关于供应链的毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

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零售业供应链英文文献及译文毕业设计论文外文文献翻译

零售业供应链英文文献及译文20 Since the 1990s, China's rapid development of the retail impressive, but compared with developed countries, China's retail business is still an enormous gap exists. China's accession to the WTO, foreign retail giants have entered the Chinese market, China's retail industry to directly face the international market amid fierce competition. And the globalization of the economy, market conditions, Business and competition among enterprises has evolved into the supply chain and the an integrated management ideas and methods, supply chain management around the core business, through the flow of materials, funds, information flow, will be suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, retail customers until the final composition of the supply chain together into an overall management model. At present, China's large retail enterprises in the supply chain management awareness has remained only at the operational level, not to treat it as a corporate strategy to implement an important component of the it is only through the supply chain management of strategic thinking, with the types of goods used to build the supply chain to acquire strategic match, can we make our retail enterprise supply chain management to implement a qualitative leap.1.An efficient supply-chain and supply-chain reactionSupply chain there are two main functions : to the logistics function and flow function. Supply chain logistics functions refer to the minimum cost of the raw materials processed into components, semi-finished products, products and their supply chain from a node to another node; supply chain to flow function refers to the market demand to make rapid response, to ensure an appropriate product in the appropriate place and time to meet the needs of customers. Logistics functions to flow and function needs some costs, which together constitute the total supply chain costs, with the main logistics costs including transport, storage, packaging, handling, distribution processing, distribution costs, flow to the cost of including an oversupply of commodities price losses, and supply of stock losses and the resulting loss of potential income customers The general sense is the supply chain and logistics business flow between these two functions of the balance, responsiveness and efficiency cost trade-off between the level. Supply chain management is an integrated management ideas and methods, in the increasingly fierce market competition, the rapid development of information technology today, the supply chain tends to shorten the response time to meet the evolving needs of users. In this time based on the competition, supply chain operations with the needs of the market simultaneously, not only faster response speed, and a flexible response to the magic. Supply chain reaction capacity available supply chain following tasks ability to measure : Is able to demand significant changes to respond; whether it can satisfy customers in a shorter period of Availability; whether it will provide customers with more varieties of products; the possibility of providing innovative products; ability to provide a high level of customer service. Supply chain has more of the above capacity, the supply chain reaction capability will be. However reaction of the increase must also pay the cost of the price increase. For example, to meet the demand for the drastic change in, it needs higher inventory levels, leading to a declining level of efficiency. Therefore, each raising a strategic response capability will have to pay additional costs, thereby reducing efficiency levels, and vice versa.Supply chain efficiency is to achieve a supply chain logistics functions as a major objective, that is, at a minimum cost of raw materials into parts, and finished products, and eventually sent to the hands ofconsumers. Efficient supply-chain needs of the market, the characteristics of the product and related technologies are relatively stable, thus the supply chain nodes of the enterprise can focus on access to the benefits of economies of scale, improve equipment utilization, lower production, transportation, warehousing and other aspects of the associated costs, so as to minimize product costs. Supply chain reaction was achieved in the supply chain to flow function as a major objective, that the right to make changes in market demand, rapid response, such as supply chain for products, the market demand is very great uncertainty, or a shorter product life cycle, product or technology developed rapidly, products or seasonal fluctuations in demand strong. Supply Chain Reaction need to maintain a higher adaptability to the market and achieve flexible production, thereby reducing product obsolescence and the risks of failure. Supply chain strategy is in the supply chain-reaction capability and efficiency levels between the balance Once the retail enterprise supply chain strategy, stress reaction of the supply chain must be all the functions strategy designed to enhance its response capabilities, emphasizing efficiency and the level of the supply chain, it must allow all the functions of the strategies used to improve efficiency and make contribution.2. Retail enterprise sales of household items, refrigerated food, food processing temperature. Functional value of the life cycle length, needs stability can accurately forecast, so that supply and demand can achieve almost perfect balance, This makes it easy to adjust the market, the business flow costs can be omitted. Retail enterprises can concentrate almost all his energy to reduce logistics costs, with the upstream suppliers, in close cooperation accelerate inventory turnover, timely inventory and to adopt high-efficiency low-cost procurement and the right to choose suppliers on cost and quality, According to market forecasts to ensure balanced effectively meet the needs of its customers bring the whole of the supply chain to minimize inventory and maximize efficiency. Clearly, the functional efficiency of the process of commodity requirements, operators such goods retail enterprises should adopt efficient supply chain.Innovative products refers to the design or services, and so on innovative products, such as fashion, high-end appliances Fashion and luxury goods such. These commodities can bring higher profits, but because of its short life cycle and commodity diversification, demand is difficult to predict accurately, a large number of fake products and the emergence of innovative products will weaken the competitive edge, Enterprises had to undergo a series of more new innovations, so that the demand for more unpredictability. Innovative products with a high degree of market uncertainty, increased the risk of an imbalance in supply and demand, Therefore the main cost is not the cost of business flow logistics costs, Retail enterprises need to market changes fast and flexible response to customer demand. Choice of suppliers to not consider the low-cost, but access speed and flexibility; inventory and production capacity in key decision-making is not to minimize the cost, but the speed and flexibility of response. to minimize the market demand for the uncertainty caused by the loss. Clearly, innovative products to respond quickly to the request process, the operation of such goods retail enterprises should adopt reactive supply chain. If the retail business is a function of the value of goods they used reactive supply chain, Or maybe the operators are innovative products that have adopted efficient supply chain, supply chain strategy will be a fundamental error, it is necessary to redesign the supply chain. Retail enterprise supply chain management strategy implementation1. Recognition of the value of retail enterprises demand characteristics, we can commodity production cycle, demand predictability, and the market value of diversity into view with the standard of service and so on to identify the characteristics of the demand for commodities. In general, the functional value of the longer life cycle (more than two years), innovative products and the life cycle is short (3 months to 1 year);functional value less variety (10-20 kinds of deformation), innovative products more varieties (usually up to 10 million species of deformation); functional commodity demand forecast error is less (10%), innovative products forecast larger deviations (40%~100%); Functional value of the average stock lower rate (1% ~ 2%), innovative commodity stock average rate higher (10 to 40%); functional commodity market into a longer term (6 months to 1 year), innovative products into the market for a shorter period (1 day to 2 weeks); Functional commodities lower profit contribution rate (is 5% -20%), innovative products higher profit contribution rate (20% ~ 60%). Criterion use these can be effective in identifying characteristics of the demand for commodities.2. Implementation of retail merchandise categories manage retail commodity categories management refers to a retail commodity groups as a strategic business unit management, to concentrate on transmission and consumers realize the value, in order to obtain better operating performance. Specifically, the retail enterprises operating on all goods by category classification, identification and measurement of each functional category of commodities, income, growth and other indicators, and the types of goods divided into functional goods and innovative products. On this basis, consider combining various types of commodity inventory levels and display shelves, and other factors, the development of commodity varieties, the entire merchandise category management, enhance customer service levels and achieve overall commodity categories of overall revenue maximization.3. According to the types of goods respectively corresponding supply chain strategy for functional products should focus on lowering the cost of logistics. using efficient supply chain, the implementation of effective customer response (ECR) system. From the enhancement of the efficiency of the supply of goods start. and upstream suppliers and manufacturers between the use of modern information technology to establish mutual coordination modes of supply, Retailers use POS systems, the sales and distribution of synchronous operation and sharing of logistics facilities and storage resources, lower distribution costs, minimizing production and distribution processes may produce the waste. For innovative products should focus on lowering costs to flow, using reactive supply chain, the implementation of rapid response (QR) system. Raising the speed of response to customers, and supply chain parties to establish strategic partnership and cooperation mechanism EDI use of EDI technology nodes of the supply chain division of the enterprise collaboration and information sharing, reduce the volume of the design and production cycle, the implementation of JIT production, multiple varieties of small batch production and the high frequency of small batch delivery, and lower supply chain inventory levels, quickly meet customers personalized and customized demand, improve the entire supply chain response capability.20世纪90年代以来，我国零售业的迅速发展令人瞩目，然而与发达国家相比，我国零售业仍然存在着巨大差距。

毕业论文外文翻译--供应链的战略成本管理(英语原文+中文翻译)

