专业英语期末复习重点
学科英语的重点知识点总结
学科英语的重点知识点总结学科英语是为了满足专业学科学习和专业实践需要的一门语言课程。
学科英语不同于一般的英语课程，它更加注重专业术语的学习和专业文献的阅读能力。
学科英语主要包括工程学科英语、医学学科英语、经济学科英语、法学科英语、文学学科英语、计算机学科英语等。
学科英语的重点知识点主要包括：专业词汇、学科文献阅读、专业写作和专业口语。
一、专业词汇1. 英语专业词汇的学习英语专业词汇是学科英语的基础，学生首先要掌握专业领域内最基本的词汇，并能够看懂专业文献中的术语。
学生需要通过不断的积累和记忆，提高自己的专业词汇量，同时也要了解专业词汇的使用场景和搭配。
2. 词组和惯用语的学习在学科英语中，很多专业领域都有自己独特的词组和惯用语，学生需要掌握这些词组和惯用语的用法，能够在实际的专业交流和写作中运用自如。
3. 词汇的应用学生要学会如何将所学的专业词汇应用到实际的写作、口语和阅读中，能够准确地理解和表达专业概念。
二、学科文献阅读1. 学科文献的特点不同学科的学术文献有着不同的特点，学生需要了解学科文献的结构特点、表达方式、逻辑关系等，才能够正确理解文献内容。
2. 阅读策略学生需要学会运用不同的阅读策略，比如预览、略读、精读等，更好地理解学科文献的内容。
3. 文献摘要和评论学生需要学会进行文献摘要和评论，能够准确地概括文献的主要内容，并对文献进行深入的思考和分析。
三、专业写作1. 专业写作的基本要求学科英语中的专业写作要求严谨、准确、清晰，学生需要遵循学术写作的规范和格式，如论文的结构、段落的组织、用词的准确性等。
2. 科技论文写作科技论文是学科英语中的重要写作形式，学生需要学会撰写学术论文的摘要、引言、正文、结论等部分，同时还要学会使用科技论文的标准格式和文献引用格式。
3. 专业报告和演讲在学科英语课程中，学生还需要学会进行专业报告和演讲，能够通过口头表达将自己的专业知识和观点传递给他人。
四、专业口语1. 专业会话在学科英语课程中，学生需要掌握一定的专业会话能力，比如能够进行专业交流和讨论，能够进行专业问答等。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结归纳
英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位:2.Allophone音位变体:3.Minimal pair最小对立体:第三课1.Morphology形态学:which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes第四课1.Syntax语法句法:classes,4.Surface to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstractmeaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．language?The important characteristicssystematic, arbitrary and vocalFirst of all,language in a wrong way.3．1) Arbitrariness:2)Productivity:provides and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality:4)5)第二课1.语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromSuffix: -ist2. Think of three morpheme be1)prefix: un-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The1.2.3.4.5.6.Hyponymyare called its hyponyms. For example,第六课答：way to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development andand 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics.traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in thattakes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, tothe truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type答：Make your conversational(1) The maxim of quantity①②(2) The maxim of quality①②(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.①②③④(】。
材料科学与工程材料专业英语期末考试复习提纲及答案
常用元素及化合物Hydrogen H氢Lithium Li锂Sodium Na钠Potassium K钾Magnesium Mg镁Calcium Ca钙Aluminum Al铝Carbon C碳Silicon Si硅Tin Sn锡Lead Pb铅Copper Cu铜Zinc Zn锌Mercury Hg汞Nitrogen N氮Phosphorus P磷Oxygen O氧Sulfur S硫Fluorine F氟Chlorine Cl氯Neon Ne氖Argon Ar氩Iron Fe铁Manganese Mn锰Bromine Br溴Silver Ag银Gold Au金常见二元化合物常见的二元化合物有卤化物，氧化物，硫化物，氮化物，磷化物，碳化物，金属氢化物等，命名时需要使用后缀-ide，如：fluoride，chloride，bromide，iodide，oxide，sulfide，nitride，phosphide，carbide，hydride；OH-的名称也是用后缀-ide：hydroxide。
非最低价的二元化合物还要加前缀，如O22-：peroxide，O2-：superoxide。
举例：NaF：sodium fluoride，AlCl3：aluminium chloride，Mg2N3：magnesium nitride，Ag2S：silver sulfide，CaC2：calcium carbide，Fe(OH)2：iron(II) hydroxide。
基本的盐正盐：根据化学式从左往右分别读出阳离子和阴离子的名称。
如FeSO4：iron(II)sulfate，KMnO4：potassium permanganate。
酸式盐：同正盐的读法，酸根中的Ｈ读做hydrogen，氢原子的个数用前缀表示。
如NaHCO3:sodium hydrogen carbonate，NaH2PO3:sodium dihydrogen phosphate。
计算机专业英语期末考复习资料
英语翻译成汉语：1、In order to solve a computational problem, its solution must be specified in terms of a sequence of computational steps, each of which may be performed by a human or a digital computer．If you want to solve the computational problem with a computer, you should learn how to program．The task of developing programs for the soultion of computational problems is referred to as programming．Computer programming is the process of planning and creating a sequence of steps for a computer to follow．In general，this process will help us resolve a problem，which is either too tedious (冗长的) or difficult to work out otherwise．So programming is breaking a task down into small steps．译：为解决计算问题，其解决方案必须被指定在一个计算步骤的序列，每一个可能由一个人或一个数字计算机。
如果你想解决计算问题的计算机，你应该学会如何计划。
制定发展任务的计划称为编程。
计算机编程的过程中规划和创建一个序列的计算机执行步骤。
一般来说，这个过程将帮助我们解决一个问题，是太冗长的或难以解决的方式。
