英语语言学概论

The Restoration

The bourgeois dictatorship was established, and Cromwell became the Protector of the English Commonwealth After the death of Cromwell, the Parliament recalled Charles II to England in 1660.

Only when Charles II threatened to restore the old absolute monarchy that bourgeoisie expelled him and invite William, Prince of Orange, from Holland, to be King of England in 1688: Glorious Revolution(光荣革命)——Glorious because it was bloodless and there was no revival of the revolutionary demands.

Paradise Lost

It is a long epic（史诗）in 12 books，written in blank verse.

Plot：Although defeated by God，Satan is not discouraged, he chooses the Garden of Eden for the battlefield ，where live the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, who are allowed by God to enjoy the supreme beauties of Paradise, if they do not eat the fruit that grows on the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. Satan desires to tear them away from the influence of God and make them tools in his struggle against God’s authority.

Satan assumes the shape of a serpent and appears before Eve, He persuades her to break God’s command. Eve eats an apple from the forbidden tree and plucks（摘）another for Adam. God sees all this, and Adam and Eve are both deprived of immortality, exiled（逐出）from Paradise and doomed to an earthly life full of hardship and sufferings.

Paradise Lost is Milton’s masterpiece. The story were taken form the Old Testament: the creatio n, the rebellion in Heaven of Satan and his fellow-angels; their defeat and expulsion from Heaven; the creation of the earth and of Adam and Eve; the fallen angels in hell plotting against God; Satan’s temptation of Eve; the departure of Adam and Eve from Eden

Theme

The poem, as we are told at the outset, was “to justify the ways of God to man,” to advocate submission to the Almighty. But after reading it one gets the impression that the main idea of the poem is a revolt against God’s authority.

characterization

God: a selfish, cruel, and unjust despot.

In the poem God is no better than a selfish despot, seated upon a throne with a chorus of angels about him eternally singing his praises. His long speeches are never pleasing. He is cruel and unjust in his struggle against Satan. His Archangel is a bore. His angels are silly. The Angles never think of expressing any opinions of their own, resembles the court of an absolute monarch.

Adam and Eve: embody Milton’s belief in the powers of man. Their craving fo r knowledge is highly praised. Satan: real hero, brave, strong-minded, represent the spirit questioning the authority of God.

The rebel Satan who rose against God and , though defeated, still sought for revenge, is the most striking character in the poem. Satan is the real hero of the poem. Like a conquered and banished giant, he remains obeyed and admired by those who follow him down to hell. He is firmer than the rest of the angels. It is always from him that deep counsels, unlooked-for resources and courageous deeds proceed. Satan and his followers freely discuss all the issues in council, bear close resemblance to a republican Parliament. It is he who, passing the guarded gates and boundless chaos, amid so many dangers, and across so many obstacles, makes man revolt against God. Though defeated, he prevails, since he has won from God the third part of his angels, and almost all the sons of Adam. Though wounded, he triumphs for the thunder which hit upon his left his heart invincible.

Samson Agonistes

Samson Agonistes is a poetical drama modeled on the Greek tragedies. It deals with the story from the “Book of Judges”(士师记)in the Old Testament. Samson was an athlete of the Israelites. He stood as their champion fighting for the freedom of his country. But he was betrayed by his wife Dalilah and blinded by his enemies the Philistines. Led into the temple “to make them sport” he wreaked his vengeance upon enemies by pulling down the temple upon then and upon himself in a common ruin.

There is much in common between Samson and Milton. Like Samson, Milton has also been embittered by an unwise marriage, persecuted by his enemies, has suffered from blindness and yet is unconquerable. Samson’s

miserable blind servitude among his enemies, his agonizing longing for sight and freedom, and the last triumph all strongly suggests Milton’s passionate longing that he too could bring destruction down upon the enemy at the cost of his own life, Samson is Milton.

John Bunyan约翰.班扬（1628—1688）

Life Experience

1628 born in a poor family whose father is a tinker (make and mend kettles and pot)

"My descent was of a low and inconsiderable generation, my father's house being of that rank that is meanest and most despised of all the families of the land".