本科毕业论文外文翻译供应链中的战略成本管理-结构性成本管理Strategic Cost Management in Supply ChainsPart 1: Structural Cost ManagementShannon W. Anderson and Henri C. DekkerAbstract: Strategic cost management is the deliberate alignment of a firm’s resources and associated cost structure with long-term strategy and short-term tactics. Although managers continue to pursue efficiency and effectiveness within the firm increasingly, Improvements are obtained across the value chain: through reconfiguring firm boundaries, relocating resources, reengineering processes, and re-evaluating product and service offerings in relation to customer requirements. In this article, we review strategic cost management, especially structural cost management. Structural cost management employs tools of organizational design, product design, and process design to create a supply chain cost structure that is coherent with firm strategy.Key wards: structural cost management; su pply cha in; competitive Advantage1 INTRODUCTIONThe prevalence in the current business press about acquisitions, restructuring, outsourcing, and off shoring indicates the vigor with which firms are engaged in the modern cost management. There’s a shift from prior internal processes for efficiency and effectiveness, firms are attempt to manage costs throughout the value chain. As the value of purchased materials and services as a share of selling price has increased ,firms find themselves managing complex supply chains, that include global suppliers, contract manufacturers, service centers and so on. Firms should pay attention to the value chain, so that they can obtain the room of development.2 STRATEGIC COST MANAGEMENTCost management research has tended to fall into two related streams. The first research stream examine whether and how firms configure accounting data to support value chain analysis ; T he second research stream attempt to derive the relationship between a ﬁrm’s strategy and cost structure. The focus is on the causal relation between activity levels and the resources that are required. These research streams take as given the ﬁrm’s strategy and structure and focus on whether accounting records are capable of reﬂecting or detecting the economics of the chosen strategy. In this review we take Shank’s broader perspect ive that much of what constitutes strategic cost management is found in choices about organizational strategy and structure. Following Anderson, we define “strategic cost management” as deliberate decision making aimed at aligning the ﬁrm’s cost structure with its strategy and with managing the enactment of the strategy.We focus on interactions across firm boundaries; Specially, the buyer/supplier interface, as a source of competitive advantage that can deliver low cost, as well as high productivity, quality, customer responsiveness, and innovation. Shank posited that two types of cost drivers are the basis for strategic cost management: structural cost drivers that reflect organizational structure, investment decisions, and the operating leverage of the firm and executive cost drivers that reﬂect the efﬁciency of executing the strategy. Stated differently,structural cost management may be conceived of as a choice among alternative production functions that use different inputs or combinations there of to meet a particular market demand. Executive cost management is concerned instead with whether, for a given production function, the firm is on the efficient frontier. Structural and executive cost management is connected through improvement activities. For example, cost driver analysis is a catalyst for efﬁciency improvements of existing processes and for reengineering processes to create a different cost structure. Clearly ,cost management is only a part of long term profit maximization. This paper series will not discuss strategic revenue management; however, we acknowledge interdependencies between costs and revenues associated structural cost management and the executive cost management activities of the sustainability of the strategy. Often the greatest o pportunities for strategic cost management cross ﬁrm boundaries. Shank advocated cost management across the value chain, and other accounting scholars have called for research on how accounting facilitates modern inter-organizational relationships.3 STRUCTURAL COST MANAGEMENT IN SUPPLY CHAINSShank argued that structural cost drivers associated with organizational structure, investment decisions, and the operating leverage of the ﬁrm. In supply chain management, structural cost management includes the decision to seek an external supplier, selecting one or more external suppliers, and designing the buyer/supplier relationship. These elements of supply chain management are important determinants of cost structure and are central to managing risk in supply relations. Supplier selection processes are akin to personnel controls within the ﬁrm that ensure the ﬁtness between employee skills and job requirements. Designing the buyer/supplier relationship encompasses formal contractual management controls such as specifying authority for supply decisions, performance requirements, and rewards or sanctions for nonperformance, as well as formal and informal controls that reinforce desired cultural norms. Although we focus on structural cost management, many of the cost management decisions discussed in this section relate to balancing the “cost of control” against risks of inter-ﬁrm transactions. We review research and contemporary practices associated with sourcing decisions, supplier selection in the sections that follow.4 SOURCING: MAKE; BUY OR ALLYA core component of structural cost management is the decision to execute activities within the ﬁrm or to outsource them to another party. The so-called “make-buy-or-ally” decision considers how and where in the value chain firms draw their organizational boundaries and which activities are conducted inside versus outside the ﬁrm. Although the buyer and supplier are separate ﬁrms, the supply relationship often includes collaboration in the uncertain realm of product and process design.Transaction cost economics is the most widely used framework for explaining firm boundary and organizational design choices. Production costs are deﬁned by production technology and efficiency. A buyer and supplier’s production costs may di ffer if they use different technology, operate at different scales, or operate with different efficiency A buyer’s cost accounting recordsmay be one basis for comparing the “make” option with prices of external suppliers. Transaction costs concerns about opportunism associated with ﬁrm’s transactions. Examples of transaction costs include costs of activities such as searching for partners, negotiating and writing contracts, monitoring and enforcing contract compliance. Transaction costs are not typically accessible and, in the case of opportunity costs, may not even be included in cost accounting records. Consequently, texts typically warn students to consider strategic factors before making a sourcing decision based only on production costs. This is one area where cost management practices, both measurement and analysis, can be improved to better support structural cost management decisions associated with sourcing.5 INTERDEPENDENCE IN SUPPLY CHAINSAlthough we discuss the sourcing decision as a logical “starting point” in supply chain management, in reality this element of structural cost management is intertwined with other elements of strategic cost management. For example, in TCE theory, sourcing decisions are posited to reﬂect the minimization of anti cipated exchange hazards. The potential transaction partners are important predictors of exchange hazards. However, in complex supply chains in which many suppliers contribute to the completed product, product architecture is also a key determinant of sourcing decisions. The “partnership” strategies in supply chains depend critically on using criteria other than price in supplier selection. Thus, structural cost management decisions associated with sourcing are intertwined with structural cost management practices in supplier selection .6 THE SUPPLY CHAINS AS A SOURCE OF COMPETITIVE ADV ANTAGETCE, with its underlying performance risk and relational risk, focuses on potential downsides of cooperation. Another school of thought, the resource-based view RBV of the ﬁrm, focuses on the upside of cooperation. The RBV implicates inter-ﬁrm cooperation in the realization of strategic advantage, with ﬁrm boundaries resulting from managers’ dynamic search for opportunities to deploy valuable, scarce, inimitable resources to obtain abnormal returns. The basis for exchange in alliances can be ﬁnancial, technological, physical, or managerial resources. Studies applying the RBV to explain ﬁrm boundaries emphasize the inimitable value of collaborative partnerships.While the perspectives of TCE and risk management differ from the RBV, both assume that ﬁrm choices are motivated by the goal of maximizing long-run performance. Whereas TCE focuses on minimizing transaction costs at a given time, the RBV emphasizes the illiquidity and immobility of valuable resources. This approach admits the possibility that transacting with external parties dynamically changes the resources and capabilities that will be available in future periods. Together these frameworks point to important areas for growth in management accounting, Speciﬁcally, TCE and risk management indicate the importance of measuring risk in supply relationships and formally integrating risk assessments into the make, buy, or ally decision. The RBV indicates the importanc e of the emerging area of accounting for human capital and other ﬁrm capabilities and intangible assets whose value changes through exchange with strategic supply partners.7 TRENDS IN SUPPLY CHAIN GROWTHRecent years have shown tremendous growth in the use of the ally mode across different industries. In manufacturing, over the past 50 years the value of purchased materials and services has grown from 20 percent to 56 percent of the selling price of ﬁnished goods. AMR Researchﬁndthat the typical U.S. manufacturer manages over 30 contract relationships. In 2006, the worldwide market for supply chain management software, growing at an annual rate of 8.6 percent, topped $6 billion. The global IT outsourcing market was expected to grow to almost triple that size. Growth in use of collaboration is found in ﬁrms of different sizes and from different industries. for instance, report that almost 80percent of small to large Dutch ﬁrms are involved in enduring forms of interﬁrm cooperation,typically managing multiple partners at the same time. The largest proportion constituted outsourcing relations, a frequency that appears to follow from its potential to generate cost reductions and increased ﬂexibility, including the opportunity to convert ﬁxed costs into variable costs and to beneﬁt from economies of scale and scope.In sum, sourcing decisions are critical to structural cost management in supply chains; how-ever, there is little evidence that cost accountants have extended their expertise to include all relevant costs. Moreover, although risk management is becoming more common and supply chain risk is foremost among the risks that ﬁrms seek to control,accountants are primarily involved with controlling and mitigating risk.8 SUPPLIER SELECTIONThe search process of ﬁnding a supply partner is itself costly, entailing as it does identifying alternatives, evaluating supplier capabilities, and managing the ﬁnal selection process. Although TCE suggests that supplier selection is a cost-minimizing choice, the RBV identiﬁes a broader set of decision criteria. In particular, selecting suppliers with capabilities and resources that match the buyer’s needs is critical to supply chain performance and coordination. Key capabilities that have been shown to directly impact performance include inventory management, production planning and control, cash ﬂow requirements, and product/service quality. Das and Teng defined ﬁnancial resources, technological, physical, and managerial resources as the basis for alliance activity. Prior s tudies ﬁnd that the criteria used for supplier selection typically reﬂect the speciﬁc resources and competencies that are desired in potential partners. Examples include competitive pricing, supplier reliability, service support, and capabilities that may have a long-term contribution to buyers’ competitive advantage. The selection criteria can include “hard,” quantitative measures of performance; however, frequently they are complemented with “soft” measures that capture qualitative aspects of the desired relationship with the supplier.The success of buyer/supplier relation-ships characterized as “partnerships” is related to the buyer’s use of criteria other than price in selecting suppliers. As in the decision to outsource, the recognition of risks can be essential in supplier selection processes. Relational risks, performance risks, and their associated costs are avoided when suppliers are selected based on evidence of trustworthiness and competence. Accordingly, the selection process and selection criteria should reﬂect both the type of supplier resources and competencies needed, and the anticipated risks of the relationship. These factors also link the sourcing decision and supplier.CONCLUSIONIncreasingly, business strategy focuses on reexamining the b oundaries of the ﬁrm—on establishing appropriate boundaries, identifying supply chain partners with whom to co-design efﬁcient,effective products and processes, and managing transactions with these partners to deliver proﬁt s to all value chain participants.Article source：2009 Accounting Horizons V ol.23.摘要战略成本管理是对一个公司的资源的深入的整合，它通常把企业的成本结构和企业的长期战略和短期策略联系起来，尽管管理人员不断在企业内部追求效率和效益，然而，企业效益的日益提升最终是通过价值链获得的，即通过重组企业边界（如上游供应商、下游客户），重新定位资源，再造过程和重估与顾客需求相联系的产品和服务获得的。

供应链英语翻译(译文和原文)