生物工程专业英语期末复习资料
单词：metabolic 新陈代谢的，fossil fuel 化石燃料，degrade 降解，fiber 纤维，cotton 棉花，wool 羊毛，hygienic 卫生的detergent 清洁剂，antibiotics 抗生素，component 组分，biodegradability 生物可降解性，intrinsic 固有的，perturb 扰动，thermochemistry 热化学，Biocatalysis 生物催化，enzyme 酶，genetics 遗传学，methodology 方法学，cellular 细胞的，extracellular 胞外的，isotope 同位素，Biotin 生物素，antibiotic 抗生素，penicillin 青霉素,2-oxoglutarate a酮戊二酸，trigger 引发，Flux 通量，transformant 转化株，plasmid 质粒，homologous 同源的，heterologous 异源的deficient 缺陷的，strain 菌株，sensitivity 灵敏度，steady state 稳态，infinitesimal 无穷小的，activity 活力，，mechanism 机制，attenuation 衰减，perturbation紊乱，kinetic 动力学的，glutamate 谷氨酸，composition 组分，medium培养基，perculture 预培养，deionize 去除离子，vitamin 维生素，soybean大豆，protein蛋白质，hydrolysate 水解产物，cholramphenicol 氯霉素，Kanamaycin 卡那霉素，batch 间歇式，fermentor发酵罐，dissolve溶解，oxygen 氧，concerntration浓度，agitation搅拌，revolution 旋转，aeration通气，buffer缓冲液，Sonication 超声波破碎法，supernatant上层液，absorption光吸收值，Branch point 分支点，glucose 葡萄糖，normalize 规格化，consumption 消耗，growth phas 生长期，specific activity 比活力，coefficient 系数，upstream 上游的，lysine 赖氨酸，inoculate 接种，agar 琼脂，bacteriophage 噬菌体，facultative兼性的，assimilate 吸收，saccharide糖类，fructose 果糖，ethanol乙醇，methanol甲醇，glycerol甘油，urea尿素，peptone蛋白胨，copper铜，aqueous水的，eluent 洗脱液，Phosphate 磷酸盐，redox 氧化还原，，modification修饰，host寄主，intermediate 中间体，respiration呼吸，consumption消耗，kinase激酶，isomerase异构酶，bisphophate 二磷酸盐，mass balance质量平衡，genome基因组，genomic基因组的，glycolysis糖消解，high throughput高通量，sequence测序仪，evolutionary进化的，tag标记，transcription转录，transduction传导，array阵列，proteomice蛋白组学，affinity亲和力，counterpart 对照物，amino acid氨基酸，promoter启动子，ligate链接，vector载体，plasmid质粒，base pair碱基对，homology同源性，codon密码子，excise切割下，primer引物，region区段，amplificatio 扩增，transform转化，template模板，strand链，SDS-PAGE十二烷基磺酸钠-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳，ORF coding 开放阅读框架编码，polymer聚合物，sterilize消毒，inoculate接种，batch fermentation间歇式发酵，continuous fermentation连续是发酵，recombinant重组子，secretion分泌，variant变体，in situ 原地，in vivo体内，ribosome核糖体，interface界面，crosslinking交联，entrapment包埋，encapsulation胶囊化，residue残基，cationic阳离子的，culture broth培养液，stabilization 稳定，hydrolytic水解的，actone丙酮，aromatic芳香族的，sediment沉淀，chiral 手性，pesticide 杀虫剂，aseptic无菌的，impair削弱，atringent严厉，shelf life贮存期，continuous stirred tank reactor连续搅拌釜式反应器，vessel容器，foam breaker 消泡器，condensate冷凝水，cascade control级联控制，ratio control 比率控制，feed forward control 前馈控制，parameter参数，carbon dioxide二氧化碳，hydrophilic polymers亲水聚合物，aqueous水质的，tissue组织，carbohydrate碳水化合物，density 密度，solubility溶解度，extraction萃取，centrifugation离心，filtration过滤，solvent溶剂，solute溶质，membrane 膜，adsorption吸附，evaporation 蒸发，sublimation 升华，vaporisation气化，dehydration 脱水，distillation蒸馏，latent heat潜热，streamlined层流的，turbulent湍流的，hyperfiltration 超滤，dialysis透析，electrophoresis电泳，flocculation絮凝，flotation浮选，milling碾碎，lysis细胞裂解，lipophilic亲脂的，crystallization结晶，chromatographic层析法的，heterotrophic 异养的，lag phase迟滞期，exponential growth phase指数期，stationary phase稳定期，deathphase衰亡期，specific growth rate比生长速率课后习题：1.以间歇式操作方式培养大肠杆菌XN-1。
英语期末复习知识点(实用9篇)
英语期末复习知识点（实用9篇）英语期末复习知识点第1篇…to doing奉于against对抗，反对，与……作斗争无私地free from免于，不受in prison入狱，在狱中服刑first man to do第一个…的人time when I first met him was a very difficult period of my 第一次见到他的时候是在我一生中非常艰难的时期。
was generous with his time,for which I was他十分慷慨地给予我时间，我为此非常感激。
out of 失业that…/to dosoon as I could尽快，马上were put into a position in which we had either to accept we were less important,or fight the我们被置于这样一个境地：要么我们_接受低人一等的现实，要么跟政府作斗争。
位于句首，修饰状语从句时，主句采用部分倒装的语序。
Only in this way can you come up with a solution to the 只有这样，你才能想出解决这个问题的办法。
a matter of fact事实上up爆炸,打气equal to和…平等trouble处于困境遇到麻烦willing to do 愿意，乐于to变成;求助于，借助于,翻到，转向turn to sb forhelp 向某人求助heart灰心;泄气,丧失勇气,失去信心from逃脱，逃离，从……逃出have done本应做而未做needn’t have done本不需要做而做了can’t have done过去不可能做过(对过去的否定推测)must have done对过去的肯定推测the 通过考试better educated受到良好教育to power执政proud to do proud of sth为…而自豪up创立，建立，架起，建造The company was set up ten years 公司是十年前建立的。
英语专业语言学期末复习资料
