跨文化交际第四章

Chapter 4: Cultural Diversity In Perception⏹Understanding Perception⏹Dominant American Cultural Patterns⏹Diverse Cultural PatternsUnderstanding Perception⏹Culture and Perception⏹Beliefs⏹V alues⏹Culture Patterns⏹Perception is an internal process whereby we convert the physical energies of the world into meaningful internal experiences. or the process by which an individual selects, evaluates, and organizes stimuli from the external world.Cultural influence on perception⏹The influence of culture on perception is often reflected in the attributional process. Attribution means that we interpret the meaning of other’s behaviors based on our past experience or history.⏹Culture provides an environment for us to develop all the meanings we possess. Thus ,people from different cultures will perceive and interpret others behaviors in different ways⏹The different attributional process may cause serious misunderstandingsin communication.⏹Culture and perception⏹Perception includes two –stage sequence.⏹The first stage is recognition or identification, the second stage is the interpretation and evaluation.⏹The result of this process is not the same for all people, because this process is learned and therefore influenced by all of our past experiences. This fact alone would make communication difficult even between people with similar backgrounds.⏹In a word, culture provides us with a perceptual lens that greatly influences how we interpret and evaluate what we receive from the outside world.Examples:⏹Americans u sually hold that expressing one’s opinion as openly and forcefully as possible is an admirable trait. Hence , someone is perceived as being highly credible if he or she is articulate and outspoken. For the Japanese, a person who is quiet and spends more time listening than speaking is more credible because they regard constant talking as a sign of shallowness.Beliefs⏹Beliefs are our convictions in the truth of something---with or without proof.⏹We simply accept them because we “know they are true.” “ To kn ow is not to prove, nor to explain.”⏹In other words, as we grow up in a culture, that culture conditions us to believe what it deems to be worthy and true.V aluesV alues are enduring attitudes about the preference of one belief over another.⏹V alues are a learned organization of rules for making choices and for resolving conflicts.⏹These “rules” are normative and teach us what is useful, good, right, wrong, what to strive for, how to live our life, and even what to die for. Our values get translated into action.Dominant American Cultural Patterns⏹Individualism⏹Equality⏹Materialism⏹Science and technology⏹Progress and change⏹Activity and WorkIndividualism⏹Individualism refers to the doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be paramount, and that all values, right, and dutiesoriginate in individuals.⏹It emphasizes individual initiative ( “ Pull yourself up by your own boot straps”,⏹independence( “Do your own thing”),⏹individual expression (“The squeaky wheel gets the grease”),⏹and even privacy( “A man’s home is his castle”).⏹Anybody who is any good is different than anybody else.⏹Most Americans believe that each person has his or her own separate identity, which should be recognized and reinforced.Equality⏹Equality which is empha sized in everything from government (“All men are created equal”) to social relationships ( Just call me by my first name”). Americans believe that all people have a right to succeed in life and that the state, through laws and educational opportunities, should ensure that right.Materialism⏹For most Americans, Materialism has always been an integral part of life. They consider it almost a right to be materially well off and physically comfortable, and often judge people by their material possessions.Science and T echnologyAmericans value science and technology quite highly, believing thatthey are the major tools for understanding and improving life, nature, and even themselves.⏹They hold science in great awe and believe that nothing is impossible when scientists, engineers, and inventors put their minds to a task or problem.Western cultures have long believed that all questions can be answered through science. Westerners tend to prize objectivity, empirical evidence, and concreteness, which , as we shall see in later, often clash with the values of subjectivity and intuition in other cultures.⏹Activity and Work⏹For most Americans , work is a desired and desirable expenditure of energy, a means of controlling and expressing strong affective states, and an avenue to recognition, money, or power.⏹Americans are humanitarian and charitable to those whom they perceive as deserving assistance, they look with displeasure and intolerance upon anyone who can work but does not.