国际贸易理论外文翻译文献

国际贸易理论外文翻译文献
国际贸易理论外文翻译文献

国际贸易理论外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)

新制度主义与新贸易理论:反思比较优势和贸易政策

新制度主义与新贸易理论

比较优势理论在国际贸易理论中一直占主导地位。这一理论的主张,除了少数负面例子外,大多数国家的贸易都因此而变好。虽然如此,这个理论也承认(斯托尔珀和萨缪尔森1941)贸易的收益因资本和劳动力份额的多少而变动,并且个体因素会带来更大的损失。然而,失去的因素,原则上在贸易中仍然可以得到充分补偿。虽然这些现象在实践中由于政治经济原因是很少发生的。

比较优势理论起到了促进自由贸易和全球化的中心作用。虽然大多数专业经济学家都接受这个理论,但其中还有一些经济学家就充分就业的存在和市场能力对国家生产(帕利2003得)及全球配置理论的假设产生质疑。制度经济学家也质疑其体制形式不很严密,特别是跨国公司及其复杂的对外合作对贸易格局的影响。

比较优势贸易理论中的批评也越来越多地夹杂在政治层面。因此,更多的政治家和市民质疑贸易全球化到底能带来多大的利益。特别是,越来越担心未来境外生产及外包很可能对人们的福利产生巨大影响。

本文探讨了当前戈莫里和鲍莫尔(2000)和萨缪尔森(2004)最近的工作 -GBS- 研究了这些问题。特别是观点的一致性,本文着重在挖掘和澄清戈莫里以及鲍莫尔在经济问题上的分歧。

GBS在比较优势的均衡理论(尤其是萨缪尔森)在传统理论中占有优势,同时它还探讨了如何改变全球生产模式从而带来贸易收益分配的影响。他们发现在全球化贸易中隐含着比传统贸易理论更多的东西。

GBS的研究结果也揭示了一些新古典贸易理论与贸易理论和制度主义融合的东西。这种衔接工作表现在许多层面,从贸易的政策上来分析。首先,贸易扩张未必是双赢的结果,系统和贸易的扩大可能造成单赢的结果。第二,GBS的论点强调了国家与国家之间的技术转让和生产方法的交流,这些转让的背后隐含的现象对产品周期理论的链接是息息相关的。三,规模收益递增(IRTS)发挥核心作用。戈莫里 - 贸易冲破鲍莫尔的分歧与后凯恩斯经济学长期以来一直强调的IRTS影响(卡尔多1981)相连。凯恩斯主义者往往强调通过Verdoorn规律,生产率的增长在于市场规模和经营的动态IRTS。第四,GBS看到了

战略性贸易政策,即从贸易中获取更大收益,并与制度主义政策思想的精神相联系。

同样重要的是了解GBS贸易理论的重新思考,这些与“贸易保护主义”无关。他们当中有很多都赞成贸易会给各国带来利益。然而,开放的问题将是如何让这些收益的分配随时间的改变而改变。这就提出了新的重要政策问题,也就是可以采取什么措施,最大限度地从美国的贸易利益中共享。因此这个问题也是他们最终关心的东西。

最后,GBS进行的微观经济理论分析,是传统贸易理论的基础条件。这意味着他们反思自身条件的同时,也加强了他们对传统贸易理论的批评。在这方面可以用宏观经济评论(布莱克2005年a,2005年b)和有关的贸易赤字对就业和投资的影响(比文斯2004年;布莱克2006)进行实证批评。

在这方面,各国之间可能存在重大分歧。美国公司可以自由选择他们在全球基础上的经营策略,没有考虑到美国的国家利益。事实上,考虑到美国的国家利益时,考虑的将会违反信托义务,因为管理人员有责任为股东价值最大化。截然不同,在中国,国民政府对企业施加重大控制,是把国家利益和经营策略的因素考虑在一起。从全国来看,这意味着相对美国中国是有利的,但在中国公司的股东,就没有美国公司的股东那么好了。

第三个方面需要注意的是汇率政策。这个问题是不解决GBS的,但在工作中隐含着。GBS的分析是基于纯粹的贸易理论,只是从汇率问题上看,它是很抽象的。实际上,它假定了汇率按购买力平价值。但是,如果汇率偏离这一点,他们可能会引起显著的扭曲。

在一个IRTS环境中,各国可以使用被低估的汇率给国内企业带来竞争优势。被低估的汇率降低出口价格,增加了进口价格,从而增加产品的需求和产量。在这种方式下,被低估的汇率可以帮助企业的平均成本向下移动从而获得执行的比较优势。因此,各国可以战略性地利用汇率捕捉行业,它们并没有像以前那样的活动。此外,制造业企业,是知识,技能和资本集群,产业和企业的聚集。一旦企业和行业被摧毁它们是很昂贵的并且难以重组,即使汇率的估值得到纠正,这也将使他们不可能会重生。因此,汇率集下的评估可能对全球生产(帕利2003)结构带来永久性的影响。

而且,即使在传统的贸易理论上,让汇率根据估值上升,比较优势和生产分配不当也会带来(布莱克2005年a)偏差。比较优势是一个平衡的贸易理论。因此,如果一个国家有一个被低估的汇率和贸易盈余并持续,这意味着它是一些出口产品国,它缺乏同样具有比较优势的产品,该国持续的贸易赤字是运行一些进口产品,它可能是真正有比较优势产品。