Perspectives in supply chain risk managementChristopher S. TangUCLA Anderson School, 110 Westwood Plaza, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095,USAReceived 3 November 2005; accepted 16 December 2005Available online 2 March 2006AbstractTo gain cost advantage and market share, many firms implemented various initiatives such as outsourced manufacturing and product variety. These initiatives are effective in a stable environment, but they could make a supply chain more vulnerable to various types of disruptions caused by uncertain economic cycles, consumer demands, and natural and manmade disasters. In this paper, we review various quantitative models for managing supply chain risks. We also relate various supply chain risk management (SCRM) strategies examined in the research literature with actual practices. The intent of this paper is three-fold. First, we develop a unified framework for classifying SCRM articles. Second, we hope this review can serve as a practical guide for some researchers to navigate through the sea of research articles in this important area. Third, by highlighting the gap between theory and practice, we hope to motivate researchers to develop new models for mitigating supply chain disruptions.Keywords:Supply chain risk management; Quantitative models; Review1. IntroductionOver the last 10 years, earthquakes, economic crises,SARS, strikes, terrorist attacks have disrupted supply chain operations repeatedly. Supply chain disruptions can have significant impact on a firm’s short-term performance. For example, Ericsson lost 400 million Euros after their supplier’s semiconductor plant caught on fire in 2000, andApple lost many customer orders during a supply shortage of DRAM chips after an earthquake hit Taiwan in 1999. Supply chain disruptions can have long-term negative effects on a firm’s financial performance as well. For instance, Hendricks and Singhal (2005) report that companies suffering from supply chain disruptions experienced 33–40% lower stock returns relative to their industry benchmarks.To mitigate supply chain disruptions associated with various types of risks (uncertain economic cycles,uncertain consumer demands, and unpredictable natural andman-made disasters), many researchers have developed different strategies/models for managing supply chain risks. In this paper, we review primarily quantitative models that deal with supply chain risks. Also, we relate various supply chain risk management (SCRM) strategies examined in the literature with actual practices. The intent of this paper is threefold. First, we develop a unified framework for classifying SCRM articles. Second, we hope this review can serve as a practical guide for some researchers to navigate through the sea of research articles in this important area. Third, by highlighting the gap between theory and practice, we hope to motivate researchers to develop new models for mitigating supply chain disruptions.2. Supply managementTo gain cost advantage, many firms outsourced certain non-core functions so as to maintain a focus on their core competence (cf., Porter (1985)). Since the 1980s, we witnessed a sea change in which firms outsourced their supply chain operations including design, production, logistics, information services, etc. Essentially, supply management deal with five inter-related issues:1. supply network design,2. supplier relationship,3. supplier selection process (criteria and supplierselection),4. supplier order allocation,5. supply contract.3.Demand managementIn Section 2, we describe how manufacturers can use different supply management strategies to mitigate various supply chain operational risks However, these supply management strategies are ineffective when the underlying supply mechanism is inflexible. For instance, in the service industry or in the fashion goods manufacturing industry, the supply mechanism is inflexible because the capacity is usually fixed. When the supply capacity is fixed, many firms have attempted to use different demand management strategies so that they can manipulate uncertain demands dynamically so that the modified demand is better matched with the fixed supply.Due to space limitation, we are unable to review the dynamic pricing or clearance pricing literature. The reader is referred to Elmaghraby and Keskinocak (2003) for an extensive review of dynamic pricing models and clearance pricing models for selling a fixed number of units over a finite horizon. Also, we do not plan to review literature that deal with coordination of pricing and ordering decisions. The reader is referred to Yano and Gilbert (2004),Petruzzi and Dada (1999), Eliashberg and Steinberg (1993) for three comprehensive reviews in this area. Instead, we shall focus on articles that emphasize on the use of demand management strategies to‘‘shape’’ uncertain demand so that a firm can use an inflexible supply to meet the modified demand.4. Product managementTo compete for market share, many manufacturers expand their product lines. As reported in Quelch and Kenny (1984), the number of stock keeping units (SKUs) in consumer packaged goods has been increasing at a rate of 16% every year between 1985 and 1992. Marketing research shows that product variety is an effective strategy to increase increasing market share because it enables a firm to serve heterogeneous market segments and to satisfy consumer’s variety seeking behavior. However, while product variety may help a firm to increase market share and revenue, product variety can increase manufacturing cost due to an increasein manufacturing complexity. Moreover, product variety can increase inventory cost due to an increase in demand uncertainty. These twoconcerns have been illustrated in an empirical study conducted by MacDuffie et al. (1996). They show that the production and inventory costs tend to increase as product variety increases. Therefore, it is critical for a firm to determine an optimal product portfolio that maximizes the firm’s profit. The reader is referred to Ramdas (2003) for a comprehensive review of literature in the area of product variety.5. Information managementAs explained in Fisher (1997), most consumer products can be classified as fashion products or functional products. Basically, fashion products usually have shorter life cycles and higher levels of demand uncertainties than the functional products. Therefore, different information management strategies would be needed to manage for different typesof products especially in the presence of supply chain risks. For this reason, we shall classify the work in this section according to the product types: fashion products and functional products.6.Robust strategies for mitigating operational and disruption risksUpon examining the underlying assumptions of the models reviewed so far, it appears most of the quantitative models are designed for managing operational risks. Even though these quantitative models often provide cost effective solutions for managing operational risks, there do not address the issue of disruption risks in an explicit manner. Before we present some potential research ideas for managing supply chain disruption risk in the next section, we shall examine how disruptions risks are managed in practice and relate these practices to the models reviewed earlier. After reviewing some qualitative analyses presented in various risk management and SCRM articles, we can summarize the key findings as follows:1.Managers’attitude towards risks：Sharpira (1986) and March and Sharpira (1987) study managers’ attitude towards risks and they conclude that:(1)Managers are quite insensitive to estimates of the probabilities of possible outcomes.(2) Managers tend to focus on critical performance targets, which affect the way they manage risk.(3) Managers make a sharp distinction between taking risks and gambling.2.Managers’ attitude towards initiatives for managing supply chaindisruption risks.7. ConclusionsIn this paper, we have reviewed various quantitative models for managing supply chain risks. We found that these quantitative models are designed for managing operational risks primarily, not disruption risks. However, we argue that some of these strategies have been adopted by practitioners because these strategies can make a supply chain become more efficient in terms of handling operational risks and more resilient in terms of managing disruption risks. Since there are few supply chain management models for managing disruption risks, we would like to present six potential ideas for future research.1.Demand and supply process：Virtually, all models reviewed in this paper are based on the assumption that the demand or the supply process is stationary. To model various types of disruptions mathematically, one may need to extend the analysis to deal with non-stationary demand or supply process. For instance, one may consider modeling the demand or the supply process as a ‘‘jump’’ process to capture the characteristics of major disruptions.2.Objective function：The performance measures of the models reviewed in this paper are primarily based on the expected cost or profit. The expected cost or profit is an appropriate measure for evaluating different strategies for managing operational risks. When dealing with disruption risks that rarely happen, one may need to consider alternative objectives besides the expected cost/profit.3.Supply management strategies：When developing supply management strategies for managing disruption risks, both academics and practitioners suggest the idea of ‘‘back-up’’ suppliers.4.Demand management strategies: Among the demand management strategies presented in Section 3, it appears that dynamic pricing/ revenue management has great potential for managing disruption risks because a firm can deploy this strategy quickly after a disruption occurs. In addition, revenue management looks promising especially after successful implementations of different revenue management systems in the airline industry for managing operational risks.5. Product management strategies: When selling products on line, e-tailers can change their product assortments dynamically according to the supply and demand of different products. This idea can be extended to brick and mortar retailers for managing disruption risks.rmation management strategies: Among the information management strategies described in Section 6, we think the CPFR strategy is promising because it fosters a tighter coordination and stronger collaboration among supply chain partners.站在供应链风险管理的角度作者：Christopher S. Tang摘要：为了获得成本优势和抢占市场份额，很多企业采取了各种措施，比如外包生产制造和产品多样化生产。

供应链管理外文文献及翻译

供应链管理外文文献及翻译供应链管理的实践和理论已经在全球范围内得到广泛应用和研究。

本篇文献回顾了最近的文献，旨在提供一个有关供应链管理的广泛和多样化的视角。

本文献主要关注采购、生产和物流等方面。

本文献指出了供应链管理的重要性以及不断变化的环境对供应链管理的挑战。

作者还强调了合作伙伴关系、信息共享、风险管理和绩效评估等方面的关键因素。

总的来说，对于供应链管理的研究，应该包括广泛的实践案例和深入的理论研究。

只有这样，才能理解不断变化的环境对供应链管理的影响，从而制定更好的供应链管理策略。

翻译：Supply Chain Management Foreign Literature and TranslationThe practice and theory of supply chain management have been widely applied and studied worldwide. This literature review aims toprovide a broad and diversified perspective on supply chain management, focusing mainly on procurement, production, and logistics.The literature points out the importance of supply chain management and the challenges that the constantly changing environment poses to it. The authors also emphasize critical factors such as partnership relationships, information sharing, risk management, and performance assessment.In general, research on supply chain management should include diverse practical cases and in-depth theoretical studies. Only in this way can we understand the impact of the constantly changing environmenton supply chain management and formulate better supply chain management strategies.。

