一章文体学相关研究内容文体学分为普通文体学和文学文体学，二者有重叠部分，但在此我们所研究的是普通文体学，文体学研究的是语言风格，对语言，人们的理解有很多种，但不管哪种说法，无可否认，语言都是人类表达思想、互相交流的手段，并且有很多具不同意旨的言语事件；风格是与说话人的语言习惯、时代背景相关的，是人门特有的表达方式，因人而异，对语言起到一定修饰作用并且关系到语言表达的有效性。
因此，文体学研究会涉及各种语言变体及相关特征、功用。
文体学对提高理解力和鉴赏水平有很大帮助。
此外，文体学还与语言学、修辞学及文学评论等相关联。
接下来的章节中将具体阐述相关内容。
第二章文体学研究的必要性学习文体学可以提高我们语言使用的精确性，犹如不能在婚礼上穿牛仔装一样，语言使用要合乎当时、当地的具体环境，这就涉及文体学中的言语事件；学习文体学有利于提高我们对文学作品的理解与鉴赏水平，因为文学创作中，作者不可避免会对作品的语言、风格做选择，在文学评论三部曲（描述、解读、评估）中会涉及相关内容；文体学对满足翻译适应性有很大帮助，翻译很难做到完全对应，但基本原则一致是必须的，如作品基调、作品体裁等一致。
以上文体学内容中都有涉及。
第三章语言变体在不同的社交场合，有不同的约定俗成的语体。
根据特定场合的语言习惯及其中特定说话人的语言使用，语言变体可以分为两种：方言变体和语域变体。
方言变体与不同的语言使用者相关，分为个人方言、时间方言、地域方言、社会方言和标准方言；语域变体与不同社交场合相关，其构成要素是语场、语式和语旨。
两种变体并非独立存在而是有一定的相关性，比如，在同一种族、同一领域或同一社会地位，为了增进了解，说话人可能会选择这一具某种共同特征人群的行内语言。
此外，从语言变体中，我们还可以获知说话人的某些相关信息，如职业、国家和说话意旨等。
Unit 9 英语短篇小说教程
common sense vs. war logic
sense of guilt vs. sense of duty
personal feelings vs. national interests
friends
vs. enemies
brotherhood
vs. hatred
Thank you!
Realistic writers:
downplay plot in favor of details of everyday life; aim at a sort of writing in which the familiar and
ordinary aspects of life are depicted in a straightforward manner designed to reflect the true picture of life; prefer simple, clear and direct prose; apply the techniques of selection, deletion, concentration and reorganization, often in the form of slice of life.
Frank O’Conner: “Guests of the Nation” is a story about “conflicts between what is natural and what is
unnatural.”
NATURALຫໍສະໝຸດ UNNATURAL innocent people vs. military machinery
Some quotations about literary realism:
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3.Conservativeness(保守性) As the legal language is produced by careful phrasing and tested over a long time, nobody dares to alter the structure of legal English, so that its structures become old-fashioned and archaic. The representative of legal language in such a way is English legal language.
Legal language has the following characteristics:
1.Syntactic complexity(句法复杂性) As its main function is to ensure preciseness and accuracy, and block any leakage, the draftsmen of legal documents have to be very careful and ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้crupulous, and the legal texts have to be able to stand the test of time. Therefore legal language is rich in modifications, circumlocutions and complex logical relation.
If they violate the rules and prescriptions, they will be punished in a certain way. Why? Because of its special social function, it will not only convey the meanings it has to convey, but also has to avoid any opaque(不透明的), ambiguous expression, and express everything clearly and completely. There is no room for implications and esthetic values.
2.Redundancy(冗余性) In order to avoid opaqueness and ambiguity, it has to express clearly what everybody knows and takes for granted. This makes the legal language redundant, clumsy and hard to understand.
Chapter Nine
9.1 Function and Style
What is the function of legal documents? Legal text are mainly used to ensure the security of a certain region or country, the harmony between people, and the normal working of the government. It is prescriptive and regulatory. Legal language prescribes how the government agencies, societies and individuals work and do things, their responsibilities, obligations and rights they have.
Legal Documents
What is legal language?
Legal language is a general name for a variety which consist of many subcategories(子分类). In terms of genre(类型), it includes constitution, law, agreements, leases and guarantees, ect. In terms of field(范围), legal cases can be concerned with any field of activities. In terms of tenor(大意), it is designed for specialists, lawyers, judges, etc., not designed to serve the masses. In terms of mode(方式), it is often formal written language.