失业的存在,它是由纯贸易理论假设的,被低估的汇率可用于战略思想中,来挖走从

其他国家的总需求,从而降低其他国家牺牲的失业问题。很久以前,这种可能性是确定的。琼罗宾逊([1937] 1947,156-70)把这种政策称为“乞丐,我的邻国”的失业救济。(9)其底线是,汇率问题对全球的生产和就业成果显著。在一个没有IRTS的国度里,被低估的生产会偏离比较优势的汇率。在与IRTS国度里,交易,估值率可用来永久性的改变平衡和锁定在全球生产中的新格局。

这些影响是汇率改变的贸易政策和贸易协议的核心部分。然而目前,美国政策制定者已经拒绝交换,理由是市场干预的存在。这项政策的立场是理性的,其证据不足。有充分理由相信,外汇市场倾向于从众行为的许多理论依据。也有较强的经验性证据表明,汇率偏离均衡水平的理论上保证- 无论是作为购买力平价或汇率与经常帐赤字持续一致的定义。比这更糟糕的是,在某些情况下(尤其是东亚经济体)其他国家在战略上操纵本国货币汇率,这意味着美国经济正在外溢,失去产业和费尽了巨额贸易赤字来增加未来的负担。

另一种形式的战略方针是国内采购。在这里,国家可以直接向政府购买本国的公司,从而扩大在这些公司中生产。在这种方式下,他们可以帮助企业向下移动平均成本曲线,从而成为全球拥有低成本的企业,并抢得全球领导地位。

各国还可以从事劳动剥削取得优势。在这种情况下,他们转变了企业的平均成本的日程表,而不是沿着它移动。这对与中国来说,是美国工会在劳动剥削,为从事贸易优势而获得被告贸易直接相关的。

劳动剥削是可怕的和不能接受的。然而,降低企业的成本问题即降低提供医疗和社会保险法的合法方式。在美国,这种保险是通过提供就业机会,使其成为工作的费用来解决的。这引起了美国的生产成本上升,美国生产商和竞争力处于不利地位,所以鼓励境外工作。提供并通过了国家保险制度,是由联邦资助的税收,这有可能减少这种激励医疗保险,但也同样适用于社会保障资金。事实上,在某种程度上它是由全球企业利润征税资助的,承担的费用部分由海外生产的利润来填补。

总之,GBS的贸易分析提供了一个集合的政策,还有一些与历史上被称为什么工业或相似的微观经济竞争力的政策的理由。但是,提出的政策不涉及决策者“挑选赢家”。这一种东西,没有理由相信他们能做到。相反,政策应该被看作是确立正确的经济气候和气候结构,即法律,规则和制度。其中商业经营,应采取措施鼓励企业创新和投资,并为工人提高他们的技能。结构应该也能确保公司的利益与国家利益相一致。大气是指对执政的经济条件,这应该有利于国内的业务表现。气氛被认为是促进充分就业和充分需求方面,这包括扩张性的宏观经济政策和汇率维持竞争力的价值政策。

GBS贡献贸易的辩论

在进入GBS的主题内容分析之前,我们应该区分贸易中存在的一些批评他们的理论。首先,他们的论据不是有关贸易收入分配的不利影响。这些影响是广泛的被理解,而对于萨缪尔森所作的开创性贡献,在他的贸易理论与沃尔夫冈斯托尔珀(1941年)的工作领域中体现。据斯托尔帕-萨缪尔森定理,一个国家打开贸易时,该因素是相对稀缺的,在交易前失去了平衡。在美国而言,这意味着美国工人失去他们含蓄地成为一个全球劳动力市场的一部分。这种收入再分配的效果仍然执行,但它是有别于由金紫荆星章所提出的新的忧虑。

由GBS新问题提出的是比较优势的动态演变与从贸易收益的分配造成的影响。比较优势理论认为可以从整个世界经济贸易中获取收益。然而,各国之间的收益分配上的供求情况,是贸易条件而决定的(即进口和出口的相对价格),而这些条件可以改变。

约翰逊早期的工作(1954 至1955)和巴格瓦蒂(1958)关于贸易条件和贸易利益分配的影响很大。萨缪尔森(2004)改变的重点和探讨的经济影响很受关注。人们普遍认为所有国家都从其他国家的技术进步中受益,因为这样扩大了全球的生产可能性边界(PPF)。但是,事实证明,并不一定是所有国家都会有利益。这是一个重要的理论发现。戈莫里和鲍莫尔(2000)探讨类似主题的环境中,企业也有这样的平均单位成本下降的规模内部经济随着生产量的增加。像萨缪尔森(2004)模型中,他们充分就业是一个世界,让他们认同的问题是与贸易,而不是失业问题。引入失业只有他们确定化合物的关注。

规模经济意味着每种产品由一个国家生产。戈莫里和鲍莫尔认为所有国家都获得相同的技术。哪个国家获得生产什么产品,然后取决于所到达的成本曲线向下移动。多个平衡点的存在意味着它只是偶然,实际equilibriura是全球产出的最大化,而当时整个国家的生产效率不高。例如,一个国家可能会在大量的行业领先,从而阻止他们进入新的行业。然而,生产规模过小,在这些行业中又失去了较大的规模效益。在这种情况下,重新安排全球生产模式可以受惠,扩大产业规模,减少一些在其他方面的一切支出。