Phonetics (sound)语音学；phonology(sounds) 音系学；morphology(word) 形态学；syntax(words, sentence)句法学；semantics(meaning)语义学；pragmatics(meaning ina context)语用学1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical developmentngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically.5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic unitsbine small units into big units3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.cultural transmission7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking；Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee；Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context.9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is aunit that is of distinctive value;It is an abstract unit;It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. phones are placed within square brackets: [ ], and phonemes in slashes: / /.11./p/ in [pi:k] (peak) : an aspirated [ph]12./p/ in [spi:k] (speak): an unaspirated [p]13.Both [ph] and [p] are called as allophones of /p/14. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. [p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.15. Minimal pairs: Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound; More precisely: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.16.Sequential rules The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules;The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.Refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.17.Assimilation rule—assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in-18. When pitch, stress, and sound length are tried to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.19.单元音monophthongs 双元音diphthongs20.Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning. It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.Morphs:The smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.The phonological or orthographic forms which realize morphemes. Allomorphs:A member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.21.Free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “-al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “-ed”in “recorded”, etc.22.Derivational morphemes—the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class,or meaning of words. e.g. modern —modernizeInflectional morphemes:purely grammatical markers;signifying tense, number, and case;not changing the syntactic category; never adding any lexical meaningpounding (合成词) blackboard; Derivation(派生词) --ful ---able;Back-formation逆构词法television televise; Borrowing—loan words (外来词); Clipping（缩略词）labtory lab; Blending（混成法）motel; Acronym（词首字母）APEC；Coinage/Invention (Neologism) 创新词nylon24.Open: n. V. Adj. Adv. Bound morphemes :roots and affixes25.①traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun….②non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).26.Three criteria are used to determine a word’s category: meaning, inflection, distribution.27.the structure or elements of phrases:XP rule specifier+head+complement28.NP (Det) + N + (PP)…29.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…30.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…31.PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…32.S →NP VP33.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called ds. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ss. Do insertion, WH movement.34.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformation. A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.35.Head: A V N P36. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.37. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form And what it refers to (i.e.between language and real world ); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle by ogden and richards: symblo/form, thought/ reference/, refrent.38.Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---- elements closely linked with language behavior. JR forth39.