1635 receiving educatio n at his father’s house and later with other country boys at local school.

1640 choosing a job like his father by adopting the trade of tinker

1644 joining the parlimentary army during the revolution time and become a preacher

1661 tried by the local magistrate for not attending the parish church and for holding unlawful meeting ,later was sentenced for 12 years.

While he was in jail, he was starting his most famous work pilgrim’s progress

1672 released and licensed as a teacher

1678 Pilgrim’s Progress was published

1688 died of a chill

John Bunyan’s masterpiece The Pilgrim’ Progress was probably written in prison, but for some reason he did not publish till 1678 long after his release. The Pilgrim’ Progress is a religious allegory.

The first part

Christian the Pilgrim, setting out in his search for salvation(救赎）, is accompanied by Pliable, Mr. Evangelist, Faithful and then Hopeful.

On the way he meets with many pitfalls like the Slough of Despond（绝望的深渊）, V anity Fair , Doubting castle and so on

On the way he meets with many hindrances like Mr. Worldly Wiseman, Apollyon（恶魔) and Judge Hategood, and Giant Despair.

After many narrow escapes and numerous tests of his steadfastness（坚定不移）he finally arrives at Celestial city（天国）.

The second part

The great popul arity of the book led the author to write a sequel. The second part of The Pilgrim’s Progress, dealing with similar adventures of Christian’s wife Christiana and her children in their pilgrimage to the celestial city, is much inferior to the first part.

The Story of the First Part

The story starts with a dream in which the author sees

Christian the Pilgrim, with a heavy burden on his back,

reading the Bible. When he learns from the book that the city

in which he and his family live shall be burnt down in a fire,

Christian tries to convince his family and his neighbors of

the oncoming disaster and asks them to go with him in

search of salvation, but most of them simply ignore him. So

he starts off with a friend, Pliable. Pliable turns back after

they stumble into a pit, the Slough of Despond. Christian

struggles on by himself. Then he is misled by Mr. Worldly

Wiseman and is brought back onto the right road by Mr.

Evangelist. There he joins Faithful, a neighbor who has set

out later but has made better progress.

The two go on together through many adventures, including the great struggle with Apollyon, who claims them to be his subjects and refuses to accept their allegiance to God. After many other adventures they come to the V anity Fair where both are arrested as alien agitators. They are tried and Faithful' is condemned to death.

Christian, however, manages to escape and goes on his way, assisted by a new friend, Hopeful. Tired of the hard journey, they are tempted to take a pleasant path and are then captured by Giant Despair. Finally they get away and reach the Celestial City, where they enjoy eternal life in the fellowship of the blessed.

V anity Fair（名利场）

The vivid picture of Vanity Fair, where all things are bought and sold（including honors, titles, wisdoms, lusts pleasures and lives）and where cheating and roguery（坏事）and murders and adulteries（通奸）are normal, everyday occurrences, is a biting satire on the English society with which the writer was familiar.

"The V anity Fair," An Excerpt from Part 1 of The Pilgrim's Progress

Then I saw in my dream, that when they were got out of the wilderness, they

Presently saw a town before them, and the name of that town is V anity; and at

the town there is a fair kept, called V anity Fair; it is kept all the year long; it

hearth(1) the name of V anity Fair because the town where it is kept is lighter

than vanity; and also because all that is there sold, or that cometh thither, is

vanity. As is the saying of the wise, "All that cometh is vanity".

Almost five thousand years ago, there were pilgrims walking to

the Celestial City, as these two honest persons are; and Beelzebub,

Apollyon, and Legion, with their companions, perceiving by the

path that the pilgrims made, that their way to the city lay through

this town of V anity, they contrived to set up a fair; a fair wherein

should be sold all sorts of vanity, and that it should last all the year

long. Therefore at this fair are all such merchandise sold, as houses,

lands, trades, places, honors, preferment, titles, countries, kingdoms,

lusts, pleasures, and delights of all sorts, as whores, bawds, wives,

husbands, children, masters, servants, lives, blood, bodies, souls,

silver, gold, pearls, precious stones, and what not.