外文文献翻译供应链管理与5s管理

供应链管理与5s管理外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：90 th Annual International Supply Management Conference, May 2005英文原文Lean Supply Strategies: Applying 5S Tools to Supply Chain ManagementKimball BullingtonAssociate Professor of Supply Chain ManagementMiddle Tennessee State University90th Annual International Supply Management Conference, May 2005ABSTRACT: Supply strategies in a lean environment should support the operations strategy. It is appropriate then to use lean concepts and lean terminology in the creation of supply strategy for lean operations. This paper examines supply strategy development in a lean production environment by utilizing 5S, a key lean concept. The concepts of lean supply and 5S will be introduced followed by a discussion of how the 5S methodology may be used to develop and implement a supply strategy.Key words: lean ; 5s ; supply strategy;1 Lean SupplyThe term “lean supply” implies that the supply chain is appropriate for lean production. Lean production is a concept of waste elimination inprocesses, which has enjoyed popularity in manufacturing companies. The basic tenets of lean production as outlined by Womack and Jones (1996) include the following 、Specify value 、Identify the value stream、Organize the value stream to promote flow、Communicate demand through pull、Strive for perfection.It is appropriate for the supply management function in a lean environment to integrate lean concepts and terminology into the development of supply strategy. One of the foundational lean concepts that serves as a basis for all of the tenets given above is 5S.What is 5S?The 5S’s are lean concepts derived from the Japanese words: seiri (sort), seiton (set in order), seiso (shine or purity), seiketsu (standardize), and shitsuke (sustain) (Hirano,1996). Companies adopting the lean production philosophy often implement the 5S process to bring order to the workplace and thereby support lean production. 2 Why Use the 5S Concept as a Model for Lean Supply Strategy?5S is a proven model for organizing and maintaining a lean production environment. The relationship between purchasing or supply and the general management of operations may be improved through the use of a common vocabulary built around concepts familiar to the organizational head and the heads of other departments. For this reason, 5S is an appealing model for the development of supply strategy in a leanproduction environment. A model for using 5S to develop supply strategy follows.2 Sort:Remove All But the Necessary Materials, Equipment and Supplies.Typically, the first step in a producer’s implementation of 5S will be a tour of the target area marking with red tags those items that appear out of place or unnecessary. After reviewing each item, the item will either be put in its proper place or removed if it is unnecessary or redundant. The Sort process is essential to developing the organization of the workspace needed for lean production.Sorting the supply base includes selection of suppliers to add to the system and selecting suppliers to eliminate (supply base consolidation or rationalization). Implementing Sort in the supply base through supplier consolidation achieves the following benefits. It reduces the waste of inefficient work methods by reducing the number of suppliers that must be managed by the procurement staff. Sorting reduces the waste of selecting the wrong suppliers by focusing efforts of selection, evaluation, and improvement on a few select suppliers. This also improves the quality (conformance to specifications and delivery) of the products received from these suppliers by focusing quality assurance, control and improvement activities on a smaller number of suppliers. Sorting reduces processing waste as fewer purchase orders may be necessary and fewerselection audits are needed. Finally, Sorting increases the opportunity for supply chain partnering.So for the management of supply, the primary implementation of Sort is selection. There are several criteria that may be used to identify candidates for elimination in the sorting process.First, a performance review ., review of quality, delivery, and price performance) isolates some candidates for elimination. Next, a review of redundant suppliers is conducted. How many suppliers have identical or overlapping capabilities? Finally, a review of the number of part numbers purchased from each supplier will often result in identification of a large number of suppliers providing only one or a few parts.All of the sorting or consolidation is an effort to approach an optimum number of suppliers. Multiplying suppliers increases variation and overhead. The practice of utilizing multiple suppliers for a single part in order to reduce risk often increases risk, just as increasing the number of components in an assembly usually increases the probability of failure.Set in Order: Arrange Product and Equipment So It is Easy to Find and Easy to Use.Equipment and storage locations are labeled so equipment or tools will be easy to identify and put away when they are no longer in use ., tool cutouts or outlines on a peg board or in a tool chest). The labeling of storage locations with tape on the floor or the work station facilitatesvisual management. A glance is sufficient to identify missing tools or tools not properly stored.Arranging suppliers so they are easy to use brings to mind the concept of s egmentation. Segmentation provides a “place for everything” and allocates “everything in its place.” The supply base is sorted or segmented by value potential and risk, by strategic value and opportunity for cost improvement, by value potential and criticality, or other such criteria. The proper “place” for a supplier is a location in a segmentation matrix. The value of this exercise comes from clearly identifying how each supplier will be treated based on identifiable criteria. Table 1 is an example segmentation of the supply base by annual expenditures and risk yielding four segments of suppliers with different opportunities for value contribution.The key suppliers for lean production companies tend to be in the high risk –high value potential or “partnership” category of the supplier segmentation matrix.Partnership suppliers represent a higher risk to the company in terms of design complexity, startup communication, custom tooling, overall higher demand for buyer input, and schedule pressures ., just-intime support). Risk can also be thought of as the level of opportunity for adverse effects on value ., deterioration in delivery, lead time, price, or quality).The other supplier segments have different needs. The low risk –high value potential segment may include commodity items where price dominates other considerations. If the risk may be reduced for high risk –high value potential items, significant savings may be realized by some form of competitive bidding.The high risk –low value potential suppliers affect value by the nature of the factors that make them high risk. Risk factors could include demanding delivery requirements, advanced technology, etc. Temporary situations, such as cash flow problems or capacity limitations, could be the major risk factors. Segmentation helps prevent the supply manager from overlooking these potential problem suppliers. Finally, the low risk – low value potential suppliers typically have relatively high transaction costs as compared with the value of the product. The opportunity for adding value comes by consolidating these purchases and reducing transaction costs. Several different segmentations may be conducted in order to properly categorize the suppliers. The segmentation of suppliers may also include an evaluation of quality ., certified, conditional, approved status). Performance measures may be helpful in segmenting the remaining supply base. Hau Lee (2002) suggests the use of an uncertainty framework as a means of segmenting the supply base for demand and supply uncertainty.The location aspect of Set in Order may be addressed by identifyingthe location value of each supplier on a large map. This may identify further opportunities for consolidation by grouping suppliers locally or in targeted areas or along trucking routes so more than one supplier may be visited on a single trip. Other considerations for2.2.1 Keep Everything Swept and Clean.Cleaning implies system maintenance and inspection. As a work area is cleaned, problems such as oil leaks or other maintenance issues become more apparent before they have a chance to affect performance. The inspection of suppliers implies surveys or audits. The objective of auditing suppliers is to obtain objective evidence that supports the Sort and Segmentation decisions or evidence that supports action of a different sort, such as risk reduction and continuous improvement. These audits may include: site surveys, supplier self-assessments, remote surveys, third party certification type surveys ., ISO 9000 or QS 9000), or third party quality awards such as the Baldrige Award (or state award using the Baldrige criteria). Major changes in supplier personnel and the work place environment may not be detected by 3rd party audits such as ISO certification audits. First person audits should be structured in such a way as to detect performance or personnel changes.For key suppliers (identified in the Set in Order or Segmentation stage), on-site visits should be scheduled with a frequency appropriate to the relationship. For example, high risk-high value potential suppliersusually receive the highest frequency of visits followed by high risk – low value potential, and low risk - high value potential suppliers respectively. Low risk –low value potential suppliers are generally not surveyed except for mail surveys of regulatory compliance issues. 2.2.2 Integrating the First Three S.Standardize ensures that your implementation of the Sort, Set in Order, and Shine doesn’t deteriorate over time. It formaliz es the procedures, schedules and practices that sustain the system and drive future improvements. Problems avoided by Standardize include: Firstly , the number of suppliers grows unchecked,Secondly, the segmentation deteriorates and the classification of the suppliers becomes unknown,Thirdly, suppliers are not visited on a regular basis,Fourthly, surveys are conducted informally or with renegade processes.How can you standardize? Assign 3S duties. Ensure that the personal plans or objectives of the supply management personnel cover the sort (supplier consolidation), set in order (segmentation), and shine (audit) issues necessary.Strategic buyers, commodity managers, or the purchasing manager are charged with the resp onsibility of surveying the charts in each buyer’s area to ensure they are kept current. The results of these surveys may bedisplayed on checklist charts demonstrating the level of implementation.Often the motivation for adding suppliers comes from outside of the purchasing function. Do these functions understand why consolidation is valuable? One advantage of the 5S approach is that a common language will be used between purchasing and manufacturing. This should facilitate the communication between these groups, but what about interactions between design engineering and purchasing? This is a critical interface for two reasons. First, engineering is the source of many requests for new suppliers. Second, engineering, particularly design engineering, may have a creative environment that feels constrained by programs that promote rigid discipline. Engineers have complained that they see no reason to limit their supplier selections just so the buyers can play more solitaire on the computer. The 5S program provides reasoning behind the consolidation efforts. Survey schedules are maintained using software that reminds the process owner and the appropriate managers. In some organizations, the quality assurance department can serve a role as a third party to the process with supplier delivery performance being considered with quality performance for preferred supplier status. Supplier surveys or audits should be part of the personal evaluation process for the owners of this process ., buyers, supplier quality engineers, commodity managers).3 Discipline Starts With the Leadership.Do you care enough to be consistent with your message and vision? Are you communicating the strategy, including the reasons for your actions, outside of the procurement function? Are you training new employees properly? Does the proper structure exist to support this strategy? These are issues for leadership. No 5S process for supply management will be effective without vigilant leadership. Lean producers have used this process effectively, but consistent leadership over time is necessary to prevent system deterioration.4 Summary.Each element of the 5S technique corresponds to an element of supply strategy for a lean supply chain. 5S is a powerful tool in manufacturing, in part, because of its simplicity. Simplicity makes 5S a powerful supply management tool as well.中文译文精益供应策略：将5S工具应用于供应链管理作者：Kimball Bullington供应链管理副教授田纳西州立大学第90届国际供应管理年会，2005年5月摘要：精益环境中的供应战略应该支持运营战略。

云物流背景下的供应链管理外文文献翻译最新译文