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between sense and reference:And, if等只有sense, 而无reference.一个sense可以有许多reference同一referenece可有不同的sense，Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.40.Major sense relations: Synonymy (同义关系)Antonymy (反义关系)Polysemy (多义关系)Homonymy (同音/形异义) Hyponymy (上下义关系)41.Antonymy: Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)非A即B; Gradable antonyms (程度反义词) :AB有中间, very .. How..; Relational opposites （关系对立词）丈夫妻子42.Sense relations between sentences: Synonymy (同义关系) inconsistency (自相矛盾)Entailment (蕴涵)Presupposition (预设)X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)X is semantically anomalous (反常的43.man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] women [+HUMAN +ADULT －MALE]girl [+HUMAN －ADULT －MALE] child [+HUMAN －ADULT OMALE]father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.44.predication analysis: G.leech: argument 名词predicate 动词45. Pragmatics --- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration). Pragmaticists regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics --- the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language. Essential difference is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 不senmantics.46.Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning of a sentence. Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker.It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.47.John Austin’s speech act theory.Performatives (行事话语): I promise Constatives (述事话语)48.A locutionary act (言内行为) is the act of saying words, phrases, clause; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act (言外行为) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 关注A perlocutionary act (言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.act performed by saying sth.49.Searle’s classification of speech acts:Representatives (陈述) Directives (指令)Commissives (承诺) Expressives (表达) Declarations (宣布)50.CP Grice:The maxim of quality: ck adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity信息充足; The maxim of relation继续下去; The maxim of manner方式表达清楚模糊词绕口1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.context3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.abstract4. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Performatives1. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.illocutionary2. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.commissive3. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.expressive4. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.quantity4. ____C______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act5. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _B_____.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F4. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F5. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T6. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T7. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. F1. A __bound_____ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.2. On, before and together are__close_____words—they are words which do not take inflectional endings.3. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __affix__ and __root__ root.4. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions and articles are all_close__class items.5. handsome consists of 2 morphemes, one is the _free___ morpheme hand, the other is the __bound__ morpheme some.1.There are _C__ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. 3B. 4.C. 5.D. 62. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called___A_ morphemes.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD. Derivational1. Major lexical categories are___N__, __V__, __adj__and____prep_.2. The deep structure refers to ____.3. when the affirmative sentence "Jack sold his textbooks to jill after the final examination' is transformed into "When did jack sell his textbooks to Jill?", three transformational rules are applied. they are__Do insertion__, subject-aux inversion and __Wh movement__.4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called __transformation______.5. The head is the word __n v a p___.1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F3. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.T1. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )2. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )3. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. ( T )4. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )5. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal /N/ never occurs in the initial position in English nor in Chinese.( F )The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the __C____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be___B__.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel3. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A___.A. /t/ and /d/B. /k/ and /g/C. /p/ and /b/D. / N/ and / W/4. The phoneme is an abstract ___B_ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical5. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate __B____.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. Allomorphs。
天然药物化学-专业英语期末复习资料
spreading glass plates: 铺板automatic spreading devices：自动铺板器acetone：丙酮petroleum ether ：石油醚ether：乙醚chloroform：氯仿ethyl acetate : 乙酸乙酯methanol：甲醇ethanol：乙醇butanol ：正丁醇grease ：n. 油脂（状物）slurry ：n. 浆，泥浆hemihydrate：半水合物air dried ：a. 风干的，晾干的activated：a. 活化的，活性的，激活的inorganic salt ：无机盐inorganic：a. 无机的，无生物的organic: a. 有机的，有机体的inorganic acid / chemistry 无机酸/无机化学organic acid/solvent/ chemistry有机酸/有机溶剂/有机化学silver nitrate 硝酸银nitrate 硝酸根precoated plates ：预制板aluminium sheets ：铝片fluorescent indicator: 荧光指示剂quench the fluorescence：荧光淬灭wavelength：波长microparticles of silica：硅胶微粒HPLC：high performance liquid chromatography高效液相色谱HPTLC：high performance thin layer chromatography高效薄层色谱solvent system：溶剂系统reference compounds ：参照（对照）化合物paper-lined：衬上滤纸saturated： a. 饱和的Horizontal TLC：水平薄层色谱over-run：过度展开electrophoresis：电泳by spraying: 喷雾，喷洗conc. H2SO4：浓硫酸sulphuric acid : 硫酸nitric acid ：硝酸hydrochloric acid：盐酸detection reagent：检测试剂steroids：甾体，甾族类化合物steroidal: a.甾族的sterol: n. 甾醇，固醇preparative TLC: 制备薄层色谱adsorbent：n. 吸附剂eluting：洗脱elute: v. 洗脱（提），流出elution: n. 洗脱，流出，淋洗buffer elution 缓冲洗脱gradient elution 梯度洗脱isocratic elution 等度(无梯度)洗脱eluant: n. 洗脱（提）液，展开剂eluate: n. 洗脱液，提取液（物）centrifuging：离心( centrifuge)GLC：气相色谱Gas liquid chromatographysensitivity:灵敏度、灵敏性quantitative: 定量的qualitative: 定性的linearity and limit of detection (LOD)线性和检测限precision（精密度）reproducibility（重复性）recovery（加样回收率）stability（稳定性）bond: 键，结合bonded：键合的，化合的stationary phase: 固定相C18 or ODS C8 silica gel Sephadex ion exchange resinmobile phase：流动相miscible solvent mixture: 可互溶的混合溶剂methanol, acetonitrile(乙腈) distilled wateracetic acidphosphoric acid(磷酸)buffer salt(缓冲盐)polymer：聚合物polymerase 聚合酶hydrolase 水解酶polymerization 聚合作用decomposition 分解作用isocratic elution: 等度洗脱gradient elution: 梯度洗脱elute:洗脱, 流出,流出物eluting:洗脱, 流出elution:洗脱, 流出elution time/ volume/program/ systemdetector：检测器UVD: ultraviolet-visible detector (紫外可见吸收检测器)PDAD: photodiode array detector (光电二极管阵列检测器)RID: refractive index detector (示差折光检测器）FD: fluorescence detector (荧光检测器)ECD: electrochemical detector (电化学检测器)ELSD: evaporative light-scattering detector(蒸发光散射检测器）at ambient temperature常温，室温，环境温度be subjected to: 使遭受，使属于，可能thermal re-arrangement：热重排thermostatically controlled jacket：温度控制护套coated:被包裹的，覆盖的precoated: 预制的poisoning：污染，毒害impurities: 杂质，不纯物purify ：纯化，精练putification:精制, 纯化plant extracts: 植物提取物extract: v. 提取，萃取，抽提n. 提取液，萃取液，浸膏extractant：提取剂，萃取剂extraction ：提取(法)，萃取(法)extractive：n. 提取物, 浸出物, 浸出制剂a. 抽提的, 浸出的non-volatile：非挥发性的spectrum：n. 