⏹A major reward of hard work, and an important American value, is leisure. For Americans , play is something they have earned. It is relief from the regularity of work, it is in play that they find real joy. Progress and ChangeSo strong is the belief in progress and change that Americans seldom fear taking chances or staking out new and exciting territories. Their beliefsand attitudes produce a certain mind-set and a wide range of behavior patterns.V arious aspects of this orientation are optimism, receptivity to change, emphasis upon the future rather than the past or present, faith in an ability to control all phases of life , and confidence in the perceptual ability of the common person.Diverse Cultural PatternsHofstede’s V alue Dimensions⏹Hofstede has identified four value dimensions that have a significant impact on behavior in all cultures. These dimensions are individualism-collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity and femininity.Individualism-Collectivism⏹A: Individualism-Collectivism⏹Individualism: Peo ple’s personal goal take priority over their allegiance to groups like the family or the employer. The loyalty of individualists to a given group and are apt to change their membership as it suits them, switching churches, or leaving one employer for another.⏹In cultures that tend toward individualism, an “I” consciousness prevails: competition rather than cooperation is encouraged.⏹Collectivism:is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups. People count on theirin-group (relatives, clans, organizations) to look after them, and in exchange for that they believe they owe absolute loyalty to the group. In collective societies, A “we” consciousnessIdentity is based on the social system; the individual is emotionally dependent on organizations and institutions; the culture emphasizes belonging to organizations;organizations invade private life and the clans to which individuals belong; and individuals trust group decisions.Uncertainty Avoidance⏹Uncertainty and avoidance indicate the extent to which a culture feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations.Uncertainty Avoidance⏹High-uncertainty-avoidance cultures⏹a. provide greater stabilityb. establish more formal rules⏹c. reject deviant 不正常的，离经叛道的ideas and behaviors⏹d. accept possibility of absolute truth⏹They are also characterized by a higher level of anxiety and stress: people think of the uncertainty inherent in life as a continuous hazard that must be avoided, and there is a strong need for written rules, regulations, rituals, and ceremonies, which add structure to life.( Greece, Peru, Belgium, Japan)⏹Low-uncertainty-avoidance:⏹a. accept uncertainty inherent in life b. as few rules as possible c. appreciate initiative d. take risks⏹They prize initiative, are more willing to take risks, are more flexible, think that there should be as rules few as possible, and depend not so much on experts as on themselves, generalists, and common sense (Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the United States,)⏹“Life should be a dance , not a race.”Power Distance⏹Power distance is the extent to which a society accepts that power in relationships, institutions, and organizations is distributed unequally.⏹High-power-distance⏹a. power means the facts of life b. Inequality between people c. hierarchical rank for each peopleLow-power-distance⏹a. every one closer to power b. equality between people c. live in concertMasculinity and Femininity⏹Masculinity is the extent to which the dominant values in a society are male oriented and is associated with such behaviors as ambition, achievement, the acquisition of money, and signs of manliness. (Ireland, the Philippines, Japan, China, Mexico) In a masculine society, men aretaught to be domineering and assertive and women nurturing. Masculinity and Femininity⏹Femininity stresses caring and nurturing behaviors. A feminine world view maintains that men need not be assertive and that they can assume nurturing roles, it also promotes sexual equality and holds that people and the environment are important. (Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark) Kluckhohn, and strodtbeck’s value orientation⏹Human Nature orientation⏹Relationship of Humankind to Nature⏹Time Orientation⏹Activity Orientation⏹Relational(Social) Orientation⏹The Kluckhohns and Strodtbeck, after examining hundreds of cultures, reached the conclusion that people turn to their culture for answers to the following five questions:⏹1.What is the character of human nature?⏹2.What is the relation of humankind to nature?⏹3.What is the orientation toward time?⏹4.What is the value placed on activity?⏹5.What is the relationship of people to each other?⏹The answers to these crucial questions serve as the bases for the five value orientations that are at the heart of their approachHuman Nature Orientation⏹Discussions of human nature usually deal with questions of goodness and rationality, so will look briefly at each of those issues.⏹Three logical division: evil at one end of the scale, good and evil in the middle, and good at the other end of the continuum.B: Relationship of Humankind to Nature⏹At one end of the scale devised by the scholars is the view that maintains human beings are subject to nature. Culture that hold this orientation believe that the force of life that are most powerful are outside their control. whether the force be a god, fate, or magic, a person cannot overcome it and must therefore learn to accept it. This orientation is found in India and parts of South America.B: Relationship of Humankind to Nature⏹The middle or so-called cooperative view is widespread and is associated with Asians and Native Americans. This orientation affirms that people should, in every way possible, live in harmony with nature. B: Relationship of Humankind to Nature⏹At the other end of the scale is the view that compels us to conquer, control, and direct the force of nature to our advantage. This value orientation is characteristic of the approach of the West, which has a long tradition of valuing technology and science over nature. There is even a belief that it is God’s intention for us to make the earth our privatedomain.C:Time Orientation⏹Cultures vary widely in their conceptions of time. Where they differ is in the value placed on the past, present, and future and how each influences interaction.Time Orientation⏹Past-oriented cultures believe strongly in the significance of prior events. History, established religions, and tradition are extremely important to those cultures, so there is a strong belief that the past should be the guide for making decisions and determining truth. (China, Japanese, Great Britain).C: Time Orientation⏹Present-oriented cultures hold that it is the moment that has the most significance. For them the future is vague, ambiguous, and unknown and what is real exists in the here and now. (Philippines ,Latin America)C:Time Orientation⏹Future-oriented cultures emphasize the future and expect it to be grander and nicer than the present. It is what is coming next that holds the greatest attraction for most Americans because whatever they are doing is not quite as good as what they would be doing. they think that it is in the future where happiness is to be found.D: Activity Orientation⏹Activity orientation is the way a culture views activity. Three common modes of activity expression are being, being-in-becoming, and doing.⏹Being orientation refers to spontaneous activity. Most Latin cultures have the view that the current activity is the one that matters the most. In Mexico, for example, people take great delight in the simple act of conversation with family and friends. Mexicans will talk for hours with their companions, for they believe that the act of “being” is one of the main goals and joys of life.⏹Being-in-becoming (growing ) orientations often correlate with those cultures that value a spiritual life more than a material one. For example , in both Hinduism and Buddhism, people spend a great portion of their lives in meditation and contemplation in an attempt to purify and fully advance themselves. For them, this inner or spiritual development is one of the main purpose of life.⏹Doing orientation describes activity in which accomplishments are measurable by standards external to the acting agent. It is this orientation that most characterizes the dominant American culture. The Americans proverb says “Idle hands are the devil’s workshop.”⏹Culture that value “being” above “ doing” often stress a spiritual life over a materialistic one.Hall’s High-and Low-Context Communication⏹A high context communication or message is one in which most of theinformation is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message.⏹A low context communication is just the opposite; the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code.⏹High-context cultures (for example, Japanese, Chinese, and Korean) people are very homogeneous with regard to experiences, information networks, and the like. High-context cultures, because of tradition and history, change very little. As a result, for most normal transactions in daily life they do not require, nor do they expect, much in-depth, background information.⏹In low-context cultures ( for example, German, Swiss, and American) the population is less homogeneous and therefore tends to compartmentalize interpersonal contacts. Each time they interact with others they need detailed background information.A few of the differences⏹1.V erbal messages are extremely important in low-context cultures. Members in these cultures expect these messages to be detailed, clear-cut, and definite. If there are not enough data, or if the point being made is not apparent, members of low-context cultures asks questions. High-context people are apt to become impatient and irritated when low-context peoplei nsist on giving them information they don’t need.⏹2.People in high-context cultures perceive low-context people as lesscredible. They believe that silence often sends a better message than words, and anyone who needs words does not have the information. “Empty cans clatter the loudest”.⏹3.The communication differences between high-and low-context cultures are also apparent in the manner in which each approaches conflict. “conflict should be dealt with discreetly and subtly”.⏹4.Because people in high-context cultures rely on more than words to carry meaning, they are more adept at reading nonverbal behavior and the environment and seem to be more conscious of the subtle nuances 细微差别found in every setting.⏹frame of reference参考系统free flow of information信息自由流通⏹field-independence无领域依附field-dependence领域依附⏹future orientation未来取向future-oriented culture未来取向文化⏹game master超越规则game playing 遵守规则gender role性别角色⏹hierarchy politeness system等级礼貌系统⏹high-context强语境honeymoon period蜜月期（文化适应的阶段之一）hypo-taxis形合⏹intra-cultural communication同一主流文化内人们的交际⏹ingredients of communication交际的组成要素inter-ethic communication跨民族交际⏹interracial communication跨人种交际interpersonal communication人际交往。