毕业设计附件外文文献翻译：原文+译文文献出处：Lambert D M. The research of supply chain management under the background of cloud logistics[J]. The international journal of logistics management, 2016, 2(1): 1-14.原文The research of supply chain management under the background of cloud logisticsLambert D MAbstractCloud computing from the date of birth, but just a few short years up to now, but it is the advantage of being unusually prominent, its tread is rapidly seize the development prospect of the market, it is more and more favored by the market, it is no exaggeration to say that all areas are now trying to use the advanced technology, transforming their ecological environment, logistics industry is no exception, and cloud computing and logistics information technology is inherently has closely linked, with various logistics enterprise information system with the clouds of the logistics information platform matching interfaces, contributed to all links of the information on the supply chain connectivity, so as to solve the logistics enterprises have difficulty in communication and coordination of various departments. At the same time, the small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) can also be used to cloud logistics information platform to provide advanced logistics information system, so as to solve the fund shortage problem in their normalization construction.Keywords: cloud computing; Cloud logistics; Supply chain management1 IntroductionCloud computing was first put forward by Google based on open standards and services, through the Internet technology provides a service virtualization resources model. Cloud computing to derive the cloud logistics, fully embodies the application of cloud computing in logistics industry service.” Supply chain without enterprises on the market, the competition of the 21st century is not the competition between enterprises and enterprises, but competition between supply chain and supply chain.” Is the supply-chain expert Martin Christopher's famous assertion. Enterprises need to its suppliers, distributors, third-party logistics service provider form strategicalliances, through communication, information resource sharing, efficient and low cost supply chain formation to cope with the fierce market competition. From the point of a single enterprise, the goal is to maximize the profit of, so a lot of enterprises in the normalization construction, but from the perspective of the supply chain enterprise information systems are isolated, information cannot be Shared, the result has not been significantly increased not only their own competitiveness, the competitiveness of the supply chain and only to maintain the original level. Due to their own ability is limited, some small and medium enterprises difficult to bear the high cost of information system construction, result in some enterprises only certain departments to realize the normalization, enterprise internal failed to achieve the comprehensive communication of information, more not to raise the competitiveness of the supply chain. Through using cloud logistics theory thought and its practice, combined with the latest concept of supply chain management at the same time, the use of cloud computing, such as information technology, building a logistics information platform cloud, solve the problem of information sharing in supply chain management.2 literature reviewThe United States, Europe, Japan's three major areas is the logistics informatization is the most developed area in the world. These areas in the early 1980 s began to integrate various logistics functions and elements. First is the enterprise internal resources integration and integrated; Secondly between extended to enterprises, make enterprises to form strategic partnership and collaboration between building supply chain management as the core of the logistics system, the independent of supply and demand both sides to provide professional services of the "third party logistics enterprise", the prototype of the cloud logistics basic formation; Finally to integration of logistics enterprises and logistics system resources, the development of logistics information platform. The fabric of the logistics information platform, mature framework and mode in the world. Such as Japan's "platform", the logistics center from the factory to the factory, shop to realize the networked system, through the use of automatic control system, automatic processing and transmitting information. The freight FIRST real-time information system, through the use of information technology and intelligent traffic system technology, created the "one station through" system for port community service. European multimodal transport information platform to provide real-time through selection and standardization of market data, including the delivery ofthe goods and service appointment, paths, the credibility of the information such as delivery. The Capstan Company established a public information platform, the suppliers and purchasers, the carrier, such as financial services institutions through this platform to exchange data, complete logistics services.3 Related concepts3.1 The supply chain and supply chain managementThe supply and demand relationship between supplier and purchaser that causes the problem of the supply chain, supply chain in the 60 s of the twentieth century people began to formal research. Supply chain and supply chain management with the great changes have taken place in the process of research, the application of supply chain management have also made remarkable achievements, such as HP, IBM and other famous enterprises successful operation of supply chain strategy, make the enterprise profit and competitiveness enhanced at the same time, it has attracted researchers extensive and in-depth research on supply chain management. Although the definition of expression is not exactly the same, but everyone agreed logistics is the nature of products or materials from production field to consumers' hands during the process of distribution or circulation. Supply chain activities including logistics system not only, still include production, circulation and consumption. Supply chain is around the core enterprise, through to the logistics, business flow, information flow and cash flow, the control of raw materials to manufacture into intermediate products and final products, the products through the sales network to consumers' hands, the whole process wills suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, retailers and end users together as a whole model of network organization.SCM (Supply Chain Management, SCM for short) is a kind of brand-new Management idea, in the 80 s was put forward. Supply chain management is the enterprise to the process of supply chain planning, organization, coordination and control, to optimize the whole supply chain, which aims to customer need of product through the logistics to the customer, the whole process to reduce the cost of the supply chain. Supply chain management is a kind of integrated management, the relevant cooperation unit integrated management of enterprises, the purpose is to make the lowest cost of the supply chain as a whole, and the inventory level is zero, the shortest reaction time, to provide the best customer service.3.2 Cloud computingThe term "Cloud Computing" (Cloud Computing) first put forward by the company in 2006 is a kind of based on a computer system consists of parallel Computing, distributed Computing and virtual technology, business concept. Later, IBM, EMC, Face book, Amazon and other companies also released its own cloud computing solutions, research institutions are also a lot of work, formed from the system architecture, power control, resource management, a series of key technologies.From the perspective of the development course of calculation model, the early computing model is given priority to with concentration, then with the development of science and technology, the computer is more and more small and more and more under the condition of low cost, calculate toward diversification. Now, with the popularity of computer applications and the emergence of cloud computing, network resources sufficiently and optimize the application of calculation have to focus on. Cloud computing has the branch of narrow and broad. Narrow cloud computing refers to the infrastructure of the offer and usage patterns, such as hardware, through the network platform and software patterns provide on-demand, easy extension; Generalized cloud computing refers to the supply and use of the service mode, service can be information technology and related software, the Internet, also can be other services, including computing power, means that computing power can also be used as the flow of goods through the Internet. Cloud computing based on open standards and services, through the Internet, such as software, hardware, services and solutions packaged as unified IT resources, the commercialization of public foundation, to users all over the world to provide information services.3.3 Cloud logisticsCloud is intelligent, integrated logistics operation mode, integration based on user needs, integration of supply chain management, outsourcing services, resource integration, virtual management and other modern management technology and cloud computing, Internet of things, such as information technology, through virtualization logistics resources and logistics capability of service, the intelligent management and operations, can achieve efficiency, then, is the process of information sharing and collaboration. The essence of cloud logistics is set up information platform, more than all the express company in cloud logistics platform for delivery and cash settlement, in any stores, companies, individuals and businesses can make the delivery, in the cloud logistics platform of implementing the resources sharing and participants of the supply chainoptimization. Through the cloud logistics information platform to integrate mass orders, integrated express and logistics network, make full use of logistics resources, reduce each enterprise to build information platform caused by repeated construction and waste.4 Cloud logistics arisen inevitabilityLogistics is the essence of the system, the system is the core of the information, marked by modern information technology and supply chain management of modern logistics has become one of the leading industries in the modern service industry. The main content of the field of current logistics management and information technology have enterprise management information system, logistics public information platform and intelligent logistics system.4.1 The enterprise management information systemMeet the needs of the management of the logistics enterprise normalization, the existing information system includes warehouse management information system, order management, transportation management information system information system and logistics industry such as the financial management information system in ERP system application, in order to realize the integration and optimization of enterprise internal resources configuration. But only in the face of internal logistics enterprise ERP system, and provide enterprises with services in a relatively fixed mode, the lack of the ability of on-demand services, but also the lack of facts ability of gathering information. For small and medium-sized enterprises, due to the shortage of funds, enterprise internal forces are relatively weak in IT construction and maintenance; don't have the ability to build ERP system.4.2 Logistics public information platformLogistics public information platform and better meet the demand of the informatization of small and medium-sized enterprises, reduce the cost of the small and medium-sized enterprise informationization, and effectively solve the logistics enterprise business caused by heterogeneous system in the process of collaborative business integration and information integration problems. The public information platform, however, there is insufficient data security, business model is not clear.4.3 Intelligent logistics systemIntelligent logistics system on the basis of using the Internet and the Internet, intelligent information collection, classification, processing, analysis, etc., to complete the transportation,storage, loading and unloading, distribution, and timely feedback to the logistics state, in a timely manner to the goods arrived at the demand side, and for the supplier to provide to maximize profits. Intelligent logistics system of intelligent mainly displays in the logistics enterprise internal and external monitoring data transmission, logistics and logistics enterprise intelligent decision. Effective integration of the intelligent logistics enterprise ERP, the Internet of things, such as technology, is the deepening of information technology in logistics enterprise applications, but its main focus on the micro enterprise, in the social logistics resources integration, service innovation and cooperation between enterprises is weak. Cloud logistics has low investment, strong expansibility, a professional maintenance team, and low equipment requirements for clients.译文云物流背景下的供应链管理研究Lambert D M摘要云计算技术自诞生之日起，到现在不过短短几年，但它的优势表现得异常突出、它涉足的领域正在迅速掠取市场、它的发展前景越来越被市场看好，毫不夸张地说，现在各个领域都在试图利用这一先进技术，改造自己的生态环境，物流行业也不例外，而且物流信息化和云计算技术先天就具有紧密的联系，各个物流企业的信息系统通过与云物流信息平台匹配接口，促成供应链上所有环节的信息互联互通，从而解决了物流企业各部门沟通与协调的困难。