光谱，波谱，谱refractive index detector：示差折光检测器terpenoids：萜类化合物terpene : 萜，萜烯terpane：萜烷alkaloids：生物碱carbohydrates：碳水化合物flavonoids：黄酮类化合物coumarins: 香豆素quinone: 醌benzoquinone苯醌naphthoquinone萘醌anthraquinone蒽醌steroids: 甾体类化合物lignanoid：木脂素prepacked columns：预填充柱prepacked：预先装入的silica microporous particle column ：硅胶微孔粒柱non-polar compounds：非极性化合物polar compounds：极性化合物ultrapure ：超纯ultra：超，过，越，极端，异常degas：脱气chromatographic technique: 色谱技术phytochemist’s：植物化学家的phytochemistry: 植物化学armoury：装备，武器库，军械库quantitative: 定量的separations on a preparative scale：制备分离electromagnetic spectrum 电磁谱spectrum：光谱, 波谱, 谱spectra(复数）spectral: 光谱的spectroscopy: 光谱学, 波谱学,光谱法spectroscopic: 分光镜的spectroscope: 分光器，分光镜infrared：红外visible light：可见光wave numbers: 波数proportional to energy: 能量成正比red light: 红外线violet light: 紫射线ultraviolet (UV) spectrum 紫外谱conjugated diene 共轭二烯absorption maxima 最大吸收峰UV spectra 紫外光谱absorption peak 吸收峰wavelength 波长absorbance A 吸收值Aconcentration in solution 溶液的浓度path length 厚度molar absorptivity 摩尔吸收系数nmr spectroscopy：核磁共振光谱nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy infrared (ir) spectroscopy：红外光谱unknown compound：未知化合物spectroscopic methods：光谱（仪器）方法functional groups：官能团molecule：分子molecular: 分子的molecular weight（M.W.) 分子量molecular formular (M.F.) 分子式Infrared radiation：红外辐射electromagnetic spectrum: 电磁波光谱microwaves：微波wave number：波数micrometer(μm)：微米reciprocal centimeters (cm-1)：厘米的倒数be directly proportional to: 与….成正比例be inversely proportional to:与….成反比例electromagnetic radiation：电磁波辐射vibrational energy states：振动能级状态photon：光子lowest vibrational state ：最低的振动能级状态ground vibrational state：基态stretching modes ：伸缩振动bending modes：弯曲振动methylene ：亚甲基fingerprints：指纹，指印snowflakes：雪花superposability：相似性，重合superposable：可重合的, 可叠合的hexane:己烷absorption peaks：吸收峰carbon-hydrogen stretching vibrations：碳-氢伸缩振动bending vibrations：弯曲振动physical state：物理状态neat sample：纯样品sodium chloride ：氯化钠disk：片, 圆板, 圆盘, 圆盘状物thin film：薄膜carbon tetrachloride：四氯化碳chloroform：氯仿potassium bromide：溴化钾thin wafer：薄片structure determination : 结构鉴定vibrations characteristic: 振动特征functional groups：官能团fingerprint region：指纹区pattern of peaks：峰形frequencies：频率wave numbers：波数Mass spectrometry: 质谱spectrometry n. [物]光谱测定法,度谱术spectrometric adj. [物]光谱测定的,分光仪的,光谱仪的spectrometer n. [物]分光计molecule：分子bombarded ：轰击high-energy electrons ：高能量电子electron-volts：电子伏特collides with ：碰撞molecule : 分子electron ：电子cation radical ：正离子ionize: vt. 使离子化，vi. 电离ionization : n. 离子化, 电离electron impact ：电子轰击molecular ion ：分子离子fragment ion : 碎片离子positively charged ：带正电荷odd number of electrons ：奇数电子，不成对电子odd : 奇数even：偶数mass ：n. 质量, 块, 大多数, 大量molecular ion : 分子离子dissociating ：裂解，分离，游离fragments ：n. 碎片, 断片, 片段fragmental adj. 破片的, 断片的fragmentation n. 分裂, 破碎cation radical ：正离子neutral fragment ：中性碎片positively charged one ：正离子，带正电荷fragmentations：断裂，分裂, 破碎Ionization and fragmentation：电离和裂解particle：粒子electron-impact mass spectrometer：电子轰击质谱分光仪bombarded with ：轰击molecular ion: 分子离子fragment ions：碎片离子analyzer tube：分析器magnet ：n. 磁体, 磁铁, 磁场magnetic : adj. 磁的, 有磁性的, 有吸引力的magnetically : adv. 有磁力地, 有魅力地deflects ：v. (使)偏斜, (使)偏转deflect from : 使...从...偏斜, 使...从...转变方向deflected : 偏离的original trajectory : 起始轨道original ：adj. 最初的, 原始的, 独创的, 新颖的n. 原物, 原作trajectory：n. [物](射线的) 轨道, 弹道, 轨线circular path ：环形轨迹radius ：n. 半径, 范围, 辐射光线, 有效航程,mass/charge ratio (m/z)：质量/电荷比，质/荷比magnetic field strength ：磁场强度analyzer ：分析仪，分析器narrow slit ：狭缝detector ：检测器scan ：扫描positive ions : 正离子mass spectrum：质谱图computerized data handling systems：计算机数据处理系统bar graphs ：棒状图bar : n. 条, 棒, 横木, 酒吧间, 栅, 障碍物vt. 禁止, 阻挡, 妨碍, 把门关住, 除...之外graph : n. 图表, 曲线图relative intensity：相对丰度benzene：苯shielding : 屏蔽proton : n. [核]质子chemical shifts：化学位移standard substance：标准物质tetramethylsilane (CH3)4Si ，TMS) ：四甲基硅烷coincides with：与...一致, 与...相符frequency：频率hertz：n. 赫, 赫兹(频率单位：周/秒); (Hz)赫兹downfield：低场magnetic field strength：磁场强度60-MHz: 60 兆周nmr spectrum: 核磁共振光谱chloroform (CHCl3)：氯仿signal due to the proton：氢信号downfield from：比…低场chemical shifts (δ)：化学位移parts per million (ppm)：百万分之几chemical shift for the proton：氢化学位移Nuclear magnetic resonance spectra：核磁共振光谱nuclear magnetic resonance：核磁共振nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy：核磁共振(光谱)分析 parts per million (ppm)：百万分之几zero point：零点field strength：场强度nmr spectrometer：核磁共振仪nuclear spin：核自旋nuclear：adj. [核]核子的, 原子能的, 核的, 中心的nuclear resonance：核共振irrespective of：adj. 