通过举例来说明,考虑在这样的情况下,有两个相同的国家和四个行业,每个国家都有充分就业。假设初始均衡控制的行业有1-3个,行业和国家两个控制4个。在这种情

况下,规模过小,产业1-3个,太大。一个优越的生产计划,扩大全球收入是让每个国家生产两种商品,从而扩大生产和产业1-3并承包4中。

国家效率低下,如果能得到更糟糕的不同成本曲线。这种差异可能存在,因为在技术差异上赋予了一个国家,或由于“外部”规模经济所产生的集聚效应的绝对优势。这种积极的集聚效应出现,个别企业效率的提高作为整个行业的扩展。产业扩张降低了单个企业的成本。在这种情况下,不仅可以有一个全球生产分布不均(戈莫里- 鲍莫尔低效率),但而且生产也会错误投入到低劣的技术和成本较高的国家。如果一个国家获得的成本高,效率低,那么向下移动平均成本曲线很多,从而成为全球的低成本生产和收购“执政”的成本优势。尽管其他国家可能更加有效,他们锁定的第一个国家开始向下移动了它的平均成本曲线。

另一个例子是,如果一些行业赚取更高的利润价值,在这种情况下,各国将有动力夺取这些行业,以赚取更高的价值。此外,由于较高的平均成本曲线,导致国家可能不太有效的控制。鉴于IRTS,存在成本高的国家可以完成这样的转换,如果政府暂时提供援助,其成本向下移动。

最后,战略政策,特别是由于需求不足的国度中,可能存在大量的失业。在这种情况下,国家刺激国内需求或者他们自己的通过补贴和被低估的汇率等措施,提高它们的工业生产和较低的平均成本来挖走其他国家的需求。

相对生产率下降技术领先,损失中发挥重要作用GBS的故事。最直接的在国际产业外包上具有相对优势,这也一直是出口的问题。当然这种外包涉及技术转让。虽然从外包公司受益,他们去赚取利润外,外包可以减少美国的国家收入,如果它转移技术,就会增加与美国的出口竞争。

外包给予补偿,转让作为销售合同条件的一部分,这也是一些生产国的一些相似之处。典型的例子是飞机制造业,民用和军用。补偿是一种方式,一个国家可以从另一个行业中补给。因此,从国家利益的角度看他们非常令人不安。(8)但是,公司少得多的偏移困扰,因为他们赢得订单,然后去赚取外国生产利润。这突出了企业与国家利益的分歧。

在GBS的框架内,技术领先是关键,而且有迹象表明美国可能已经下滑。弗里曼(2004)报告说,世界高技术产品出口中,美国市场份额从30%降至1980年的17%。世界科学论文,美国市场份额从45%降至1980年的35%,而在美国化学文摘社的论文比例从1980年的73%,2003年的40%。中国正在获得迅速发展,特别是在技术领域,

2003年32.5万,比在美国多65,000。在生产与科学和工程博士学位的学生,美国也是不断下跌。1989年,生产主要在48个亚洲国家。

这种格局表明美国需要加强科学教育,研究和发展的公共支出。此外,税法的结构应鼓励企业进行研发,增加在最新技术和设备消费等方面的投资。在新的全球化时代,国内政策被认为是贸易政策的一部分,。

全球化虽然促进了科学和技术政策,但也增加了新的困难。在全球化时代,国内发展的科学和技术创新有可能被用于国外,使之累计受益,显示着创新型国家的特点。今天,在全球范围内组织企业生产,有什么东西可以确保国内生产创新将应用于国际呢?相反,企业的创新可以简单地转移到国外生产。这可能是最好的方式使公司利润最大化,但它可能无法最大限度地增加国民收入。在全球化时代,企业利润最大化有助于全球产量的最大化,但它不一定是全国产量的最大化。这也一直是被国家决策者所不能理解的。

Institutionalism and new trade theory: rethinking comparative

advantage and trade policy

Journal of Economic Issues, March, 2008 by Thomas I. Palley

Institutionalism and New Trade Theory

International trade theory has long been dominated by the theory of comparative advantage. That theory claims, subject to a few pathological exceptions, countries are made better off by international trade. (1) That said, the theory also acknowledges (Stolper and Samuelson 1941) that capital and labor share differentially in the gains from trade, and individual factors can actually lose. However, factors that lose can still in principle be fully compensated for their losses out of the gains from trade, though this seldom happens in practice for reasons of political economy.

The theory of comparative advantage has played a central role in promoting the policy case for free trade and globalization. Though accepted by most professional economists, some economists question its theoretical assumptions regarding the existence of full employment and the ability of markets to bring about a global allocation of production on the basis of country relative efficiency (Palley 2003). Institutional economists also question its lack of attention to institutional forms, particularly multi-national corporations and their impact on patterns of trade. These theoretical critiques of comparative advantage trade theory are also being increasingly joined at the political level. Thus, more politicians and members of the public are questioning the scale of benefits from trade and globalization. In particular, there are growing concerns about the welfare impacts of possible future developments regarding offshore outsourcing of production.

The current paper explores recent work by Gomory and Baumol (2000) and Samuelson (2004)--henceforth GBS--examining these issues. In particular, the paper focuses on excavating and clarifying the economic argument of Gomory and Baumol, which is difficult to access in their book.

GBS work in the tradition of comparative advantage equilibrium theory (especially Samuelson) and explore how changing patterns of global production can affect the distribution of gains from trade. Their findings paint a much more mixed picture of the benefits from globalization than implied by conventional trade theory.