供应链管理方法外文文献翻译2023年译文3565字

供应链管理方法外文文献翻译2023年译文3565字供应链管理方法外文文献翻译（2023年译文，3565字）引言供应链管理在现代商业环境中起着至关重要的作用。

通过优化物流、协调供应商和客户之间的合作关系，供应链管理可以提高企业的效率和竞争力。

本文翻译来自外文文献，介绍了一些供应链管理方法的应用和实践。

主要方法1. 跨功能协调：供应链管理强调不同职能部门之间的协同合作。

通过加强内部沟通和协作，企业可以更好地满足客户需求，并提高整体供应链的效率。

2. 供应商管理：合理管理供应商关系对于供应链管理至关重要。

通过建立长期合作关系、进行供应商绩效评估以及共享信息，企业可以更好地掌控供应链的可靠性和稳定性。

3. 库存管理：有效的库存管理能够保持供应链的平衡，避免过量库存或库存短缺的问题。

通过采用合理的预测方法和库存控制技术，企业可以最大程度地降低库存成本，并确保及时供应。

4. 运输优化：优化物流网络和运输计划是供应链管理的关键步骤。

通过分析运输成本、提高货物追踪能力以及优化配送路线，企业可以降低物流成本并提高交付效率。

5. 技术应用：现代技术的应用为供应链管理提供了许多机会。

例如，物联网技术可以实现供应链的实时监控和数据分析，以便更好地进行决策和优化。

结论供应链管理方法的应用对于企业的成功至关重要。

本文介绍了一些常见的供应链管理方法，包括跨功能协调、供应商管理、库存管理、运输优化和技术应用。

通过综合运用这些方法，企业可以提高自身效率和竞争力，并实现可持续的业务增长。

电子商务供应链管理中英文对照外文翻译文献

电子商务供应链管理中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)翻译:电子商务对动态供应链管理的影评价摘要最近，互联网及相关信息和通信技术（ICT）使得成本效益的信息能够在供应链的独立各方之间传播．新的供应链战略，如供应商管理库存（VMI业务）协同规划，预测与补货（CPFR），有效消费者反馈（ECR），已开始利用这些新的沟通渠道，特别是在供应链的零售终端．电子商务加强了供应链上的制造商和材料零组件供应商，他们以前不能被很好理解和开发．本文的目的是建立供应链模式的电子商务使信息和通讯技术（ICT）的影响量化，特别是其对动态行为的影响．论文包含简单却充满活力的模型，其对将要实施的供应链动态行为模式下的电子商务提出了相当数量见解．关键词供应链管理动力学；电子商务；EPOS(创新电子支付系统)；供应商管理库存；网上购物1. 总述当ICT型的电子商务提出，让供应链中的企业共享市场信息，使得“1-2-1企业”成为可能时，（Peppers&Rogers，1997）几乎没有分析或可量化的证据证明它真正会在配送顾客所需上提高企业的整体绩效．通常的建议是，通过ICT在供应链中的所有企业传递供应链中的信息会提高企业绩效．事实上，最近的研究（Hong-Minh et al.,2000）已经表明，通过供应链的“啤酒游戏”（Ster man，1989年），企业之间简单的传递信息会有一个不利的影响．这是由于伴随着更多的可用信息，调度程序需要知道如何处理它．有很多种方法能使创新的信息流在供应链里得到应用．Kiely（1998）提供了一个良好的起点，他特别强调用需求数据来达到预测的目的．在这篇文章中我们分析4个能够成立的ICT方案的影响，此项分析使通过调查牛鞭效应（Letal,1997a,b）用两种不同的方法把它们传统的供应链加以比较．第一种办法是根据管理飞行模拟器的结果分析啤酒游戏．第二种方法是基于一个量化Z变换分析，其中的应用工具是Disney和To will（2002）高度提倡的．比较和对比这两种方法的目的是评价电子商务在供应链动态质量评估方面的影响．“牛鞭效应”是一项重要措施，因为它是体现出了一个表现不佳的供应链的症状．（琼斯和西蒙，2000年）．“牛鞭效应”是一个生产适应成本的代理办法（Stalk and Hout，1990年），并表明持有“以防万一”的库存的意义是为了缓和不明因素．牛鞭效应相当多以实验和观察为依据的证据包括最近的例子显示：供应商两级订单的粮食部门上游的数据是电子销售点（EPOS）的数据的10倍（Jones and Simons,2000）．汽车部门收入订单和供应商只有一个单一的梯队供应链的差异比率大概是1：2（Naim et al.,2002）．这5个供应链战略是：传统供应链战略——即在供应链上四个"串联"的梯队．网上购物——即分销网络是单道的，信息和物品在最终消费者和产品供应商之间直接流动．缩减型供应链——即供应链里的一个梯队被移除．供应商管理库存（VMI）——这是模拟通过对供应链里的双方企业制定议定书，给予必要的库存和销售信息，权力和责任给供应商，以便管理客户的库存．电子销售点（EPOS）——市场资讯在供应链中的所有企业之间互传．尽管各种电子商业的情况，可以由四个组四个硕士课程学生根据自己的学识在这两个学术和实践上进行战略的审查或者执行．正是这些大师的学生在实施啤酒游戏．2. 方法论改进个别制造商和供应链的动态行为的研究已是人所共知．最近期的研究方法，可分为下列四类：管理游戏：例如啤酒的游戏对于说明的不同供应链战略的益处来说是有用的．这是麻省理工学院于五十年代末发明的．（sterman，1989）从游戏本身来说，游戏中大致没有什么可以被严格证明．从这个意义上说，游戏是有限制的．但他们确实提供了有价值的证据，并是一个良好的学习手段．其他作者扩展或用计算机处理了啤酒游戏包括van Ackere et al（1993），Kaminsky和Simchi-Levi（1998），Lambrecht和Dejonckheere（1999）．实证研究:很多位作者调查了ICT的冲击对供应链的影响．包括Holmstromm（1998），Fransoo和Wouters（2000），Kaipia，Holmström和Tanskanen（2000）．然而，此种贡献在已知战略实施以后，量化了改进性能，即不存在预测要素和集，并且研究的焦点就是要找出最佳做法．不幸的是，它并非总是能够比较信息和通信技术的推行策略，其直接原因是由于这些策略在不同性质的环境中实施．统计：这种类型的贡献，通常提供关于需求的特性的影响的统计见解，例如标准差和相关性，以及供应链特性，例如首要时间和库存成本中的信息路径和牛鞭效应或需求扩增．统计方法经常被用来量化真实情况的表现．然而，这些方法未能表现出如何减少或消除有害的动态影响，如“牛鞭”，并很少得到从技术上深入探讨影响系统结构性能的原因和结果．这种类型最近的重大贡献包括Lee, So and Tang （2000）,Chen, Ryan and Simchi-Levi （2000），Chen，Drezner，Ryan and Simchi-Levi（2000）．模拟与系统动力：它是由Forrester（1961）提出，是一种在大型非线性系统内调查动态效果方法，且不诉诸复杂的数学控制理论模型（Edghill和Towill，1989年）．仅用模拟方法虽然繁琐，费时，且只提供有限的洞察力（Popplewell和Bonney，1987），但它们确有先发优势，能在模型非线形的同时避免复杂的数学．以前利用模拟所做的工作是非常多产的，其中包括（但绝不仅限于）Forrester（1961），and Coyle（1982）,他研究了传统的供应链结构，Cachon andFisher（1997）和Waller,Johnson和Davis （1999）他们研究过VMI．连续控制理论技术:用于生产和库存控制．首先由1978年诺贝尔经济学奖得主赫伯特西蒙（由于他在工作机构动态上的出色研究）第一次提出．西蒙（1952）描述了如何使用线性确定性控制理论来进行生产和库存控制．Axsäter（1985）陈述了一个有用的对于早期工作的评论性论文，总结了这个领域的优势和和劣势．他的结论是，控制理论“说明了非常好的动态效果和反馈”，但不能解决测序和生产批量的问题．瑞典的Linkoping 大学的生产经济学学院的大量研究已被记入文献．他们已经在运用拉普拉斯变换和经济技术，如MRP系统（Grubbstrom,1967）的净现值．连续控制理论受到这样的困扰，即一些调度和订货情况本来就是离散的，而且离散时间的延误的连续表述在数学上是很复杂的．离散控制理论，能够很有效地对抽样数据系统进行调查．例如：调度和订货系统和本质上离散的计算机系统Vassian（1955）从西蒙在连续领域的工作中得到灵感，采用离散控制理论研究了一个生产调度算法．De Winter （1966），在关于新型的供应链结构可能仅有的两个成果的其中之一里，寻找一种用在海军供应链上的集中控制存货．Deziel和Eilon（1967）描述了一个重大的应用．Burns和Burns and Sivazlian（1978）研究一个拥有四个级别的使用的Z变换的传统供应链．Bonney和Popplewell（1988）研究了MRP系统．Dejonck heeretal.（2003a），一直在用Z变换调查共同控制结构中共同预测机制的牛鞭表现．Disney（2001）一直采用离散控制理论来调查供应商管理库存供应链．离散控制理论的缺点在用到数学的时候往往涉及冗长而乏味代数操控．本文中所涉及的方法都是用来分析结果的．例如啤酒游戏的结果，或是在各种情况的ICT下决定牛鞭效应的范围和程度．将这些分析与以前公布的结果进行直接比较，（Hong-Minhetal.，2000）得到了相违背的结果．啤酒游戏的结果包括结构性问题和人类行为方面的问题．后者特征可能包括游戏玩家对游戏理解不够，不确定性决策和错误以及从顾客到供应商订单传送中出错．这时候分析型的Z变换方法被用来比较目标和结果，并用它来推导出供应链牛鞭效应中确定性的反馈系统结构的影响．如果认为ICT 系统将处理供应链中数量庞大的信息交易，并且管理例外的情况时人为干扰影响是有限的．那分析方法就更为重要了．3. 五种供应链的描述这五种供应链研究的设想由下进行总结．下面是对每种供应链的简短说明．3.1 传统供应链传统供应链的特点是由4个“串联”起来梯队组成一个供应链．每个梯队只接收有关当地库存水平和销售的信息．然后每个梯队按照当地供应商的存货水平，销售情况及以前的未取货订单来制定定单（Sterman,1989）．3.2 缩减型供应链缩减型供应链是指供应链中的梯队减少了．例如对于的供应链来说，这就代表了零售梯队已经融入于信息和物质流．这是一个用ICT 来缩减梯队的供应链．作为提高供应链的动态性的有效机制，梯队缩减已经被Wikner,Towill和Naim（1991）确认．3.3 网上购物网上购物是指生产商直接从最终消费者那里接到订单（可能像戴尔一样通过互联网），并在生产和分销的第一时间将产品直接邮购给最终消费者．这样的供应链策略与传统的仅一个梯队的供应链具有相同的基本结构．3.4 EPOS可用型供应链EPOS可用型供应链是指最终消费者的销售对于供应链中的所有成员都是可见的．例如，在很多杂货供应链中，通过互联网可以获得EPOS数据．这些数据或是直接从零售商那得到的或是通过第三方得到的．供应链成员可用这些数据对未来的情况进行预测．具体来说，在这种策略中，每个梯队可以用最终消费者的销售作为自己的规划建议，但每梯次仍然需要提供（如果可能的话）他的客户所订的货物．Dejinckheere，Disney，Lambrecht 和Towill（2001）从Mason-Jones（1998）的模拟方法中得到启发，利用Z 变换对这项策略已经进行了全面调查．3.5 供应商管理库存（VMI）VMI具体表述如下：在一个有两个梯队的VMI的关系中供应商（分销商）管理，消费者（零售商）的库存．分销商拥有零售商的销售和库存水平的资料．在此情况下零售商并不给分销商下订单，而是零售商相信分销商供给足够数量的库存来保证零售商有足够的（不是太多）库存．VMI策略的支持者有DisneyHolmstrom，Kaipia和Towill（2001），他们支持供应链中的VMI梯队．在这种情况下，其他的梯队（仓库和工厂）按传统的模式运行．4. ICT对供应链动力学的影响4.1 啤酒游戏的结果Hong-Minh et al.（2000）分析了四个不同的团队采用四种不同的供应链策略的结果，其中的一个团队采用的是前面描述果过的EPO S型供应链．虽然研究结果表明信息共享好处多多，（Mason-Jones and Towill,1997）,令人惊讶的是EPOS策略的效果是最差的．当EPOS策略减小了供应链里牛鞭效应的程度是，作为代价的是长时间的存货积压（负的净存货）．得出的结论是虽然市场信息及时的在供应链的各个梯队得以分享，供应链里的各方仍有他们自己的订货规则．这就是说，各方没有共同协作．虽然共享市场信息确实是一件好事，但只有把它作为一个商定的整体供应链的决策策略的一部分时，它才会产生收益．（Mason-Jones,1998）为了测试这一假说，EPOS 策略被加上一些特性后重新运行，这些策略包括所有的参与者参与协同规划，预测与补货,也就是CPFR ．作为一个涉及16名学生的国际运输方向的硕士课程，啤酒游戏也由目前的作者运行两次．第一次的啤酒游戏按传统模式运行．那就是，啤酒严格按Sterman （1989）所定的规则运行．第二次的啤酒游戏在学生团结协作下进行．不同的集团重新制定了四个不同的ICT 供应链策略．第一届四阶段时期，需求模式（即所有集团回应）被由一个8面骰子随机抽出，从时间5（两个游戏中指25）需求由一个20片面的骰子产生．为了达到本文的目的，我们对第二组的结果进行了分析．不同的绩效措施被从游戏收集，他们已被总结成方程式1（Chenetal ,2000）．2222//CONS ORATE CONS CONS ORATE ORATE i i i i Bullwhip σσμσμσ==这个等式给了衡量牛鞭效应的方法.除了牛鞭措施的衡量，我们还在啤酒游戏中采用了典型性能指标，那就是库存成本．每得到一件货物的库存罚0.5英镑，每少一件库存花费1英镑．股票出招致费用£1.00．库存成本是一个重要的度量因素，因为它最终决定我们能在何种程度上满足顾客以及确定过期库存的危险型．严重的积压成本是有道理的．因为无论我们将供应链的波动程度控制的多么好，如果我们不能满足最终消费者的话，我们最终会被行业所抛弃．游戏的结果汇总在附录中．库存费用作为一个正常能被达到的相对排名从而在在某一特定的供应链策略的实际梯队数量中独立出来．因此，我们将惩罚有较少梯队的供应链．此外，两种EPOS 的结果都会被显示出来．第一个是在研究中做过并在本文中描述过的，它被定义为EPOS-CPFR ,第二个（叫作EPOS-no CPFR ）是基于被Hong-minhetal.（2000）记录的有确切结果的EPOS．EPOS-CPFR在最少化方面做的很好，而事实上它就是减少供应链的牛鞭效应．但是，对于EPOS- no CPFR,要支付更多的库存成本，这主要是由于供应链中有长期的存货．除了使存货成本正常化，消除一个梯队或许多梯队的策略仍优于其他的选择．如以前所报告的（例如，见Wikner et al.，1991），消除一个梯队就消除了一个决策点，并减少了总成本．比EPOS-CPFR的结果更令人惊讶的是VMI的情况为既有最差的存货持有成本又有最坏的牛鞭效应．很明显，在游戏中可以看出，尽管提供了详尽的记录议定书的规定，游戏成员在贯彻落实这一构想时存有问题．4.2 Z变换评价我们再一次使用式1以确定牛鞭因素在I级，因为它为提供了一个封闭表达式，使牛鞭能够通过一个Z变换方法而确定下来（Disney Towill, 2002），对牛鞭效应进行量化的学者有（Chenetal, 2000）．我们用平方脉冲响应方法来确定每一个供应链策略所产生的牛鞭效应的大小．这种方法是由Disney和Towill（2002）创造的．总的来说，常用的供应链模式可归纳如下：除非对具体战略进行模式化是必要的，生产决策具有有序规则，它是基于平均需求的总和，目标商品库存和实际库存中的一小部分的差别，以及目标运输库存与实际运输库存的结构之间的一小部分的区别（John，Naim 和Towill，1994年）．这这个结论是适当的．因为Naim和Towill（1995）已表明，这是相等于sterman的（1989）锚定和调整启发式，这个式子能够在玩啤酒游戏中复制人的行为，这是众所周知的．使用Eziel和 Eilon在定序规则里的设置（Disney和Towill，2001年和2002年）可使复杂的数学操控减少．这是正确的，因为Disney和towill（2002）已证明这是一个具有重要的可取的动态特性的一般apiobpcs模式的子集．数学工作也得到了进一步简化，这是通过设置在订货规则里指数预报的平均年龄相等于在两个反馈回路中的逆增益()ti1/减1，并确定了制作/发行的筹备时间相等于两种秩序的时期．这些是为了尽量避免在牛鞭表达式中的极高阶多项式．VMI 的具体情景蓝本是供应商管理其客户的库存水平，并致力确保该存货水平保持在（经共同商定）最低和最高水平之间．尤其是，最低及最高水平不会随时间而改变时．这种情况导致两个梯队的供应链运行起来就像具有一个梯队的供应链，Disney （2001年）．我们可以从Disney （2001）那获得对供应商管理库存及其变种的更多信息（尤其是当最低及最高水平随着时间变化）．我们的研究结果概述于下．有两个基本牛鞭非公开形式：一为传统，缩减，电子购物和VMI 的供应链模式，另一个为EPOS 供应链模式．我们可以从下得出结论，当订货样式逐渐流向了供应链中的传统供应链，牛鞭将普遍增加．不过我们注意到，通过仔细观察，当接近4i T 时，流向供应链牛鞭效应反而会降低．消除一个梯队，很明显可以除掉牛鞭的根源，因为一套秩序变通是根本无法进行的．有效地消除整个销售网络可使工厂订单率像传统的供应链的第一梯队一样迅速有效．虽然是一个“低科技”的ICT ，移除两梯队的策略在概念上是简单易懂的．由于这些战略不要求调度器的新的行为，所以也许可以解释为何它们在啤酒游戏产生了有利的结果．不过，他们也存在严重的缺点，在实际供应链中消除零售商，分销中心和批发商也就意味着消除了和顾客的近距离接触．所以除非顾客已经准备好接受不呢个近距离接触的弊端，（因为他们可能用书籍或电脑来完成），这个策略就不可能使用．在VMI 的供应链中，我们可以使得两个梯队表现的和一个单一的梯队一样．事实上，我们没有理由不能拥有一个四梯队的VMI 策略，并使得四梯队像一个单一的梯队那样行动．因此VMI 被用来获得良好的动态订货，并提供与顾客接触的机会．这也许可以解释为何该策略经常被发现用在杂货供应链中．然而EPOS 策略与其他的策略相比，具有一个本质上不同的订货结构，所以我们需要一套新的封闭形式．但是我们可以看到，我们可以从EPOS中得到与VMIJ几乎相同的绩效表现．而且EPOS策略可以与顾客近距离接触，因此将具有更广泛的用途．5. 结论我们依据单一产品或者累计产品类型提出结果．这个结果当评估ICT 对多种产品的影响时一样有效．研究表明，有必要采取适当的分类政策，以便于汇总产品到各类以动态行为为基础的市场（Naimetal.，2002）．不同的产品类型可能需要不同的订货政策（Evansetal.，1998）或信息富集策略（Mason-Jones and Towill,1997）．我们采取了两种不同的做法来了解ICT对供应链动力学的影响．该Z 变换分析表明有可能创新型的ICT将超越其它策略．但啤酒游戏结果显示ICT增加了人的决策复杂程度，即使清楚所提供的界定协议，也是很难的．因为有太多的信息和和计算需要管理．啤酒游戏还表明，如果对ICT协议管理不善，会增加库存成本．我们的结论是，虽然啤酒是在一个模拟和简化的环境中进行的，但像真实世界一样，人们需要决定哪些结果是不能被立即预知的．Sterman（1989）就表示，在这样的一个环境中，人们并不善于决策．虽然ICT为提高供应链的透明度提供了机会，但同时也创造了一个更复杂的环境使得当人们确实要加以干预使，决策变得更为困难．在传统的打啤酒模式和实施电子商务纲要之间可能有一个供游戏的人通过的学习曲线．电子商务实施纲要显示如果确实存在着学习曲线，那么就表明在简单的情况下学习曲线能够让参与者更快的进步．还有一种可能性是实施者在实施他们的电子商务战略时雄心勃勃．同时，这是不同于真实世界的．公司往往可能在执行新技术时超过了自己的能力和资源以至于太先进的满足了他们的需要，或者是由于在本质上属于资源密集型而无法执行和操作．由于很难保证每个人都受过适当训练，以应对ICT议定书的规定，有必要设计强有力的ICT系统以尽量减少人类干扰．反过来说，在需要人类的互动时，需要用哪些具体信息资源来做出那些特别的决定，这些要求是显而易见的．同时，在现有技术条件下，ICT系统很难处理例外情况，例如旷工或工厂停产．因此需要适当简化程序来使人机交互简单化，以管理例外情况．附录A在不同的供应链中量化牛鞭使用Z变换方法，如表2所示．原文:Assessing the impact of e-business on supplychaindynamicsAbstractThe Internet and related information and communication technologies (ICT) have recently enabled the cost-effective dissemination of information between disparate parties in the supply chain. New supply chain strategies, such as vendor managed inventory (VMI), collaborative planning, forecasting and replenishment (CPFR) and efficient consumer response (ECR), have begun to exploit these new communication channels, principally at the retail end of the supply chain. The impact of the e-business enabled supply chain on manufacturers and materials/component suppliers is,however, less well understood and exploited. This paper is aimed at establishing e-business enabled supply chain models for quantifying the impact of ICT, in particular its effect on dynamic behaviour. The paper concludes that simple, yet robust, models enable considerable quantitative insights into the impact of e-business on supply chain dynamic behaviour prior to their implementation.Keywords Supplychaindynamics；Lommerce；ullwhipZQS；Vendormanage dinventory；Shopping1. IntroductionWhile information and communication technologies (ICT) in the form of e-business is advocated as an enabler to the 1–2–1 enterprise (Peppers andRogers, 1997) by allowing market place information to be shared by all businesses in the supply chain, there is little analytical or quantifiable evidence that it will actually improve the overall performance of the enterprise in delivering customer wants. It is usually proposed that passing information to all businesses in the supply chain via ICT will improve performance. In fact, recent research (Hong-Minh et al., 2000) has shown, via the supply chain ‘‘Beer Game’’ (Sterman, 1989), that simply passing information on to businesses can have a detrimental effect. This is due to the fact that, as well as having more information available, schedulers need to know what to do with it.There are many ways in which innovative information flows could be used within supply chains. Kiely (1998) provides a good starting point, specifically focusing on using demand data for forecasting purposes. In this paper we analyse the impact of four ICT enabled scenarios by investigating the bullwhip effect (Lee et al.,1997a, b) using two different approaches and comparing them to a traditional supply chain. The first approach is based on an analysis of the results of a management flight simulator, the Beer Game. The second approach is based on a quantitative z-transform analysis using the tools highlighted by Disney and Towill (2002). The aim is to compare and contrast the two approaches qualitatively to assess the implications of their evaluations of e-business scenarios on supply chain dynamics.Bullwhip is an important measure, being symptomatic of a poorly performing supply chain (Jones and Simons, 2000). It is a surrogate measure of production adaptation costs (Stalk and Hout, 1990) and implies the inclusion of ‘‘just-in-case’’ stock holding to buffer against uncertainties. There is considerable empirical evidence of bullwhip including recent examples in the: * food sector where the supplier orders two tiers further upstream varied 10 times more than the electronic point of sales (EPOS) data (Jones and Simons, 2000).* automotive sector where the ratio of the variance between incoming orders and order to suppliers at just a single echelon in the supply chain was 1:2 (Naim et al., 2002).The five supply chain strategies considered are:* Traditional—in which there are four ‘‘serially linked’’ echelons in the supply chain.* e-Shopping—where the distribution network is by-passed and information and materials flow directly between the end consumer and the product suppliers.* Reduced—where an echelon in the supply chain had been removed.* Vendor managed inventory (VMI)—that is simulated by developing a protocol positioned between two businesses in the supply chain that gives the necessary inventory and sales information, authority and responsibility to the supplier in order to manage the customer’s inventory.* EPOS—where information from the market place is transmitted to all enterprises in the supply chain.Although various e-business scenarios are available the above were chosen by four groups of four Masters Programme students based on their review of commonly quoted and/or implemented strategies in both the academic and practitioner literature. It was these Masters students who implemented the scenarios in the Beer Game.2. MethodologyResearch on improving the dynamic behaviour of individual manufacturing businesses and supply chains is well known. Most recent research methodologies may be categorised as:* Management games: Tools such as the Beer Game that was developed at MIT at the end of the 1950s (Sterman, 1989), are useful to illustrate the benefitsof different supply chain strategies. Games are limited in the sense that generally nothing can be rigorously proved from the game in itself, but they do provide a valuable source of anecdotal evidence and are a good learning device. Other authors have extended or computerised the Beer Game including van Ackere et al. (1993), Kaminsky and Simchi-Levi (1998), and Lambrecht and Dejonckheere (1999a, b).* Empirical studies: A number of authors have investigated the impact of ICT on the supply chain including Holmstr .om (1998), Fransoo and Wouters (2000), and Kaipia et al. (2000). However, this type of contribution looks at quantifying the improvement performance of a known strategy after its implementation; that is, there is no predictive element and the focus of the research is to identify best practices. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to compare ICT implementation strategies directly due to the varying nature of the environments they have been implemented in.* Statistical: This type of contribution typically provides statistical insights about the impact of demand properties such as standard deviation and correlation, and supply chain properties such as lead-times and information paths on inventory costs and the bullwhip effect orTdemand amplification. Statistical methods are often used to quantify the performance of real situations. These methods however, fail to show how to reduce or eliminate the detrimental dynamic effects, such as ‘‘bullwhip’’, and insights into the causes and effects of system structure on performance are rarely obtained in depth from the technique. Recent significant contributions of this type include Lee et al. (2000) and Chen et al., (2000).* Simulation and system dynamics: This approach was advocated by Forrester (1961) as a method of investigating the dynamical effects in large non-linear systems without resorting to complicated mathematical control theory based models (Edghill and Towill, 1989). Simulation approaches alone suffer。