不顾的, 不考虑的, 无关的magnetic field strength：磁场强度signal due to the proton：氢信号carbon：碳hydrogen：氢oxygen：氧nitrogen: 氮splitting : 裂分nmr spectra：核磁共振谱structure determination ：结构鉴定ethyl group：乙基nmr spectrum：核磁共振光谱ethyl bromide：溴乙烷ethyl：n. [化]乙基, 乙烷基bromide ：n. [化]溴化物bromide chloride ：一氯化溴electronegative atom or group : 电负性的原子或基团electronegative：adj. 负电的, 带负电的bromine：溴ethyl bromide ：溴乙烷triplet-quartet pattern ：三重-四重峰系统triplet ：n. 三重峰, 三个一组, 三份quartet: n. 四重峰, 四重奏, 四重唱methylene：亚甲基methyl：甲基coupling with ：与…偶合coupling : n. 联结, 接合, 耦合vicinal coupling：邻位偶合adjacent：adj. 邻近的, 接近的carbon n. [化]碳(元素符号C), (一张)复写纸carbon paper 复写纸Magnetic resonance spectroscopy 核磁共振谱Nuclei n. [nucleus的复数] 核心、中心、细胞核nuclear [核]核子的, 原子能的, 核的, 中心的isotope n. [化]同位素isotopic adj. 同位素的nuclear spins ：核自旋skeleton n. 骨架, 骨骼, 基干, 纲要, 万能钥匙substituent n. 取代adj. 取代的substitute n. 代用品, 代替者, 替代品v. 代替, 替换, 替代substitute A for B 用A替Bsubstituted 取代的, 代替的substituted aromatic 取代的芳香化合物substituted benzene 取代苯苯的同系物structure determination 结构鉴定isotopic form of carbon 碳的同位素nuclear spin 核自旋sensitivity 灵敏度Tune vt. 调音, 调整, 拨收, 收听n. 曲调, 调子, 和谐, 合调 13C magnetic resonance 13C核磁共振background noise 背景噪音13C nmr (cmr) spectroscopy 13C核磁共振光谱routine technique 常规技术organic structure determination 有机结构鉴定nmr spectrometers 核磁共振仪sensitivity-enhancing 提高灵敏度strategy n. 策略, 军略, 计划random n. 随意, 任意adj. 任意的, 随便的, 胡乱的regardless of 不管, 不顾Scanned v. 扫描, 细看,审视,浏览n. 扫描signal-to-noise ratio 信噪比值solution to n. 解答, 解决办法, 溶解, 溶液from low field to high field 从低场到高场pulse n. 脉搏, 脉冲radiofrequency 射频higher spin state 高能级自旋态excited nuclei 被激发的核relax to their lower energy state 弛豫到低能级态Fourier Transform 傅立叶变换/转换(FT) nmr spectrometers 傅立叶变换核磁共振仪FT nmr 傅立叶变换核磁共振13C nmr 13C核磁共振1H Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy 氢核磁共振光谱 external magnetic field 外界磁场nuclear spin 核自旋proton 质子flip vt. 掷, 弹, 轻击,抽打, vi. 用指轻弹, 抽打nucleus 核shielded 屏蔽molecule 分子chemical shifts 化学位移1H nmr spectrum 氢核磁共振波谱chemical shift nonequivalent protons 化学位移不等价质子integrated areas 积分面积splitting pattern 裂分图形adjacent 邻近的, 接近的13C Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy碳核磁共振光谱 signal enhancement 提高信号强度13C nmr spectra 碳核磁共振光谱carbon signals 碳信号singlets 单峰off-resonance decoupling 偏共振去偶multiplets 多重峰bonded hydrogens 键合的氢Infrared spectroscopy 红外光谱molecular structure 分子结构transitions 跃迁vibrational energy levels 振动能级electromagnetic radiation 电磁波辐射functional groups 官能团absorption 吸收frequencies 频率Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy紫外-可见吸收光谱Transitions 跃迁electronic energy levels 电子能级uv-vis spectroscopy 紫外-可见吸收光谱absorption peaks 吸收峰conjugated π-electron systems 共轭π-电子系统Mass spectrometry 质谱ionized 电离，使离子化electron impact 电子轰击dissociates 裂解, 分裂fragments 碎片Positive ions 正离子mass/charge ratio 质荷比deduce 推论, 推断，演绎出。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
一、根据缩写写出单词全称（5分）1.BOD：Biological Oxygen Demand2.TOC：Total Organic Carbon3.VSS：V olatile Suspended Solid4.CBA：Cost Benefit Analysis5.NPS：New Production Skill6.VOC：Volatile Organic Compounds7.APC：Air Pollution Control8.SS：Suspended Solids9.COD：Chemical Oxygen Demand10.EIA：Environmental Impact Assessment11.TSP：total suspended particulates12.EPA：Environmental Protection Agency13.IAQ：indoor air quality14.ETS：environmental tobacco smoke二、专业术语中英互译（出自课后习题）（共10分）life expectancy ：耐用期限，平均寿命poverty-stricken ：贫穷的，贫困的，贫乏的smog-laden air ：烟雾弥漫的天空，烟雾缭绕的空气，阴霾天气global conditions ：全球状况haves and have-nots ：富人和穷人underprivileged ：社会地位低下的，相对贫困的，生活水平低下的，弱势的savanna ：热带大草原，稀树草原 predator ：食肉动物，捕食者environmental disruptions ：环境破坏，环境失调农药—pesticide / agricultural chemicals 再生—regeneration化肥—chemical fertilizer 有机废物—organic wastes微生物—microorganism / microbe 衰减—attenuation阻滞的—retardant / blocking 稀释—dilution添加剂—additive 合成塑料—synthetic