And, moreover, at this fair there is at all times to be seen juggling,

cheats, games, plays, fools, apes, knaves, and rogues, and that of

every kind. Here are to be seen, too, and that for nothing, thefts,

murders, adulteries, false swearers, and that of a blood-red color.

Theme

1. Describes the spiritual suffera nce of the poor people at a time of great changes, and their aspiration for “the land that flow with milk and honey” .”There you will not see such things as sorrow, sickness, affliction, and death”.

2. Pilgrim’s Progress is a biting satire on the English

society with which the writer was familiar. It is not only

about something spiritual but also bears much relevance to

the time. The objects that Christian meets are homely and

commonplace, and the scenes presented are typical

English ones, but throughout the allegory a spiritual

significance is added to the commonplace details. Here the

strange is combined with the familiar and the trivial joined

to the divine.

3. It reveals Bunyan’s Puritan ideal.

Reading comprehension

Now, as I said, the way to the Celestial City lies just through this town where this lusty fair is kept; and he that will go to the city, and yet not go through this town, must needs "go out of the world". The Prince of princes himself, when here, went through this town to his own country, and that upon a fair-day, too, yea, and as I think, it was Beelzebub, the chief lord of this fair, that invited him to buy of his vanities; yea, would have made him lord of the fair, would he but have done him reverence as he went through the town. Y ea, because he was such a

man of honor, Beelzebub had him from street to street, and showed him all the kingdoms of the world in a little time, that he might, if possible, allure the Blessed One to cheapen and buy some of his vanities; but he had no mind to the merchandise, and therefore left the town, without laying so much as one farthing upon these vanities. This fair, therefore, is an ancient thing, of long standing, and a very great fair.

Where is this passage chosen form?

John Bunyan: The Pilgrim’s Progress.

Jesus Christ.

John Bunyan is talking about vanity, one of the evils of human life. The idea that everybody is potentially vain and vanity is something that the “world” encourages, and that is takes courage and effort to get rid of one of vanity. Even Jesus Christ(the Prince of Princes) was troubled by vanity, but he stood the test and conquered it. Thus Christians should do like Christ if they wish to reach the kingdom of God.

What is the theme of John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress?

John Donne，the founder of the Metaphysical school of poetry.

Main works: Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions (shows the intense interest Donne took in the spectacle of mortality under the shadow of death, a vision that haunted him perpetually, and inspired the highest of his eloquence. )

The Songs and Sonnets, by which Donne is probably best known, contains most of his early lyrics. Love is the basic theme. Donne holds that the nature of love is the union of soul and body. Donne's interest lies in dramatizing and illustrating the state of being in

love.

Donne's chief power as a religious poet is shown in the Holy Sonnets and the last hymns.

Death, Be Not Proud

Death, be not proud, though some have called thee

Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so;

For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrow

Die not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me.

From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be,

Much pleasure; then from thee much more must flow,

And soonest our best men with thee do go,

Rest of their bones, and soul's delivery.

Thou art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men,

And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell,

And poppy or charms can make us sleep as well

And better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then?

One short sleep past, we wake eternally

And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die.

Reading comprehension

One short sleep past, we wake eternally

And death shall be no more; thou shalt die

Questions:

1.Identify the poet and the poem.

2.What does the phrase “one short sleep” mean?

3.What idea does these two lines express?

Answers:

1.It is taken from John Donne’s Death, Be Not Proud.

2.It means death.

3.It means that shortly after we die we will wake up (as from sleep) and live eternally. It reveals the poet’s beli ef in life after death: death is but momentary while happiness after death is eternal.

Other Metaphysicals

George Herbert, “the saint of the Metaphysical school.” was a devout Anglican clergyman who believed that a poet should sing the glory of God. He describes his joys, fears and doubts in a symbolic way. Many of his poems overloaded with far-fetched conceits, too obscure to be appreciated. (The Altar)

Andrew Marvell, another Metaphysical poet, was a puritan who served as Milton’s assistant in the Commonwealth. He wrote poems on nature. (To His Coy Mistress)

To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time by Robert Herrick

Gather ye rosebuds while ye may,

Old Time is still a-flying:

And this same flower that smiles to-day

To-morrow will be dying.