GBS's findings also reveal the potential for some convergence between neoclassical trade theory and institutionalist trade theory. This convergence operates at many levels, from the analysis of how trade works, to policy. First, expansions of trade may not be the win-win outcome conventionally claimed, and trade expansion may systematically create "country" winners and

losers. Second, GBS's arguments emphasize transfers of technology and production methods between countries, and behind these transfers implicitly stand multi-national corporations that engage heavily in foreign direct investment. This links to the product-cycle theory of trade developed by Vernon (1966; 1979). Third, increasing returns to scale (IRTS) play a central role in the Gomory--Baumol account of trade conflict, and this links with Post Keynesian economics that has long emphasized IRTS effects (Kaldor 1981). However, Gomory and Baumol work with static IRTS that links the level of productivity to market size: Post Keynesians have tended to emphasize dynamic IRTS operating through Verdoorn's law, which rests on a link between productivity growth and market size. Fourth, GBS see a place for strategic trade policy to capture greater gains from trade, and this links with the spirit of institutionalist policy thinking.

It is also important to understand the character of GBS's re-thinking of trade, which has nothing to do with "protectionism." They are strongly in favor of trade, believing there are gains to be had by all. What is open to question is how the size of those gains and their distribution across countries may change over time. That raises important new policy issues regarding what can be done to maximize the U.S. share of gains from trade and hold on to them, and it is this issue that is their ultimate concern.

Finally, GBS's analysis is conducted in terms of microeconomic theory, which is the basis of conventional trade theory. That means their rethinking tackles conventional trade theory on its own terms, which strengthens their critique. To this can then be added macroeconomic critiques (Blecker 2005a; 2005b) and empirical critiques about the effect of trade deficits on jobs and investment (Bivens 2004; Blecker 2006).

In this regard, there may be important differences across countries. American corporations are free to choose their business strategy on a global basis, without regard to American national interest. Indeed, taking account of American national interest would be a breach of fiduciary duty since managers have an obligation to maximize shareholder value. Contrastingly, in China the national government exerts significant control over corporations, and national interest is factored into business strategy. From a national perspective that means China is advantaged relative to the United States, though shareholders in Chinese corporations are not as well served as shareholders in U.S. corporations.

A third area needing policy attention is exchange rates. This problem is not addressed by GBS, but is implicit in their work. GBS's analysis is based on pure trade theory, and as such it abstracts from exchange rate issues. In effect, it assumes that exchange rates are at purchasing power parity values. However, if exchange rates deviate from this they can give rise to significant costly distortions.

In a world of IRTS, countries can use undervalued exchange rates to give national firms a competitive advantage. Under-valued exchange rates lower the price of exports and increase the price of imports, thereby increasing product demand and output. In this fashion, under-valued exchange rates can help firms move down their average cost schedules and acquire ruling comparative advantage. Countries can therefore strategically use exchange rates to capture industries in which they were not previously active. Moreover, manufacturing firms are clusters

of knowledge, skills, and capital, and firms are clustered in industries. Once firms and industries are destroyed it is costly and difficult to reassemble them so that they may not return even if the exchange rate under-valuation is corrected. Consequently, episodes of exchange rate under-valuation can have permanent impacts on the structure of global production (Palley 2003).

Moreover, even in conventional trade theory exchange rate under-valuation gives rise to deviations from comparative advantage and misallocation of production (Blecker 2005a). Comparative advantage is a theory of balanced trade. Consequently, if a country has an under-valued exchange rate and a persistent trade surplus, it implies it is exporting some products that it lacks a comparative advantage in. Likewise, the country running persistent trade deficits is importing some products that it may truly have comparative advantage in.

In the presence of unemployment, which is assumed away by pure trade theory, under-valued exchange rates can be used strategically to poach aggregate demand from other countries and thereby reduce a country's unemployment at the expense of other countries. Long ago, this possibility was identified by Joan Robinson ([1937] 1947, 156-70) who termed such policy a "beggar-my-neighbor" remedy for unemployment. (9)

The bottom line is that exchange rates matter significantly for global production and employment outcomes. In a world without IRTS, under-valued exchange rates result in deviations of production from comparative advantage. In a world with IRTS, exchange rate under-valuation can be used to permanently change the equilibrium and lock-in new patterns of global production.

These effects speak to making exchange rates a central part of trade policy and trade agreements. Yet currently, U.S. policy makers have rejected exchange rate intervention on the grounds that markets know best. This policy stance is at odds with reason and evidence. There are many theoretical reasons for believing that foreign exchange markets are prone to herd behavior. There is also strong empirical evidence that exchange rates depart from their theoretically warranted equilibrium levels--be they defined as purchasing power parity or as the exchange rate consistent with sustainable current account deficits. Worse than that, in some cases other countries (especially the East Asian economies) are strategically manipulating their exchange rates, and that means the United States is being economically out-gamed, losing industries and racking up large trade deficits that carry future burdens.

Another form of strategic policy is domestic procurement. Here, countries can direct government purchases toward national companies, thereby scaling up production at those firms. In this fashion, they can help firms move down their average cost curve, thereby becoming the global low cost producer and grabbing global leadership.

Countries can also engage in labor exploitation to gain advantage. In this case they shift down business's average cost schedule rather than moving along it. This has direct relevance for trade with China, which American trade unions have accused of engaging in labor exploitation for purposes of gaining trade advantages.