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毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：供应链文献、资料英文题目：文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14论文翻译Introduction to supply chain conceptsFirms can no longer effectively compete in isolation of their suppliers and other entities in the supply chain. Interest in the concept of supply chain management has steadily increased since the 1980s when companies saw the benefits of collaborative relationships within and beyond their own organization. A number of definitions have been proposed concerning the concept of “the supply chain” and its management. This paper defines the concept of the supply chain and discusses the evolution of supply chain management. The term does not replace supplier partnerships, nor is it a description of the logistics function. Industry groups are now working together to improve the integrative processes of supply chain management and accelerate the benefits available through successful implementation. The competitive importance of linking a fir m’s supply chain strategy to its overall business strategy and some practical guidelines are offered for successful supply chain management.Definition of supply chainVarious definitions of a supply chain have been offered in the past several years as the concept has gained popularity. The APICS Dictionary describes the supply chain as:1 .the processes from the initial raw materials to the ultimate consumption of the finished product linking across supplier user companies;2 and the functions within and outside a company that enable the value chain to make products and provide services to the customer (Cox et al., 1995).Another source defines supply chain as, the network of entities through which material flows. Those entities may include suppliers, carriers, manufacturing sites, distribution centers, retailers, and customers (Lummus and Alber, 1997). The Supply Chain Council(1997) uses the definition: “The supply chain –a term increasingly used by logistics professionals – encompasses every effort involved in producing and delivering a final product, from the supplier’s supplier to the customer’s customer. Four basic processes – plan, source, make, deliver – broadly define these efforts, which include managing supply and demand, sourcing raw materials and parts, manufacturing an assembly, warehousing and inventory tracking, order entry and order management, distribution across all channels, and delivery to the customer.” Quinn (1997) defines the supply c hain as “all of those activities associated with moving goods from the raw-materials stage through to the end user.This includes sourcing and procurement, production scheduling, order processing, inventory management, transportation, warehousing, and customer service. Importantly, it also embodies the information systems so necessary to monitor all of those activities.”In addition to defining the supply chain, several authors have further defined the concept of supply chain management. As defined by Ellram and Cooper (1993), supply chain management i s “an integrating philosophy to manage the total flow of a distribution channel from supplier to ultimate customer”. Monczka and (1997) state that “inte grated supply chain management is about going fromthe external customer and then managing all the processes that are needed to provide the customer with value in a horizon tal way”. They believe that supply chains, not firms, compete and that those who will be the strongest competitors are those that “can provide management and leadership to the fully integrated supply chain including external customer as well as prime suppliers, their suppliers, and their suppliers’ suppliers”.From these definitions, a summary definition of the supply chain can be stated as: all the activities involved in delivering a product from raw material through to the customer including sourcing raw materials and parts, manufacturing and assembly, warehousing and inventory tracking, order entry and order management, distribution across all channels, delivery to the customer, and the information systems necessary to monitor all of these activities. Supply chain management coordinates and integrates all of these activities into a seamless process. It links all of the partners in the chain including departments within an organization and the external partners including suppliers, carriers, third-party companies, and information systems providers. Managers in companies across the supply chain take an interest in the success of other companies. They work together to make the whole supply chain competitive. They have the facts about the market, they know a lot about competition, and they coordinate their activities with those of their trading partners. It encompasses the processes necessary to create, source, make to, and to deliver to demand. They use technology to gather information on market demands and exchange information between organizations. A key point in supply chain management is that the entire process must be viewed as one system. Any inefficiency incurred across the supply chain (suppliers, manufacturing plants, warehouses, customers, etc.) must be assessed to determine the true capabilities of the process. Figure 1 describes the total integration required within the supply chain.Interest in supply chainsWhy has managing the supply chain become an issue for the 1990s? In part, the answer lies in the fact that few companies continue to be vertically integrated. Companies have become more specialized and search for suppliers who can provide low cost, quality materials rather than own their source of supply. It becomes critical for companies to manage the entire network of supply to optimize overall performance. These organizations have realized that whenever a company deals with another company that performs the next phase of the supply chain, both stand to benefit from the other’s success.A second reason partially stems from increased national and international competition. Customers have multiple sources from which to choose to satisfy demand; locating product throughout the distribution channel for maximum customer accessibility at a minimum cost becomes crucial. Previously, companies looked at solving the distribution problem through maintaining inventory at various locations throughout the chain. However, the dynamic nature of the marketplace makes holding inventory a risky and potentially unprofitable business. Customers’ buying habits are constantly changing, and competitors are continually adding and deleting products. Demand changes make it almost a sure bet that the company will have the wrong inventory. The cost of holding any inventory also means most companies cannot provide a low cost product when funds are tied up in inventory.A third reason for the shift in emphasis to the supply chain is due to a realization by most companies that maximizing performance of one department or function may lead to less than optimal performance for the whole company. Purchasing may negotiate a lower the price on a component and receive a favorable purchase price variance, but the cost to produce the finished product may go up due to inefficiencies in the plant. Companies must look across the entire supply chain to gauge the impact of decisions in any one area.Advanced Manufacturing Research, a Boston-based consulting fir m, developed a supply chain model which emphasizes material and information flow between manufacturers and their trading partners (Davis, 1995). They believe the changes required by management are due to the followingchanges in how manufacturers are doing business:•Greater sharing of information between vendors and customers.•Horizontal business processes replacing vertical departmental functions.•Shift from mass production to customized products.•Increased reliance on purchased materials and outside processing with a simultaneous reduction in the number of suppliers.•Greater emphasis on organizational and process flexibility.•Necessity to coordinate processes across many sites.•Employee empowerment and the need for rules-based real time decision support systems.•Competitive pressure to introduce new products more quickly.Companies are streamlining all operations and minimizing the time-to-customer for their products.For these reasons, expertly managing the supply chain has become critical for most companies. As Ralph Drayer, vice president of product supply/ customer service at Procter and Gamble put it, “Winning in the marketplace of the 1990s is going to require a far different kind of relationship--one that recognizes that the ultimate winners will be those who understand the interdependence of retailer/ manufacturer business systems and who work together to exploit opportunities to deliver superior consumer value” (Drayer , 1994). Managers in companies across the supply chain take an interest in the success of the other companies. They work together to make the whole supply chain competitive. They have the facts about the market, they know a lot about competition, and they coordinate their activities with those of their trading partners. They use technology to gather information on market demands and exchange information between organizations. Critical to managing the supply chain is managing the link between each node within the chain to synchronize the entire supply chain.History of the supply chain initiativeThe history of the supply chain initiative can be traced to early beginnings in the textile industry with the quick response program and later to efficient consumer response in the grocery industry. More recently a variety of companies across many industries have begun looking at the entire supply chain process. This section will discuss those early beginnings of the supply chain and some more recent success stories.Quick response, for general merchandise retailers and their suppliersOwing to intense competition in the textile and apparel industry world-wide, leaders in the US apparel industry formed the Crafted . With Pride in the USA Council in 1984 (Kurt Salmon Associates, Inc., 1993). In 1985, Kurt Salmon Associates were commissioned to conduct a supply chain analysis. The results of the study showed the delivery time for the apparel supply chain, from raw material to consumer, was 66 weeks long, 40 weeks of which were spent in warehouses or in transit. The long supply chain resulted in major losses to the industry due to financing the inventory and lack of the right product in the right place at the right time.The result of this study was the development of the quick response (QR) strategy. QR is a partnership where retailers and suppliers work together to respond more quickly to consumer needs by sharing information. Significant changes as a result of the study were the industry adoption of the UPC code used by the grocery industry and a set of standards for electronic data interchange (EDI) between companies. Retailers began installing point of sale (POS) scanning systems to transfer sales information rapidly to distributors and manufacturers. “QR maximizes the profitability of inventory by placing the company’s dollars where and when they are needed based on point of sale data plus sales history” (Mullin, 1994). QR incorporates marketing information on promotion, discounts, and forecasts into the manufacturing and distribution plan.Efficient consumer response, the grocery business initiativeIn 1992, a group of grocery industry leaders created a joint industry task force called the efficient consumer response (ECR) working group. The group was charged with examining the grocery supply chain to identify opportunities to make the supply chain more competitive (Kurt Salmon Associates Inc.,1993). Kurt Salmon Associates were engaged by the group to examine the grocerysupplier/distributor/ consumer value-chain and determine what improvements in cost and service could be accomplished through changes in technology and business practices.The results of the study indicated little change in technology was required to improve performance, other than further development of EDI and POS systems. However, the study identified a set of best practices which, if implemented, could substantially improve overall performance of the supply chain. As Kurt Salmon and Associates (1993) found: “By expediting the quick and accurate flow of information up the supply chain, ECR enables distributors and suppliers to anticipate future demand far more accurately than the current system allows”. Through implementation of best practices they projected an overall reduction in supply chain inventory of 37 percent, and overall cost reductions in the industry in the range of $24 to $30 billion.The successful adoption of ECR for a manufacturer depends on their ability to maintain manufacturing flexibility which enables them to match supply with demand. Key to this flexibility is a process that tightly integrates demand management, production scheduling, and inventory deployment to allow the company to better utilize information, production resources, and inventory (Weeks and Crawford, 1994).A further development from ECR was the concept of continuous replenishment (CRP).CRP is a move away from pushing product from inventory holding areas to pulling products onto grocery shelves based on consumer demand (ECR Performance Measures Operating Committee, 1994). Point of purchase transactions are forwarded by computer to the manufacturer allowing them to keep the retailer replenished and balanced just-in-time.CRP has been introduced by a number of manufacturers (Garry, 1994). Procter & Gamble and Campbell soup are delivering as much as 30 to 40 percent of their volume by CRP. Ralston, General Mills and Pillsbury distribute about 10 percent by CRP. Estimates of improvements in performance with CRP include increasing inventory tur ns from 10 up to 50, reducing days of supply from 30 to 5 and increasing net margin from 5 percent to 7 percent.Other early supply chain initiativesBesides the apparel and grocery industry initiatives, other early manufacturing efforts to improve supply chain performance have been documented. Some of these include: Hewlett-Packard, Whirlpool, Wal-Mart, West Co., Becton Dickinson, Baxter, and Georgia-Pacific Corp. A brief outline of their supply chain initiatives are described as follows.Hewlett-PackardThe computer components manufacturer, systematically linked its distribution activities with its manufacturing activities in the computer terminal business in the early 1990s (Hammell and Kopczak, 1993). The implementation included changes in both the physical distribution of the product, and a new distribution requirements planning (DRP) system. The DRP system nets customer orders with forecasts and serves as the beginning pull in the supply chain.The appliance manufacturer, began its supply chain implementation with a team of executives in 1992 chartering this vision –“Winning companies will be those who come the closest to achieving an inter-enterprise pull system. They will be linked in a short cycle response mode to the customer” (Davis, 1995). Whirlpool has created a new vice-president of logistics position, established cross-functional teams for key product areas, entered into single source agreements with suppliers based on reliability and the ability to assist in product design, and is using EDI to communicate daily with suppliers all aspart of its supply chain management program. As a result, product avail ability is up in the 90-95 percent range, inventories have been reduced by 15 to 20 percent and lead times reduced to as low as five days.Wal-MartThe company began its own supply chain initiative by working directly with key manufacturers (Johnson and Davis, 1995).The manufacturers are responsible for managing Wal-Mart’s warehouse inventory of their products, termed vendor managed inventory (VMI). In return, Wal-Mart expects near 100 percent order fulfillment rates on those products. KMart and other large retailers have implemented similar VMI programs.West Co., Becton Dickinson, and Baxter，Becton DickinsonWithin the medical products industry, three firms engaged in supply chain relationships in the early 1990s (Battagia, 1994). West supplies rubber stoppers to Becton Dickinson who supplies medical products to Baxter. Becton Dickinson implemented the program by assigning a senior-level executive officer with the responsibility to monitor supply chain execution. Working together at all management levels the three companies have made improvements in quality and service while at the same time reducing cycle times and costs.Georgia-Pacific CorpA leader in the manufacturing and distribution of building products in North America,Georgia-Pacific began implementing supply chain management practices within the decentralized operations of their company (Blackwell, 1994). Previously, traffic managers in each division controlled inbound and outbound shipments for their unit. Shipping priorities were fragmented and internal and external customers were not satisfied. A new centralized Transportation and Logistics Division was created to coordinate and streamline the distribution process. The new division looks at needs and priorities across the business units and has recognized savings to the company in reduced freight costs and other logistics improvements of $20 million per year.Many other examples of companies implementing supply chain management concepts are available (Blaser and Westbrook, 1995; Cook and Rogowski, 1996; Semich, 1994). The vast interest in the topic indicates the concept has become a key issue for a diverse group of companies who are taking steps to improve customer delivery and at the same time reduce overall costs. Better managing the supply chain also involves managing the marketing link to the supply chain and linking supply chain strategies to the overall company strategy.Collaborative supply chain initiativesRecently, several industry collaborative groups have developed to research aspects of supply chain management. The findings of these groups should provide practitioners with guidelines for “best practices” in supply chain design and accelerate the implementations of these practices.In one year, the Supply Chain Council grew from 73 members to more than 300 of some of the world’s largest manufacturers. The Council has incorporated as a non-profit organization to provide services and support for further increasing its membership. The Council was for med to establish a framework to enable manufacturers and their suppliers to build a stronger supply chain and reap the benefits of improved supply chain management. The Council is developing a supply chain operations reference model (SCOR) to assist companies in evaluating their supply chain performance, identifying weak areas, and developing improvement solutions (The Supply Chain Council, 1997).In another collaborative initiative, several leading manufacturers joined with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to create a new organization that will improve and standardize communication and business processes throughout manufacturing supply chains and to share the results with other interested firms. This group, the National Initiative for Supply Chain Integration (NISCI) was for med after a NIST study showed that an overwhelming majority of companies。