The glorious lamp of heaven, the sun,

The higher he's a-getting,

The sooner will his race be run,

And nearer he's to setting.

That age is best which is the first,

When youth and blood are warmer;

But being spent, the worse, and worst

Times still succeed the former.

Then be not coy, but use your time,

And while ye may, go marry:

For having lost but once your prime,

Y ou may for ever tarry.

Some Prose-Writers

The seventeenth century was a period of revolution and restoration. Much of the prose was devoted to political and religious controversies. Nevertheless, besides Milton and other militant pamphleteers, there are still some other prose writers who reflected their age from different angles and whose works carry quite different message with them.

Robert Burton

His masterpiec e “The Anatomy of Melancholy” . Nominally, it claims to offer the definition, symptoms, causes, properties and cure of melancholy, that is, human disorder, especially love melancholy and religious melancholy.

But in reality the book is an enormous collection of detached essays on the whole life and thought of man, and on man’s dissatisfaction with the world and the ways to mitigate it, illustrated with the best stories in the world. Other Prose-Writers

Thomas Browne

Religio Medici (a collection of opinions on a vast number of opinions on a vast number of subjects more and less connected with religion, expressed from a distinctly personal viewpoint )

Jeremy Taylor

He is famous for his Holy Living and Holy dying, Both written to help the Anglican royalists during the reign of the Commonwealth.

Holy Living offers rules of conduct for the Royalists under the difficulties of the age. Holy Dying warns that human life is short and it is necessary to begin preparing for death while still healthy.

Thomas Browne and Jeremy Taylor have been called two representative baroque prose writers in English literature for their elaborate and magnificent style.

Baroque literature: It is the transition from Renaissance

to classicism.

It began in Italy, Spain and flourished in France and then

England. It has direct influence on 19th romanticist

literature.

It is called in 18th-century as “Rococo Style”, the style of painting, writing and decoration characterized by lightness, delicacy, and elaborate ornamentation.

Exercise One I. Name the Writers by the given passages. (10%)

( ) 1. What man art thou,quoth he, That lookest as thou wouldst find a hare; For ever on the ground I see thee stare.

( ) 2. Here where nothing is private, the common affairs be earnestly looked upon...?There where all things be common to every man, It is not to be doubted that any an shall lack anything necessary for his private use, so ?that ?the ?common ?storehouses bars be sufficiently stored

( ) 3. ...What though the field be lost? All is not lost; the unconquerable will And study of revenge, immortal hate, And courage never to submit or yield...

( ) 5. It sucked me first, and now sucks thee, And in this flea, our two bloods mingled be; This flea is you & I,& this Our marriage-bed, marriage temple is.

II.True & False statement. (20%)

( ) 1. Chancer's contribution to English poetry lies chiefly in the fact he introduced from France the rhymed stanza in Iambic meter to English poetry.

( ) 2. Hamlet,the great tragedy of Shakespear, with perfect artistry, studys the big question "to be or no to be.“( ) 3. Bacon was the founder of modern science & also famous for his "essays."

( ) 4. Milton's Areopagistica is a pamphlet about religious abuse.

( ) 5. University wits contribute a lot in prose writing as well as drama writing.

( ) 6. Romance is a typical kind of noble literature & has nothing to do with common people.

( ) 7. Sperser's "Faerie Queene", Sidney's "Astrophel & Stella "& Shakespeare's?"Sonnets" are the most famous sonnet sequences of Elizabethan Age.

( ) 8.Blank verse is the most popular literary form in 11th-14th century.

( ) 9. Marlowe was the greatest pioneer of English drama & it was Marlowe ?who ?first made blank verse the principal instrument of English drama.