plastic Precision and accuracy 精密度和准确度 bulk collection 散装收集matrix material 基质 analytical sequence 分析序列multivariate statistics 多元统计 interactive effect 互动效应overall analytical scheme 整体分析方案 insofar在…的范围；在…情况下灵敏度 sensitivity；采样sampling真实时间：actual time 样品预处理 sample pretreatment稳定性 stability 曲线拟和 Curve fit吸附 adsorption 累积 accumulate分析评价 analysis evaluation 物理分离physical Separation因次图 Dimensional diagram 标准方差Standard varianceprimary pollutant 一次大气污染物 secondary pollutant 二次大气污染物air stagnation 空气流动停滞，大气停滞 nitrous oxide 一氧化二氮(N2O)nitric oxide 一氧化氮(NO) nitrogen dioxide 二氧化氮(NO2)sulfur dioxide 二氧化硫（SO2） hydrogen fluoride(HF) hydrogen sulfide（H2S）ammonia(NH3) sulfur acid (H2SO4) nitric acid(HNO3)soot 煤烟 dust 灰尘 smog 烟雾 ozone 臭氧 herbicide 除草剂 pesticide 杀虫剂 / 农药正常浓度 normal concentration 汽车尾气 automobile exhaust决定因素 determining factor 光化学氧化物 photochemical oxidant液体微滴 liquid droplet 放射性物质 radioactive substance含硫的 sulfur-containing 风化 wind erosion / weathering严重污染的 serious polluted / heavily polluted不完全氧化 incomplete oxidization / incomplete combustion尾气 off-gas 可应用性 applicability 工业规模 full-scale土壤床 soil bed 生物过滤器 biofilter 固定资本 fixed capital易生物降解的 easily biodegradedVOC 挥发性有机化合物 APC 大气污染控制Regulatory program 调整项目 Financial support 财政支持Operating cost 操作成本 Biodegradation capacity 生物降解能力Environmental media 环境介质 Biological 生物学的Technologies 技术、工艺 Inorganic air pollutants无机大气污染物treatment facilities 处理设备 per capita per day 每人每天municipality 市政当局, 自治市 population equivalent 人口当量basement flooding 地下室浸水 runoff 排水domestic sewage 生活污水 type of terrain 地形种类land disposal 掩埋处置 fecal coliform 粪大肠菌群assimilation capacity同化能力 practical outlets可行的排出途径，现实出路endogenous phase 内源〔生长〕期 aquatic life 水生生物stringent effluent requirement 严格的废水排放要求detrimental to human health 对人体健康有害的三、填空题（出自课文段落）（翻译不是十分准确，只是帮助大家理解）Normally, four types of measurements are made: qualitative analysis to identify the species; quantitative analysis to determine how much of the species is present; speciation or characterization to establish details of chemical form and the manner in which the pollutant is actually present (such as being adsorbed onto the surface of a particle): and impact analysis in which measurements are made for the specific purpose of determining the extent to which an environmental impact is produced by the pollutants in question.通常，测量有四种形式：定性分析，以确定目前的物种；定量分析，以确定有多少物种存在；形态或性质，确定目前污染物的详细的化学组分和方法（如被吸附到表面的粒子）；和影响分析中测量的具体目的是确定在何种程度的环境影响所产生的污染物问题。
A primary air pollution is a chemical added directly to the air that occurs in a harmful concentration.一次大气污染物是指有害的浓度直接进入到空气中的化学物质。
A secondary air pollution is a harmful chemical formed in the atmosphere through a chemical reaction among air components二次大气污染物是指在大气中由气体成分之间发生化学反应的有害化学物质。
(P52表格：污染物来源)Hydrocarbons：Incomplete combustion fossil fuels in automobiles and furnaces; evaporation of industrial solvents and oil spills; tobacco smoke; forest fires; plant decay (about 85 percent of emissions ) 碳氢化合物：不完全燃烧化石燃料的汽车和火炉；蒸发的工业溶剂和石油泄漏；烟草烟雾；森林火灾；植物的腐烂（大约百分之85的排放）Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2): High-temperature fuel combustion in motor vehicles and industrial and fossil fuel power plants; lighting 高温燃料燃烧机动车辆，工业和矿物燃料发电厂;照明Metals and Metal Compounds: Mining； industrial processes; coal burning; automobile exhaust金属盒金属化合物：挖掘；工业生产过程;燃煤;汽车尾气Biofiltration: An Innovative Air Pollution Control Technology for VOC Emissions.生物过滤：一种创新的大气挥发性有机物污染控制技术.Water pollution is an imprecise term that reveals nothing about either the type of polluting material or its source. The way we deal with the waste proble m depends upon whether the contaminants are oxygen demanding, algae promoting, infectious, toxic, or simply unsightly. Pollution of our water resources can oc cur directly from sewer outfalls or industrial discharges (point sources) or in directly from air pollution or agricultural or urban runoff (nonpoint sources).水污染是一个不准确的术语，它并未指出污染物的种类和来源。