零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献

零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)

译文: 零售企业的营销策略 Philip Kotlor 今天的零售商为了招徕和挽留顾客,急欲寻找新的营销策略。过去,他们挽留顾客的方法是销售特别的或独特的花色品种,提供比竞争对手更多更好的服务提供商店信用卡是顾客能赊购商品。可是,现在这一切都已变得面目全非了。现在,诸如卡尔文·克连,依佐和李维等全国性品牌,不仅在大多数百货公司及其专营店可以看到,并且也可以在大型综合商场和折扣商店可以买到。全国性品牌的生产商为全力扩大销售量,它们将贴有品牌的商品到处销售。结果是零售商店的面貌越来越相似。 在服务项目上的分工差异在逐渐缩小。许多百货公司削减了服务项目,而许多折扣商店却增加了服务项目。顾客变成了精明的采购员,对价格更加敏感。他们看不出有什么道理要为相同的品牌付出更多的钱,特别是当服务的差别不大或微不足道时。由于银行信用卡越来越被所有的商家接受,他们觉得不必从每个商店赊购商品。 百货商店面对着日益增加的价格的折扣店和专业商店的竞争,准备东山再起。历史上居于市中心的许多商店在郊区购物中心开设分店,那里有宽敞的停车场,购买者来自人口增长较快并且有较高收入的地区。其他一些则对其商店形式进行改变,有些则试用邮购盒电话订货的方法。超级市场面对的是超级商店的竞争,它们开始扩大店面,经营大量的品种繁多的商品和提高设备等级,超级市场还增加了它们的促销预算,大量转向私人品牌,从而增加盈利。 现在,我们讨论零售商在目标市场、产品品种和采办、服务以及商店气氛、定价、促销和销售地点等方面的营销策略。 一、目标市场 零售商最重要的决策时确定目标市场。当确定目标市场并且勾勒出轮廓时,零售商才能对产品分配、商店装饰、广告词和广告媒体、价格水平等作出一致的决定。如沃尔玛的目标市场相当明确:

旅游服务贸易外文翻译文献

旅游服务贸易外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)

旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力:罗马尼亚的案例 引言 旅游业是唯一的可以为任何发展水平的国家提供贸易机会的服务活动。然而,它也是一个很大程度因为国家的能力和在全球经济中的表现而又有明确的利益分配不均行业,而这又需要提高自己的竞争力。 自20世纪90年代初,罗马尼亚旅游业经历了出口量,生长速率和结构的重大变化。这些不同的波动都影响了罗马尼亚在国际旅游市场上相对的竞争地位并引起了其旅游贸易平衡的变化。同时,新的和更多的错杂的欧式建筑,引起了罗马尼亚的区域旅游竞争力的显著变化。 在此背景下,本文试图提出一个框架,以竞争力和旅游贸易表现之间的关系为重点,来评估罗马尼亚的旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力。 一、国际竞争力视角:国际竞争力之与国际旅游业的相关性 国际竞争力的概念,尽管有争议,难以捉摸,但现在已经得到认可,并继续吸引世界各地的学者和决策者的关注。 到目前为止,为提高国际竞争力已采取措施,都被认为是在经济层面进行的(加瑞利,2003)通常是指一个国家生产的商品和服务,以满足国际市场的考验,并同时保持和增加公民的收入的能力(欧洲委员会,2007)。 由于竞争力最终取决于一国企业在国内和国际的市场成功,所以对竞争力的注意力都集中在企业层面的竞争力上(波特,1990),对于此的普遍理解是指“……该公司保持,并更好的是,扩大其全球市场份额,增加和扩大利润的能力” (克拉克和盖,1998, 经济合作与发展组织,1993)。 因此,虽然广泛流传但是国际竞争力作为与国家经济和其国际贸易相关

的理论基础已经不太在学术文献进行分析。因此,一个国家国际竞争力的性质,效益和局限性仍然含糊不清(科尔德威尔,2000,克鲁格曼,1994, 1996)。 国际竞争力,是指一个国家在货物和服务贸易方面巩固和保持贸易优势相对于世界其他地区的贸易优势。 每当一个国家的经济福利通过贸易流量的增加,或通过从初始平衡状态的贸易条件的改变而增加,他的国际竞争力都会得到提高(科尔德威尔,2000)。 贸易理论表示,经济福利依赖于一个国家有比较优势的货物和服务的生产。这实际上意味着当生产符合一国的比较优势的情况时国际竞争力能得到保障。如果一国能在国际上表现良好并在出口市场竞争成功,这可能就是他们健全的国际竞争力的标志。 因此,在国际上,竞争力定义为一个经济体能够吸引其出口需求和投资供给需求的能力和在所有社会规范内提升公民生活水平的能力。这反过来又取决于宏观和微观经济政策,影响生产的经济生产率要素和经营成本的法规和制度。 一个可用的文献回顾和实证证据支持国际竞争力可以解释为在一定程度上,一个国家的出口能力这一观点(道乐和沃尔夫,1993, 格博格等. 2004)。还有就是,事实上,是出口表现和国际竞争力之间的循环关系。出口是国际竞争力的第一衡量指标。出口情况的改善会导致了一个国家的竞争力提升。这种效果是一个企业的技能,知识,创新和运用新技术并能够在一个成功的商业方式中利用技术机会等的结果。 另一方面,为了在竞争激烈的全球市场努力成功实现出口,一个国家被迫提高竞争力。更具竞争力的国家,它的经济更强大。因此,它更有能力在全球市场竞争,以吸引具有较高的知识,技能,水平人们去购买新技术等,

国际贸易中的企业【外文翻译】

外文翻译 原文 Firms in International Trade Material Source: https://www.360docs.net/doc/6517928282.html, Author: Andrew B. Bernard For most of its lengthy history the field of international trade largely ignored the role of the firm in mediating the flow of goods and services. Traditional trade theory explained the flow of goods between countries in terms of comparative advantage, that is, variation in the opportunity costs of production across countries and industries. Even the research focusing on differentiated varieties and increasing returns to scale that followed Helpman and Krugman continued to retain the characterization of the representative firm.?However, the assumption of a representative firm, while greatly enhancing the tractability of general equilibrium analysis, is emphatically rejected in the data. My research over the past decade has been an attempt to explore international trade from below: to understand the decisions of heterogeneous firms in shaping international trade and their effects on productivity growth and welfare. Firm Heterogeneity and Trade My early work with J. Bradford Jensen was motivated by a simple question: what do we know about firms that trade? The answer at the time was "very little" and our initial efforts focused on locating firm-level data and describing the world of exporting firms. Our first study compared exporters and non-exporters for the entire U.S. manufacturing sector and established a set of facts about exporting plants and firms.?Two major results stand out. First, only a small fraction of firms are exporters at any given time. Even in sectors where the United States is thought to have comparative advantage, such as Instruments, a majority of firms produce only for the domestic market. Similarly, some firms are exporting even in net import sectors such as Textiles and Apparel. Second, exporters are substantially and significantly different than non-exporters, even in the same industry and region. Exporters are dramatically larger, more productive, pay higher wages, use more skilled workers, and are more technology- and capital-intensive than their non-exporting counterparts. In related

市场营销策略论文中英文资料对照外文翻译

市场营销策略 1 市场细分和目标市场策略 具有需求,具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。然而,在大多数市场中,购买者的需求不一致。因此,对整个市场采用单一的营销计划可能不会成功。一个合理的营销计划应以区分市场中存在的差异为起点,这一过程被称为市场细分,它还包括将何种细分市场作为目标市场。 市场细分使公司能更加有效地利用其营销资源。而且,也使得小公司可以通过集中在一两个细分上场上有效地参与竞争。市场细分的明显缺点是,其导致了比单一产品、单一大市场策略更高的生产和营销成本。但是,如果市场细分得当的话,更加符合消费者的需求,实际上将生产更高的效率。 确定目标市场有三种可供选择的策略,它们是统一市场、单一细分市场和多重细分市场。统一市场策略即采取一种营销组合用到一个整体的、无差异的市场中去。采取单一细分市场策略,公司仍然仅有一种营销组合,但它只用在整个市场的一个细分市场中。多重细分市场策略需要选择两个或更多的细分市场,并且每个细分市场分别采用一种单独的营销组合。 2 产品定位 管理者将注意力集中于一种品牌,并以恰当的方式将其与类似的品牌相区分,但这并不意味着该品牌就一定能够最后赢利。因此,管理者需要进行定位,即塑造与竞争品牌和竞争对手的其他品牌相关的自我品牌形象。 市场营销人员可以从各种定位策略中加以选择。有时,他们决定对某一特定产品采用一种以上的策略。以下是几种主要的定位策略: 2.1与竞争者相关的定位 对一些产品来说,最佳的定位是直接针对竞争对手。该策略特别适用于已经具有固定的差别优势或试图强化这种优势的厂商。为排挤微处理器的竞争对手,Intel公司开展了一项活动使用户确信它的产品优于竞争对手的产品。公司甚至为电脑制造商出钱,让它们在自己的广告中带上“Intel Inside”标志。作为市场领导者,可口可乐公司推出新产品并实施其市场营销策略。同时,它密切注视百事可乐公司,以确保对主要竞争对手的任何一次巧妙、有效的营销举措采取相应的对策。 2.2 与产品类别和属性相关的定位 有时候,公司的定位策略有必要将自己的产品与其类别和属性相联系(或相区别)。一些公司尽力将其产品定位在期望的类别中,如“美国制造”。用一句某顾问的话来说,“当你说‘美国制造’的时候,有一种强烈的感情因素在吸引着你”。因此,一家名为Boston Preparatory的规模不大的运动服制造商正在运用这种定位策略,以期胜过那些并非所有产品都在美国制造的势力强大的竞争对手如Calvin Kiein和Tommy Hilfiger。 2.3 通过价格和质量定位 某些生产者和零售商因其高质量和高价格而闻名。在零售行业,Saks Fifth Avenue和Neiman Marcus公司正是定位于该价格—质量策略的。折扣店Target Kmart则是定位于该策略的反面。我们不是说折扣商店忽视质量,而是说它们更加强调低廉的价格。Penny's公司努力—并且大多获得了成功—通过升级高级服装线和强调设计者的名字将其商店定位于价格—质量策略上。 “品牌”一词是个综合性的概念,它包含其他更狭义的理解。品牌即一个名称和(或)标志,用以识别一个销售者或销售集团的产品,并将之与竞争产品相区别。 品牌名称由能够发音的单词、字母和(或)数字组成。品牌标志是品牌的一部分,它以符号、图案或醒目的颜色、字体的形式出现。品牌标志通过视觉识别,但当人们仅仅读出品牌名称的时候,品牌标志并不能够被表达出来。Crest、Coors、Gillette都是品牌名称。AT&T由醒目的线条构成的地球以及Ralph Lauren's Polo的马和骑手是品牌标志,而Green Giant(罐装冷冻菜蔬产品)和Arm&Hammer(面包苏打)既是品牌名称又是品牌标志。 商标是销售者已经采用并且受到法律保护的品牌。商标不仅包括品牌标志,如许多人所认为的那样,也包括品牌名称。1946年的The Lanham Art法案允许厂商向联邦政府注册商标,以保护它们免受其他厂商的使用或误

服务贸易自由化机制外文文献翻译2014年译文4000字

文献出处:Barattieri A. The mechanism of service trade liberalization[J]. Journal of International Economics, 2014, 92(1): 1-13. (声明:本译文归百度文库所有,完整译文请到百度文库。) 原文 The mechanism of service trade liberalization Barattieri A Abstract In this paper, Service trade liberalization is the key areas of the United States to promote the TPP negotiations, the United States in the negotiations are pushing mechanism of a high standard of service trade liberalization. In this paper the progress of the TPP negotiations and services trade issues important position, on the basis of the acceptance, architecture design, focus on services, regulatory consistency four aspects in the TPP uncovers the "high standards" service trade liberalization mechanism establishment. American "high standards" service trade liberalization mechanism is tailored to the interests of the United States, actually services in the service of the United States. These mechanisms are through to strengthen and promote the TPP platform, forming reversed transmission to other countries. Key words: the TPP; The United States; Service trade liberalization; High standards; Mechanism design America is the first largest exporter global trade in services, and for many years, continues to service trade surplus. Competitive advantage based on service industry and service industry The importance of promoting American exports, jobs and economic growth, the United States in the multilateral, bilateral and regional multiple layers jointly promoting service trade liberalization. In the Uruguay round negotiations, the United States has overcome many obstacles, for the first time to include the Service Trade in multilateral negotiations, contributed to the general Agreement on Trade in services (the Genre - al Agreement on Trade and Service,

外文翻译---国际贸易单证的作用

附录 F.1英文参考资料及中文翻译 F. 1 .1international trade documents role General international trade documents (international trade documents) is the international trade of use all the documents, documents and certificates collectively. Usually with international trade documents to deal with in and out of delivery of the goods El, transportation, insurance, inspection and quarantine, customs declaration, the settlement of exchange, etc. Special international trade documents usually refers to the settlement documents, especially the l/c under the way of settlement of documents. International trade documents and the use of import and export trade program closely related, the documents in the import and export enterprise work throughout the export, purchase, transportation, the whole process of the proceeds, the effort is big, timeliness strong, is broad, in addition to import and export enterprise internal between various departments the cooperation with the outside, still must and bank, customs, transportation department, insurance companies, the inspection and quarantine agencies and the relevant administrative authorities happen various contact, linked together, mutual influence, also are conditions. International trade documents for the performance of a contract is necessary means International trade is the transnational goods business, due to the particularity of the multinational business, which is the purchase and sale of the different departments are located in different countries, are remote, in most cases, the goods and payment can't perform simple direct exchange, but only as the medium of exchange with documents means. The international trade of the documents that sales of goods through the documents realization sale, the seller should not only will the actual delivery of goods export shipment, and should submit to the buyer include the title to the goods vouchers, complete documents to show real assignment. The seller/p means that the delivery of the goods, and the buyer payment is get to buy goods on behalf of property rights certificate, the deal is no longer with the goods as the core, but with documents as the core. Documents and payment of the convection principle has become the international trade of general principles of the commodity business. As international trade experts "; m Cardiff in the export trade in his book mentioned: "from a business perspective, can say CIF the purpose of the contract is not the buying and selling of goods itself, but the documents relating to the goods business." What say here "documents" is the international trade of documents. International trade documents many kinds, every kind of documents has its

市场营销_外文翻译_外文文献_英文文献_顾客满意策略与顾客满意

顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 原文来源:《Marketing Customer Satisfaction 》自20世纪八十年代末以来, 顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额, 获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝随着时代的变迁, 社会物质财富的极大充裕, 顾客中的主体———消费者的需求也先后跨越了物质缺乏的时代、追求数量的时代、追求品质的时代, 到了20世纪八十年代末进入了情感消费时代。在我国, 随着经济的高速发展,我们也已迅速跨越了物质缺乏时代、追求数量的时代乃至追求品质的时代, 到今天也逐步迈进情感消费时代。在情感消费时代, 各企业的同类产品早已达到同时、同质、同能、同价, 消费者追求的已不再是质量、功能和价格, 而是舒适、便利、安全、安心、速度、跃动、环保、清洁、愉快、有趣等,消费者日益关注的是产品能否为自己的生活带来活力、充实、舒适、美感和精神文化品位, 以及超越消费者期望值的售前、售中、售后服务和咨询。也就是说, 今天人们所追求的是具有“心的满足感和充实感”的商品, 是高附加值的商品和服务,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感的时代已经来临。 与消费者价值追求变化相适应的企业间的竞争, 也由产品竞争、价格竞争、技术竞争、广告竞争、品牌竞争发展到现今的形象竞争、信誉竞争、文化竞争和服务竞争, 即顾客满意竞争。这种竞争是企业在广角度、宽领域的时空范围内展开的高层次、体现综合实力的竞争。它包括组织创新力、技术创新力、管理创新力、产业预见力、产品研发力、员工向心力、服务顾客力、顾客亲和力、同行认同力、社会贡献力、公关传播沟通力、企业文化推动力、环境适应力等等。这些综合形象力和如何合成综合持久的竞争力, 这就是CSft略所要解决的问题。CS寸代,企业不再以“自己为中心”,而是以“顾客为中心”;“顾客为尊”、“顾客满意”不再是流于形式的口号, 而是以实实在在的行动为基础的企业经营的一门新哲学。企业不再以质量达标, 自己满意为经营理念, 而是以顾客满意, 赢得顾客高忠诚度为经营理念。企业经营策略的焦点不再以争取或保持市场占有率为主, 而是以争取顾客满意为经营理念。因此, 营销策略的重心不再放在竞争对手身上而是放在顾客身上, 放在顾客现实的、潜在的需求上。当企业提供的产品和服务达到了顾客事先的期望值, 顾客就基本满意;如果远远超越顾客的期望值, 且远远高于其他同行, 顾客才真正满意;如果企业能不断地或长久地令顾客满意, 顾客就会忠诚。忠诚的顾客不仅会经常性地重复购买, 还会购买企业其它相关的产品或服务;忠诚的顾客不仅会积极向别人推荐他所买的产品, 而且对企业竞争者的促销活动具有免疫能力一个不满意的顾客会将不满意告诉16-20个人, 而每一个被告知者会再传播给12-15个人。这样, 一个不满意者会影响到二、三百人。在互联网普及的今天, 其影响则更大。据美国汽车业的调查, 一个满意者会引发8笔潜在的生意, 其中至少有一笔会成交。而另一项调查表明, 企业每增加5%的忠诚顾客, 利润就会增长25%-95%。一个企业的80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客;而获取一个新顾客的成本是维持一个老顾客成本的6倍。所以,美国著名学者唐?佩 珀斯指出: 决定一个企业成功与否的关键不是市场份额, 而是在于顾客份额。 于是, 企业纷纷通过广泛细致的市场调研、与消费者直接接触、顾客信息反馈等方式来了解顾客在各方面的现实需求和潜在需求。依靠对企业满意忠诚的销售、服务人员, 定期、定量地对顾客满意度进行综合测定, 以便准确地把握企业经营中与“顾客满意” 目标的差距及其重点领域, 从而进一步改善企业的经营活动。依靠高亲和力的企业文化、高效率的人文管理和全员共同努力, 不断地向顾客提供高附加值的产品, 高水准的亲情般的服

中英金融服务贸易国际竞争力比较研究【文献综述】

毕业论文文献综述 国际经济与贸易 中英金融服务贸易国际竞争力比较研究 金融服务贸易国际竞争力相关理论综述 服务贸易是以服务作为交易标的的一种贸易行为。《服务贸易总协定》(GATS)所界定的国际服务贸易是指以过境交付、境外消费、商业存在和自然人流动这四种形式进行的各国间的服务交易。该定义已成为有一定权威性和指导性的定义为各国接受。 根据《服务贸易总协定》中的服务部门清单,可以将服务贸易分为12类:商业性服务,销售服务,金融服务,娱乐服务,通讯服务,教育服务,卫生服务,运输服务,建筑服务,环境服务,旅游服务和其他服务。而对于金融服务贸易,国内外并没有确切的定义。本文将对金融服务贸易国外及国内有代表性的研究进行综述。 一、GATS与OECD对金融服务贸易的定义 根据GATS的定义,金融服务贸易是指由一成员国的金融服务提供者所提供的任何金融性质的服务。它包括两个部分:所有保险和保险相关的服务、银行和其他金融服务(保险除外),其中其他金融服务指证券和金融信息服务。 经济合作和发展组织(OECD)对金融服务贸易的定义为由金融机构提供服务的收入,或者接受付出的支持,包括得到的和付出的直接投资收益(未分配收益和利息);从其他金融投资得到的和付出的收益(得到的和付出的利息和红利);得到的、付出的手续费和佣金。 可见,经济合作和发展组织对金融服务贸易的界定强调了金融服务贸易交易的提供方,而忽略了金融服务贸易的消费方。金融服务贸易的发展主要是以此换取其他贸易领域的发展,而且金融服务贸易可以促进本国金融业与国际金融业的接轨,从而在国际竞争中促进本国金融业的发展。 二、国外对金融服务贸易相关研究 对于金融服务贸易研究,国外学者从不同角度出发,有不同的看法。 列为恩(1996)认为,各种金融服务可以实现五种基本功能:方便商品和劳务的交易;易于风险管理;加速资源流动;获取信息,评估企业和配置资本;提供公司法人治理。同时,更多的相关文献表示,金融中介可以降低由于信息不对称产生的管理成本(戴蒙德1984;威廉森1987)也可以对规模经济产生积极的效应。 莫施里安(Moshirian 1994)认为,金融服务贸易和制造业类似,一些基本要素赋予了

世界贸易和国际贸易【外文翻译】

外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.360docs.net/doc/6517928282.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.

差异化营销策略外文文献翻译

文献出处: Dalman, M. Deniz, and Junhong Min. "Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect." International Journal of Marketing Studies 6.5 (2014): 63-72. 原文 Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect Dalman, M. Deniz & Junhong Min Abstract This research investigates that brand differentiation creating superior values can be achieved not only by adding meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes, which is called "trivial attribute effect." Two studies provided empirical evidences as following; first, trivial attribute effect creates a strong brand differentiation even after subjects realize that trivial attribute has no value. Second, trivial attribute effect is more pronounced in hedonic service category compared to the utilitarian category. Last, the amount of willingness to pay is higher when trivial attribute is presented and evaluated in joint evaluation mode than separate evaluation mode. Finally, we conclude with discussion and provide suggestions for further research. Keywords: brand differentiation, evaluation mode, service industry, trivial attribute Introduction Problem Definition Perhaps the most important factor for new product success is to create the meaningful brand differentiation that provides customers with superior values beyond what the competitors can offer in the same industry (Porter, 1985). Not surprisingly, more than 50 percent of annual sales in consumer product industries including automobiles, biotechnology, computer software, and pharmaceuticals are attributed to such meaningful brand differentiation by including new or noble attributes (Schilling &Hill, 1998). However, the brand differentiation that increases consumer preference is not only by introducing meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes. For

外文文献(市场营销策略)

Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment. Positioning the Product Management's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products. Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:

相关文档
最新文档