( ) 10.The eighteenth century is an enlightenment century that most of the writers show great interest on reasoning, rationality & classicism (Neo-classicism)

Representatives of the Restoration

1. Sir George Etherege

乔治·埃恩里奇爵士

The man of Mode《时髦男子》

2. William Wycherley 威廉·威彻利

Love in a Wood《林中之爱》

The Country Wife《乡村妇女》

The Plain Dealer《坦率的人》

Representatives of the Restoration

3.Sir John Vanbrugh约翰·范布勒爵士

The Relapse, or Virtue in Danger 《故态复萌》

The Provoked Wife《恼怒的妻子》

4. William Congreve威廉·康格里夫

The Double Dealer《两面派》

Love for Love 《以爱还爱》

The Way of the World 《如此世道》

Representatives of the Restoration

5. Jeremy Collier杰雷米·科利尔, a non-conformist(非国教的) clergyman

A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage《略论英国舞台上的不道德和亵渎》

现代语言学

一绪论

1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language

2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants

3 Phonology" : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.

4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and "ish"---boyish,teach---teacher.

5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,"John like linguistics."

6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried." The seal could not be found,The king became worried." Here the word seal means different things.

7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, "I do" The word do means different context.

8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.

9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.

二音系学

1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.

2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.

3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don't.

4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.

5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.

6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.

7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.

8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.

9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.

10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest}

三形态学

1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.

3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.

4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.

6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.

8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.

9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.

10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.

11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.

12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.

四句法学

1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.

3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.

4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.

5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called M ove а{$isbest}

五语义学

1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.

2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.

3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.

5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.

6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.

7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.

8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed b y structural semanticists.

10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.

11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.

12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.

六语用学

1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists

of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.

3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.

5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker's intention; It is the act performed in saying something.

6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.

七历史语言学

1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.

2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.

3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.

4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.

5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.

6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.

7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.

8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.

9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..

10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.

11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.

12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.

A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.

13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.

八社会语言学

1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.

2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.

3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.

4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.

5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.

6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.

7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.

8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among

groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.

9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.

10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.

11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in

a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.

12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.

13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.

14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.

15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.

16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.

17 tabo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use.

18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning "to speak with good words". A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.

九心理语言学

1 psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.

2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.

3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.

4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain's neurological specialization for language.

5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks

6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.

7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one's life extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.

8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.

9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion

10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as "subvocal speech".

of linguistic relativism.

十语言习得

1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children's development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.

2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.

3 holophrastic sentence: Children's one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.

4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.

5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.

6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.

7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.

8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.

9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.

10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner's interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.

11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner's consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.

12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner's goal is functional.

13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner's goal is social.

14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.

第一章语言的性质

语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学

语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学

发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学

音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学

词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学

词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法

句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学

语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化

语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；

第十章语言、思维与文化

语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学

语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics

《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答

1.1. What is language?

"Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like "book") and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different "books": "book" in English, "livre" in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, "check" in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or "new". Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.

1.2. What are design features of language?

"Design features" here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability

1.3. What is arbitrariness?

By "arbitrariness", we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like "bang", "crash", "roar", which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitrary either. "Type" and "write" are opaque or unmotivated words, while "type-writer" is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say "arbitrariness" is a matter of degree.

1.4.What is duality?

Linguists refer "duality" (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour.

1.5.What is productivity?

Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one's native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard "A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon", but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called "rule-bound creativity" (by N.Chomsky).

1.6.What is displacement?

"Displacement", as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn't be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee's system, nonetheless, has a small share of "displacement", but it is an unspeakable tiny share.

1.7.What is cultural transmission?

This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to ge neration, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it "language acquisition device", or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog's barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf's roaring "tongue" when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.

1.8.What is interchangeability?

(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, "Please do something to make me happy." Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener,he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.

(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot?) , and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 "speaking" and which listening.

1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?

First of all, human language has six "design features" which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see I .2-8). Let's borrow C. F. Hocket's Chart that compares human language with some animals' systems, from Wang Gang(1998,p.8).

Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught "American sign Language", and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.

Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the "Wolf Child"in I.7)

1.10.What functions does language have?

Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world,

and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three "Macro-Functions": ideational, interpersonal and textual(see !.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396).

1. 11What is the phatic function?

The "phatic function" refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. "How are you?" "Fine, thanks.") is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say "Hello" to a friend you meet, or if you don't answer his "Hi", you ruin your friendship.

1.1

2. What is the directive function?

The "directive function" means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., "Tell me the result when you finish." Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle's "indrect speech act theory"(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., "If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!"

1.13.What is the informative function?

Language serves an "informational function" when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true(truth) or false(falsehood). According to P.Grice's "Cooperative Principle"(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the "Maxim of Quality", when he is informing at all.

1.14.What is the interrogative function?

When language is used to obtain information, it serves an "interrogative function". This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the "indirect speech act theory", may have this function as well, e.g., "I'd like to know you better." This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader's/listener's answer.

1.15.What is the expressive function?

The "expressive function" is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like "Good heavens!" "My God!" Sentences like "I'm sorry about the delay" can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker's own attitudes.

1.16.What is the evocative function?

The "evocative function" is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That's also the case with the other way round.

1.17.What is the performative function?

This means people speak to "do things" or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say "OK", which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge's imprisonment sentence, the president's war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well(see J.Austin's speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.,pp271-278).

1.18.What is linguistics?

"Linguistics" is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from

dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp20-22)

1.19.What makes linguistics a science?

Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic "stone" unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.

1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?

The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988).But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches : phonetics ,phonology ,morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.

1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?

The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled "On the Use of THE", for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).

1.2

2.What is speech and what is writing?

(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.

(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.

(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.

1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?

A linguistic study is "descriptive" if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and "prescriptive" if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on "high" (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.

1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?

F. de Saussure refers "langue"to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech

community and refers "parole" to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.

1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?

(1) According to N. Chomsky, "competence" is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language, and "performance" is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker's competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.

(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.

(3) Chomsky's competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. de Saussure's langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure look s at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.

1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?

These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his "actual linguistic behavior") on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).

1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?

Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker's mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means "knowing", and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for "doing" or "performing actions". They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.

1.28.What is phonetics?

"Phonetics" is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics.

(1)Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2)Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer's point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear , the auditory nerve and the brain. (3)Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.

Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.

1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?

The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al.,p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three

parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.

1.30.What is place of articulation?

It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved,e. g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1 )bilabial:[p,b,m]; (2) labiodental:[f,v]; (3) dental:[,]; (4) alveolar:[t,d,l,n.s,z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar:[,]; (7) palatal:[j]; (8) velar[k,g,]; (9) uvular;

(10)glottal:[h].

Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w]has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed "labial-velar".

1.31.What is the manner of articulation?

The "manner of articulation" literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following : (1) plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g]; (2) nasal:[m,n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral:[l]; (6) fricative:[f,v,s,z]; (7) approximant:[w,j]; (8) affricate:[].

1.3

2.How do phoneticians classify vowels?

Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].

1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?

The IPA, abbreviation of "International Phonetic Alphabet", is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.

1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?

In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between "narrow" and "broad" transcriptions, which he called "Narrow Romic". The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.

1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?

(1) "Phonology" is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.

(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign "accent", to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one's language.

1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?

(1) A "phone" is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]'s, readily making possible the "narrow transcription or diacritics". Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A "phoneme" is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].

(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its "allophones", i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]'s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by

a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.

1.37.What are minimal pairs?

When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a "minimal pair", e.g., "pill" and "bill", "pill" and "till", "till" and "dill", "till" and "kill", etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).

1.38.What is free variation?

If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in "free variation". The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.

1.39.What is complementary distribution?

When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in "complementary distribution". For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent o f[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words "please", "butler", "clear", etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words "feel", "help", "middle", etc.

1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?

(1) The "assimilation rule" assimilates one segment to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasa l[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix "in-" serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], [i] or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar)

input-['imput](bilabial)

(3) The "deletion rule" tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter "g" is mute in "sign", "design" and "paradigm", it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: "signature", "designation" and "paradigmatic". The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).

1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?

"Suprasegmental phonology" refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.

Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be "principal suprasegmental features", calling the concurrent patterning of three "intonation". Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.

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2.What is morphology?

"Morphology" is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.

1.43.What is inflection/inflexion?

"Inflection" is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such

as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.

1.44.What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?

(1) The "morpheme" is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word "boxes", for example, has two morphemes: "box" and "-es", neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don't wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.

(2) Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as "dog", "cat", etc. The variants of the plurality "-s" make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.

1.45.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?

A "free morpheme" is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as 'bed", "tree" ,etc. A "bound morpheme" is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as "-s" in "beds" , "-al" in "national" and so on. All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes )or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).

1.46.What is a root ? What is a stem? What is an affix?

A "root" is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a "root" is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. "Internationalism" is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme "nation" as its root when " inter-", "-al" and "-ism" are taken away.

A "stem" is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word "friends" , "friend" is both the root and the stem, but in the word "friendships", "friendships" is its stem, "friend" is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e. g., "mailman" , "girlfriend" ,ect.

An "affix" is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes: prefix, suffix and infix, e. g. , "mini-", "un-", ect.(prefix); "-ise", "-tion", ect.(suffix).

1.47.What are open classes? What are closed classes?

In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are "open -class words", since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.

1.48.What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary? Lexicon? Word? Lexeme? V ocabulary?

"Lexicon", in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations. "Word" is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard , even impossible, to define "word" linguistically. Nonetheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the definition of "word", none of which, though, is expected to cope with all the situations: (1)a physically definable unit ,e. g.,[it iz 'w ](phonological), "It is wonder" (orthographic); (2) the common factor underlying a set of forms (see what is the common factor of "checks", "checked", "checking ", etc.); (3) a grammatical unit(look at (1) again; every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence).

According to Leonard Bloomfield, a word is a minimum free form (compare: a sentence is a maximum free form, according to Bloomfield ). There are other factors that may help us identify words: (1) stability (no great change of orthographic features); (2)relative uninterruptibility (we can hardly insert anything between two parts of a word or between the letters). To make the category clearer we can subclassify words into a few types: (1)

variable and invariable words(e. g.,-mats, seldom-?); (2) grammatical and lexical words(e. g. to, in ,etc., and table, chair, ect. By "lexical words" we mean the words that carry a semantic content, e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs; (3) closed-class and open-class words(see I.47).

In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term "word" ,the term "lexeme" is postulated as the abtract unit which refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts. For example, "write" is the lexeme of the following words: "write", "write", "wrote", "writing", and "written."

"V ocabulary" usually refers to all words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or/and untechnical things. So we encourage our students to enlarge their vocabulary. "vocabulary" is also used to mean word list or glossary.

1.49.What is collocation?

"Collocation" is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can "read" a "book"; "correct" can narrowly occur with "book" which is supposed to have faults, but no one can "read" a "mistake" because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.

1.50.What is syntax?

"Syntax" is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.

1.51.What is a sentence?

L. Bloomfield defines "sentence" as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.

1.5

2.What are syntactic relations?

"Syntactic relations" refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence. (1) "Positional relation", or "word order", refers to the sequential arrangement to words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called "syntagmatic relations", or of what other linguists call "horizontal relations" or "chain relations".

(2) "Relations of substitutability" refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them "associative relations". Other people call them "paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations".

(3) By "relations of co-occurrence", one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.

1.53.What is IC analysis? What are immediate constituents(and ultimate constituents)?

"IC analysis" is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two(or more) se gments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are . What remain of the first cut are called "immediate constituents", and what are left at the final cut are called "ultimate constituents". For example, "John left yesterday" can be thus segmented: "John| left | | yesterday". We get two immediate constituents for the first cut (|), and they are "John" and "left yesterday". Further split(||) this sentence generates three "ultimate constituents": "John", "left " and "yesterday".

1.54.What are endocentric and exocentric constructons?

"Endocentric construction" is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable "centre" or "head". Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head. "Exocentric construction", opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole ;that is to say ,there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic