动态知识管理(野中郁次郎)
SECI,Ba and Leadership:a Uni®ed Model of Dynamic Knowledge CreationIkujiro Nonaka,Ryoko Toyama and Noboru KonnoDespite the widely recognised importance of knowledge as a vital source of competitive advantage,there is little understanding of how organisations actually create and manage knowledge dynamically.Nonaka,Toyama and Konno start from the view of an organisation as an entity that creates knowledge continuously,and their goal in this article is to understand the dynamic process in which an organisation creates,maintains and exploits knowledge.They propose a model of knowledge creation consisting of three elements:(i)the SECI process,knowledge creation through the conversion of tacit and explicit knowledge;(ii)`ba ',the shared context for knowledge creation;and (iii)knowledge assets,the inputs,outputs and moderators of the knowledge-creating process.The knowledge creation process is a spiral that grows out of these three elements;the key to leading it is dialectical thinking.The role of top management in articulating the organisation's knowledge vision is emphasised,as is the important role of middle management (`knowledge producers')in energising ba .In summary,using existing knowledge assets,an organisation creates new knowledge through the SECI process that takes place in ba ,where new knowledge,once created,becomes in turn the basis for a new spiral of knowledge creation.=2000Elsevier Science Ltd.All rights reserved.As Alvin Tof¯er said,we are now living in a `knowledge-based society',where knowledge is the source of the highest quality power.1In a world where markets,products,technologies,competitors,regulations and even societies change rapidly,con-tinuous innovation and the knowledge that enables such inno-vation have become important sources of sustainable competitive advantage.Hence,management scholars today con-sider knowledge and the capability to create and utilise knowl-edge to be the most important source of a ®rm's sustainable Long Range Planning 33(2000)5±34/locate/lrp 0024-6301/00/$-see front matter #2000Elsevier Science Ltd.All rights reserved.PII:S 0024-6301(99)00115-6Ikujiro Nonaka is Professor and Dean of the Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology,Graduate School of Knowledge Science,Japan.Corresponding address:Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology,GraduateSchool of Knowledge Science,competitive advantage.2The raison d'e Ãtre of a ®rm is to con-tinuously create knowledge.Yet,in spite of all the talk about `knowledge-based management'and in spite of the recognition of the need for a new knowledge-based theory that differs ``in some fundamental way''3from the existing economics and or-ganisational theory,there is very little understanding of how organisations actually create and manage knowledge.This is partly because we lack a general understanding of knowledge and the knowledge-creating process.The `knowledge management'that academics and business people talk about often means just `information management'.In the long tra-dition of Western management,the organisation has been viewed as an information processing machine that takes and processes information from the environment to solve a pro-blem and adapts to the environment based on a given goal.This static and passive view of the organisation fails to capture the dynamic process of knowledge creation.Instead of merely solving problems,organisations create and de®ne problems,develop and apply new knowledge to solve the problems,and then further develop new knowledge through the action of problem solving.The organisation is not merely an information processing machine,but an entity that creates knowledge through action and interaction.4It interacts with its environment,and reshapes the environment and even itself through the process of knowledge creation.Hence,the most important aspect of understanding a ®rm's capability concern-ing knowledge is the dynamic capability to continuously create new knowledge out of existing ®rm-speci®c capabilities,rather than the stock of knowledge (such as a particular technology)that a ®rm possesses at one point in time.5With this view of an organisation as an entity that creates knowledge continuously,we need to re-examine our theories of the ®rm,in terms of how it is organised and managed,how it interacts with its environment,and how its members interact with each other.Our goal in this article is to understand the dynamic process in which an organisation creates,maintains and exploits knowledge.The following sections discuss basic concepts related to the organisational knowledge-creating pro-cess,how such a process is managed,and how one canlead Figure 1.Knowledge created through a spiral Tatsunokuchi,Ishikawa 932-1292,Japan.Ryoko Toyama is AssistantProfessor at the JapanAdvanced Institute of Scienceand Technology,GraduateSchool of Knowledge Science,Japan.Noboru Konno is President ofColumn,Inc.,Tokyo,Japan.6SECI,Ba and Leadershipsuch a knowledge-creating process.Knowledge is created in the spiral that goes through two seemingly antithetical concepts such as order and chaos,micro and macro,part and whole, mind and body,tacit and explicit,self and other,deduction and induction,and creativity and control.We argue that the key in leading the knowledge-creating process is dialectical thinking,which transcends and synthesises such contradictions (see Figure1).What is knowledge?In our theory of the knowledge-creating process,we adopt the traditional de®nition of knowledge as`justi®ed true belief'.However,our focus is on the`justi®ed'rather than the`true' aspect of belief.In traditional Western epistemology(the theory of knowledge),`truthfulness'is the essential attribute of knowl-edge.It is the absolute,static and non-human view of knowl-edge.This view,however,fails to address the relative,dynamic and humanistic dimensions of knowledge.Knowledge is dynamic,since it is created in social inter-actions amongst individuals and organisations.Knowledge is context-speci®c,as it depends on a particular time and space.6 Without being put into a context,it is just information,not knowledge.For example,`1234ABC Street'is just information. Without context,it does not mean anything.However,when put into a context,it becomes knowledge:``My friend David lives at1234ABC Street,which is next to the library.''Knowl-edge is also humanistic,as it is essentially related to human action.Knowledge has the active and subjective nature rep-resented by such terms as`commitment'and`belief'that is dee-ply rooted in individuals'value rmation becomes knowledge when it is interpreted by individuals and given a context and anchored in the beliefs and commitments of indi-viduals.Hence,knowledge is relational:such things as`truth', `goodness'and`beauty'are in the eye of the beholder.As Alfred North Whitehead stated,``there are no whole truths;all truths are half-truths''.7In this study,we consider knowledge to be``a dynamic human process of justifying personal belief toward the`truth'''.8There are two types of knowledge:explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge.Explicit knowledge can be expressed in formal and systematic language and shared in the form of data,scien-ti®c formulae,speci®cations,manuals and such like.It can be processed,transmitted and stored relatively easily.In contrast, tacit knowledge is highly personal and hard to formalise.Sub-jective insights,intuitions and hunches fall into this category of knowledge.Tacit knowledge is deeply rooted in action,pro-cedures,routines,commitment,ideals,values and emotions.9It `indwells'in a comprehensive cognisance of the human mind and body.10It is dif®cult to communicate tacit knowledge to others,since it is an analogue process that requires a kind of `simultaneous processing'.the key in leading the knowledge-creating process is dialectical thinkingLong Range Planning,vol3320007Western epistemology has traditionally viewed knowledge as explicit.However,to understand the true nature of knowledge and knowledge creation,we need to recognise that tacit and explicit knowledge are complementary,and that both types of knowledge are essential to knowledge creation.Explicit knowl-edge without tacit insight quickly loses its meaning.Written speech is possible only after internal speech is well developed.11Knowledge is created through interactions between tacit and explicit knowledge,rather than from tacit or explicit knowledge alone.The knowledge-creating processKnowledge creation is a continuous,self-transcending process through which one transcends the boundary of the old self into a new self by acquiring a new context,a new view of the world,and new knowledge.In short,it is a journey ``from being to becoming''.12One also transcends the boundary between self and other,as knowledge is created through the interactions amongst individuals or between individuals and their environ-ment.In knowledge creation,micro and macro interact with each other,and changes occur at both the micro and the macro level:an individual (micro)in¯uences and is in¯uenced by the environment (macro)with which he or she interacts.To understand how organisations create knowledge dynami-cally,we propose a model of knowledge creation consisting of three elements:(i)the SECI process,the process of knowledge creation through conversion between tacit and explicit knowl-edge;(ii)ba ,the shared context for knowledge creation;and (iii)knowledge assetsÐthe inputs,outputs,and moderator of the knowledge-creating process.The three elements ofknowl-Figure 2.Three elements of the knowledge-creating process8SECI,Ba and Leadershipedge creation have to interact with each other to form the knowledge spiral that creates knowledge(see Figure2).In the following sections,we discuss each of these three elements.The SECI process:four modes of knowledge conversion An organisation creates knowledge through the interactions between explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge.We call the interaction between the two types of knowledge`knowledge conversion'.Through the conversion process,tacit and explicit knowledge expands in both quality and quantity.13There are four modes of knowledge conversion.They are:(1)socialisa-tion(from tacit knowledge to tacit knowledge);(2)externalisa-tion(from tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge);(3)combination(from explicit knowledge to explicit knowledge); and(4)internalisation(from explicit knowledge to tacit knowl-edge).SocialisationSocialisation is the process of converting new tacit knowledge through shared experiences.Since tacit knowledge is dif®cult to formalise and often time-and space-speci®c,tacit knowledge can be acquired only through shared experience,such as spend-ing time together or living in the same environment.Socialisa-tion typically occurs in a traditional apprenticeship,where apprentices learn the tacit knowledge needed in their craft through hands-on experience,rather than from written man-uals or textbooks.Socialisation may also occur in informal social meetings outside of the workplace,where tacit knowledge such as world views,mental models and mutual trust can be created and shared.socialisation also occurs beyond organis-ational boundaries.Firms often acquire and take advantage of the tacit knowledge embedded in customers or suppliers by interacting with them.ExternalisationExternalisation is the process of articulating tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge.When tacit knowledge is made explicit, knowledge is crystallised,thus allowing it to be shared by others,and it becomes the basis of new knowledge.Concept creation in new product development is an example of this conversion process.Another example is a quality control circle, which allows employees to make improvements on the manu-facturing process by articulating the tacit knowledge accumu-lated on the shop¯oor over years on the job.The successful conversion of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge depends on the sequential use of metaphor,analogy and model. CombinationCombination is the process of converting explicit knowledge into more complex and systematic sets of explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is collected from inside or outside the or-ganisation and then combined,edited or processed to form When tacit knowledge is made explicit, knowledge is crystallisedLong Range Planning,vol3320009new knowledge.The new explicit knowledge is then dissemi-nated among the members of the organisation.Creative use ofcomputerised communication networks and large-scale data-bases can facilitate this mode of knowledge conversion.Whenthe comptroller of a company collects information fromthroughout the organisation and puts it together in a contextto make a®nancial report,that report is new knowledge in thesense that it synthesises knowledge from many different sourcesin one context.The combination mode of knowledge conver-sion can also include the`breakdown'of concepts.Breakingdown a concept such as a corporate vision into operationalisedbusiness or product concepts also creates systemic,explicitknowledge.InternalisationInternalisation is the process of embodying explicit knowledgeinto tacit knowledge.Through internalisation,explicit knowl-edge created is shared throughout an organisation and con-verted into tacit knowledge by individuals.Internalisation isclosely related to`learning by doing'.Explicit knowledge,suchas the product concepts or the manufacturing procedures,hasto be actualised through action and practice.For example,training programmes can help trainees to understand an organ-isation and themselves.By reading documents or manualsabout their jobs and the organisation,and by re¯ecting uponthem,trainees can internalise the explicit knowledge written insuch documents to enrich their tacit knowledge base.Explicitknowledge can be also embodied through simulations or exper-iments that trigger learning by doing.When knowledge is internalised to become part of individ-uals'tacit knowledge bases in the form of shared mentalmodels or technical know-how,it becomes a valuable asset.This tacit knowledge accumulated at the individual level canthen set off a new spiral of knowledge creation when it isshared with others through socialisation.The following list summarises the factors that characterisethe four knowledge conversion modes.Factors that constitute the knowledge-conversion process14.Socialisation:from tacit to tacit*Tacit knowledge accumulation:managers gather infor-mation from sales and production sites,share experienceswith suppliers and customers and engage in dialogue withcompetitors.*Extra-®rm social information collection(wandering out-side):managers engage in bodily experience through man-agement by wandering about,and get ideas for corporatestrategy from daily social life,interaction with externalexperts and informal meetings with competitors outsidethe®rm.10SECI,Ba and Leadership*Intra-®rm social information collection(wanderinginside):managers®nd new strategies and market opportu-nities by wandering inside the®rm.*Transfer of tacit knowledge:managers create a work en-vironment that allows peers to understand craftsmanshipand expertise through practice and demonstrations by amaster..externalisation:from tacit to explicit*Managers facilitate creative and essential dialogue,the useof`abductive thinking',the use of metaphors in dialoguefor concept creation,and the involvement of the industrialdesigners in project teams..Combination:from explicit to explicit*Acquisition and integration:managers are engaged inplanning strategies and operations,assembling internaland external data by using published literature,computersimulation and forecasting.*Synthesis and processing:managers build and create man-uals,documents and databases on products and servicesand build up material by gathering management®gures ortechnical information from all over the company.*Dissemination:managers engage in the planning and im-plementation of presentations to transmit newly createdconcepts..Internalisation:from explicit to tacit*Personal experience;real world knowledge acquisition:managers engage in`enactive liasing'activities with func-tional departments through cross-functional developmentteams and overlapping product development.They searchfor and share new values and thoughts,and share and tryto understand management visions and values throughcommunications with fellow members of the organisation.*Simulation and experimentation;virtual world knowledgeacquisition:managers engage in facilitating prototypingand benchmarking and facilitate a challenging spirit withinthe organisation.Managers form teams as a model andconduct experiments and share results with the entiredepartment.As stated above,knowledge creation is a continuous processof dynamic interactions between tacit and explicit knowledge.Long Range Planning,vol33200011Such interactions are shaped by shifts between different modes of knowledge conversion,not just through one mode of inter-action.Knowledge created through each of the four modes of knowledge conversion interacts in the spiral of knowledge cre-ation.Figure 3shows the four modes of knowledge conversion and the evolving spiral movement of knowledge through the SECI (Socialisation,Externalisation,Combination,Internalis-ation)process.It is important to note that the movement through the four modes of knowledge conversion forms a spiral ,not a circle.In the spiral of knowledge creation,the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge is ampli®ed through the four modes of knowledge conversion.The spiral becomes larger in scale as it moves up through the ontological levels.Knowledge created through the SECI process can trigger a new spiral of knowledge creation,expanding horizontally and vertically across organis-ations.It is a dynamic process,starting at the individual level and expanding as it moves through communities of interaction that transcend sectional,departmental,divisional and even or-ganisational anisational knowledge creation is a never-ending process that upgrades itself continuously.This interactive spiral process takes place both intra-and inter-organisationally.Knowledge is transferred beyond organis-ational boundaries,and knowledge from different organisations interacts to create new knowledge.15Through dynamic inter-action,knowledge created by the organisation can trigger the mobilisation of knowledge held by outside constituents such as consumers,af®liated companies,universities or distributors.For example,an innovative new manufacturing process may bring about changes in the suppliers'manufacturing process,which in turn triggers a new round of product and process in-novation at the organisation.Another example is the articula-tion of tacit knowledge possessed by customers that they themselves have not been able to articulate.A product worksas Figure 3.The SECI process 12SECI,Ba and Leadershipthe trigger to elicit tacit knowledge when customers give mean-ing to the product by purchasing,adapting,using,or not pur-chasing it.Their actions are then re¯ected in the innovation process of the organisation,and a new spiral of organisational knowledge creation starts again.Figure 4shows how the organ-isation interacts with outside constituents to create knowledge.It should be also noted that knowledge creation is a self-transcending process,in which one reaches out beyond the boundaries of one's own existence.16In knowledge creation,one transcends the boundary between self and other,inside and outside,past and present.In socialisation,self-transcendence is fundamental because tacit knowledge can only be shared through direct experiences which go beyond individuals.17For example,in the socialisation process people empathise with their colleagues and customers,which diminishes barriers between individuals.In externalisation,an individual transcends the inner-and outer-boundaries of the self by committing to the group and becoming one with the group.Here,the sum of the individuals'intentions and ideas fuse and become inte-grated with the group's mental world.In combination,new knowledge generated through externalisation transcends the group in analogue or digital signals.In internalisation,individ-uals access the knowledge realm of the group and the entire or-ganisation.This again requires self-transcendence,as one has to ®nd oneself in a larger entity.Ba :shared context in motion for knowledge creation Knowledge needs a context to be created.Contrary to the Car-tesian view of knowledge,which emphasises the absoluteand Figure 4.Creating knowledge with outside constituentsLong Range Planning,vol 33200013context-free nature of knowledge,the knowledge-creating pro-cess is necessarily context-speci®c in terms of who participates and how they participate.Knowledge needs a physical context to be created:``there is no creation without place''.18`Ba '(which roughly means `place')offers such a context.Based on a concept that was originally proposed by the Japanese philoso-pher Kitaro Nishida 19and was further developed by Shimizu,20ba is here de®ned as a shared context in which knowledge is shared,created and utilised.In knowledge creation,generation and regeneration of ba is the key,as ba provides the energy,quality and place to perform the individual conversions and to move along the knowledge spiral.21In knowledge creation,one cannot be free from context.Social,cultural and historical contexts are important for indi-viduals,11as such contexts provide the basis for one to interpret information to create meanings.As Friedrich Nietzsche argued,``there are no facts,only interpretations''.Ba is a place where information is interpreted to become knowledge.Ba does not necessarily mean a physical space.The Japanese word `ba 'means not just a physical space,but a speci®c time and space.Ba is a time±space nexus,or as Heidegger expressed it,a locationality that simultaneously includes space and time.It is a concept that uni®es physical space such as an of®ce space,virtual space such as e-mail,and mental space such as shared ideals.The key concept in understanding ba is `interaction'.Some of the research on knowledge creation focuses mainly on indi-viduals,based on the assumption that individuals are the pri-mary driving forces of creation.For example,quoting Simon's ``All learning takes place inside individual human heads'',Grant claims that knowledge creation is an individual activity and that the primary role of ®rms is to apply existing knowl-edge.22However,such an argument is based on a view of knowledge and human beings as static and inhuman.As stated above,knowledge creation is a dynamic human processthat Figure 5.Ba as shared context in motion 14SECI,Ba and Leadershiptranscends existing boundaries.Knowledge is created through the interactions amongst individuals or between individuals and their environments,rather than by an individual operating alone.Ba is the context shared by those who interact with each other,and through such interactions,those who participate in ba and the context itself evolve through self-transcendence to create knowledge(see Figure5).Participants of ba cannot be mere onlookers.Instead,they are committed to ba through action and interaction.Ba has a complex and ever-changing nature.Ba sets a boundary for interactions amongst individuals,and yet its boundary is open.As there are endless possibilities to one's own contexts,a certain boundary is required for a meaningfulshared context to emerge.Yet ba is still an open place where participants with their own contexts can come and go,and the shared context(ba)can continuously evolve.By providing a shared context in motion,ba sets binding conditions for the participants by limiting the way in which the participants view the world.And yet it provides participants with higher view-points than their own.Ba lets participants share time and space,and yet it trans-cends time and space.In knowledge creation,especially in socialisation and externalisation,it is important for participants to share time and space.A close physical interaction is import-ant in sharing the context and forming a common language among participants.Also,since knowledge is intangible, unbounded and dynamic and cannot be stocked,ba works as the platform of knowledge creation by collecting the applied knowledge of the area into a certain time and space and inte-grating it.However,as ba can be a mental or virtual place as well as a physical place,it does not have to be bound to a cer-tain space and time.The concept of ba seemingly has some similarities to the concept of`communities of practice'.23Based on the appren-ticeship model,the concept of communities of practice argues that members of a community learn through participating in the community of practice and gradually memorising jobs. However,there are important differences between the concepts of communities of practice and ba.While a community of practice is a living place where the members learn knowledge that is embedded in the community,ba is a living place where new knowledge is created.While learning occurs in any com-munity of practice,ba needs energy to become an active ba where knowledge is created.The boundary of a community of practice is®rmly set by the task,culture and history of the community.Consistency and continuity are important for a community of practice,as it needs an identity.In contrast,the boundary of ba is¯uid and can be changed quickly as it is set by the participants.Instead of being constrained by history,ba has a`here and now'quality.It is constantly moving;it is cre-ated,functions and disappears according to need.Ba constantly changes,as the contexts of participants or the membership of ba has a`here and now'qualityba change.In a community of practice,changes mainly take place at the micro (individual)level,as new participants learn to be full participants.In ba ,changes take place at both the micro and the macro level,as participants change both them-selves and ba itself.While the membership of a community of practice is fairly stable,and it takes time for a new participant to learn about the community to become a full participant,the membership of ba is not ®xed;participants come and go.Whereas members of a community of practice belong to the community,participants of ba relate to the ba .There are four types of ba :that is,originating ba ,dialoguing ba ,systemising ba and exercising ba ,which are de®ned by two dimensions of interactions (see Figure 6).One dimension is the type of interaction,that is,whether the interaction takes place individually or collectively.The other dimension is the media used in such interactions,that is,whether the interaction is through face-to-face contact or virtual media such as books,manuals,memos,e-mails or teleconferences.Each ba offers a context for a speci®c step in the knowledge-creating process,though the respective relationships between each single ba and conversion modes are by no means exclusive.Building,main-taining and utilising ba is important to facilitate organisational knowledge creation.Hence,one has to understand the different characteristics of ba and how they interact with each other.The following sections describe the characteristics of each ba .Originating ba Originating ba is de®ned by individual and face-to-face inter-actions.It is a place where individuals share experiences,feel-ings,emotions and mental models.It mainly offers a context for socialisation,since an individual face-to-face interaction is the only way to capture the full range of physical senses and psycho-emotional reactions,such as ease or discomfort,which are important elements in sharing tacit knowledge.Originating ba is an existential place in the sense that it is the world where an individual transcends the boundary between self and others,by sympathising or empathising with others.Fromoriginating Figure 6.Four types of ba。
SECI螺旋模型
项目实施后续情况
古顺酒厂通过采用计算机勾兑系统不仅提高 (稳定)了产品质量，还最大限度地提高产品 的优质品率，勾兑技术人员的勾兑技术而不 同程度提高，有数人考取了国家和省级评酒 员资格证书。
上述作法实现知识什么形式的转换？ 上述方法实现了把显性知识转变为隐性知识，
成为企业的个人与团体的实际能力的过程。 即SECI螺旋模型的第四个阶段：内隐化
11
12
项目实施情况
古顺酒厂首先将参与勾兑技术学习人员的个 人学习记录进行收集、整理；
组织专门人员对酒厂近年来各品种的成品酒 中微量成份进行检测，作为系统方案的 “目标函数”；
组织专门人员对酒厂现有库存的基酒中微量 成份进行检测，作为系统方案的“线性约 束条件 ”；
13
项目实施情况
计算机勾兑系统提出最佳勾兑方案的过程实质 就是高等数学中线性规划问题，即根据对基 酒微量成份的检测结果来选择满足拟勾兑的 成品酒的微量成份的优化方案过程；
24
SECI螺旋模型案例分析
最后，软件专家田中郁子独辟溪径：大阪国际饭店制 作的面包享誉全大阪，为什么不研究研究它呢？于 是，田中郁子拜国际饭店的首席面包师为师，研究 和面技术。她观察到，这位面包师采用了一种独特 的拉面团技术。在项目工程师们的紧密配合下，经 过一年的反复试验，田中郁子终于确定了松下需要 的设计方案（包括在面包机里面加上专门的肋骨状 部件），成功地模仿了首席面包师的拉面团技术， 并烤出了同样美味的面包。最终，松下电器公司开 发出独特的“揉面”技术，在此基础上生产的面包 机大放异彩，上市仅一年，就改写了新品厨房器具 的销售记录。
25
SECI螺旋模型案例分析
对田中郁子来说： 1. 她学到了面包师的隐性技能。
企业的知识转移与知识转化辨析
企业的知识转移与知识转化辨析知识转移与知识转化是知识管理中两种关键性的行为，二者既存在本质的区别，又具有密切的联系。
二者的区别反映在概念、形式、内容和目标等方面。
科学地进行知识转移与知识转化的差异性区分是提高现代企业知识管理效率、增强知识资本的功能性作用、高效地培育企业核心能力的必要前提。
标签：知识转移知识转化SECI模型核心能力舒尔茨认为：知识资本是知识经济时代经济增长舞台上的首要角色，传统形式的资本如土地、劳动力等均已沦为二三流的小角色。
知识资本是对无形资本的超越，同时也是对人力资本的深化。
第五代战略理论认为：现代企业的竞争环境早已跨越了波特的“五力模型”，在本质上体现为核心能力的竞争。
核心能力理论和知识理论已成为现代管理学理论研究与运营实践的两个热点领域，并导引着现代管理方法论的发展方向。
知识理论的核心内容是：知识资本是企业核心能力的源泉，知识管理是实现知识资本功能性作用的必要途径。
因此，随着知识经济的发展，知识管理活动在企业管理活动中的重要性将日益增强。
知识管理是知识主体（知识拥有者）对知识客体（知识资本）所主动实施的一系列行为，其目的在于提高知识的资本性价值功能。
知识管理活动可分为两个阶段：知识管理的初级阶段和知识管理的高级阶段。
初级阶段包括知识的收集、甄别、过滤、储存、包装等初级活动，而高级阶段包括知识转移、知识转化、知识共享、知识创新等高级活动。
其中，知识转移和知识转化是知识管理活动的关键性环节，在知识管理活动中具有承上启下的枢纽性作用，并成为知识管理探讨的重要领域。
一、概念区别知识转移是指知识客体在知识主体之间的移动，包括三个基本要素：知识转入方、知识转出方、知识转移内容。
知识转出方具有知识，在知识转化活动中的行为是向知识转出方发送知识；知识转出方缺乏知识，在知识转化活动中的行为是接受知识转出方发送的知识。
因此，知识转出方是知识转化的主动方，而知识转入方是知识转化的被动方。
波兰尼（Polanyi）认为，知识总体可分为显形知识和隐性知识两种类型，所以知识转出方发送的知识包括显形知识和隐性知识两种类型，同样，知识转入方接受到的知识也包括显形知识和隐性知识两种类型。
野中郁次郎和竹内弘高的企业知识创造思想及其理论基础
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野 中郁次 郎和 竹 内弘高 的企业 知识创造思 想及 其理论基础
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知识创新型企业(野中郁次郎)
标题：知识创新型企业（关键字：隐性知识、显性知识、知识管理、知识转换、知识创新型企业、日本管理方式）作者简介野中郁次郎：日本先进科学与技术研究所知识科学研究生院的第一任院长，东京一桥大学创新研究所教授、前任主任。
他是《组织科学》杂志的高级编辑，该杂志是管理科学研究所创办的一本国际性期刊。
野中教授发表了大量学术论文，也是《知识创造企业》一书的作者之一。
该书被美国出版协会和专业学术出版部门评选为商业管理领域的年度最佳书籍。
他最近被授予加州大学伯克利分校汉斯商学院的首位施乐杰出知识学教授。
内容提要在一个“不确定”是惟一可确定之因素的经济环境中，知识无疑是企业获得持续竞争优势的源泉。
然而，很少有管理者能够真正了解知识创新型企业的内涵，更不用说进行管理了。
日本组织学家野中郁次郎认为，造成这种状况的原因是，在知识定义和知识发掘方面，西方管理者大多见识狭隘，他们坚信“硬”（可计量的）数据才是唯一有用的知识，而企业不过是一台“处理信息”的机器。
但是，对知识及其在企业中的作用还存在着另一种理解。
这种理解在诸如本田、佳能、松下、夏普等成功的日本企业中最为普遍。
这些企业的管理者们认识到，知识创新并不是对客观信息进行简单的“加工处理”，而是发掘员工头脑中潜在的想法、直觉和灵感。
开发这类知识，通常需要采取标语、隐喻和象征等“软”形式，它们是持续创新必不可少的工具。
为什么日本企业在隐形知识的创造方面非常成功呢？原因很复杂。
不过，管理者们需要吸取的教训却很简单：正如世界各地的制造商向日本学习制造技术一样，任何想具备知识竞争力的企业，也必须向日本学习知识创新技术。
通过引用日本先进企业的生动案例，野中提出了关于知识创新型企业中管理角色、管理职责、组织设计和业务实践的崭新思路。
在一个“不确定”是惟一可确定之因素的经济环境中，知识无疑是企业获得持续竞争优势的源泉。
当原有的市场开始衰弱、新技术突飞猛进、竞争对手成倍增长、产品淘汰速度飞快的时候，只有那些持续创造新知识，将新知识传遍整个组织，并迅速开发出新技术和新产品的企业才能成功。
知识管理seci模型
创发场所/原始场所
•
在原始场所，个人之间基于同情，或彼此相爱相惜，
因而得以排除自我与他人之间的障碍，彼此交互表露其感
觉、情绪、 经验与心态。从原始场所展现出关怀、爱心
、信任与承诺。
• 原始场所是知识创造过程中之起点，属于社会化阶段。个 人之间亲身的面对面之接触经验对隐性知识的移转与转化
十分重要。因此，应强调开放式组织设计，使员工能充分
接触顾客，以便个人之间的直接交谈及沟通。
知识管理seci模型
创造知识的四种场所（Ba）
对话场/互动场所 将拥有特殊知识与能力的一些人组成“一个计划小组”、
特案小组，或跨越业务单位之小组。让这些小组的成员在互 动场所彼此交换想法，同时也对他们自己本身的想法加以反 省及分析。
知识管理seci模型
创造知识的四种场所（Ba）
实践场/行动场/练习场 练习场所代表内化阶段，能促使显性知识转化为隐性知
识。在资深教师与同事的指导下，以观摩或实际演练等方式 不断的练习，而非只坐著听教师讲授分析性之教材。能应用 实际生活上或模拟的显性知识，并持续将这些知识内化。
组织内的各个场所不仅是累积各种不同的资讯而已。这 些场所具有动态性，能将隐性知识转化成显性知识，然后再 进而将显性知识转化成隐性知识，并借此一周期循环而持续 的创造新知识。
为了解消费者之需要及价值，公司另设有“创 造性生活方式研究中 心”，并建立各种系统来创建新产品概念。例如，夏普公司以1985年首 创“趋势领袖系统” 。选取600名各类的外界人土，包括中学生，已婚 上班妇女，以及70多岁的老人等，组成具有指标性的领先消费者。公司 让这些人集聚在一起，进行面对面的交谈及互动，可因而产生大量高品 质的隐性与显性知识，并据以预测今后一至十年内之消费趋势。
知识管理
知识管理要点1、知识管理的三大学派：（1）技术学派；（2）行为学派；（3）综合学派2、组织知识管理流程：知识识别、知识创造、知识获取、知识存储、知识共享、知识应用3、数据、信息、知识和智慧的转化：数据上升到信息：关联、分类、计算、修正、亚索信息上升为知识：比较、推论、联系、谈话知识到智慧：智慧同知识相比具有更深、更广、更稳定的特性。
4、对知识特性的初步认识：（1）知识属于人的认识范畴（2）知识的增值性（3）知识的资源型（4）知识的共享性与独占性（5）知识的动态性与复杂性（6）知识的分布性5、波兰尼对知识的分类：显性知识和隐性知识6、知识矩阵图：根据知识与企业核心能力的关系将知识分为战略性知识与非战略性知识，战略性知识具有以下特征：价值型、稀缺性、难以模仿性、多层利用性7、隐性知识与显性知识的区别：（46页）8、隐性知识的特性：难以编码化、情境依赖性、模糊性、个体性、实践性9、知识资本：知识资本是组织在创在价值的过程中借以取得收益的各种知识资源的有机综合体，是组织取得持续竞争优势的源泉。
10、知识资本的特性：依附性、价值型和高增值性、二重性、排他性、度量的不确定性、耐用性11、知识资本的构成：人力资本、结构资本、客户资本12、知识型组织的定义与特点：知识型组织的特点：（1）知识型组织中的大多数雇员是知识工作者，知识型组织的大量工作是将信息转化为知识的工作；（2）组织不是孤岛，知识型组织的生存需要有客户和供应商的支持，客户和供应商在知识型组织的周围为知识型组织提供强化其知识基础的支持；（3）增长是非常快速和持续的。
知识型组织的基本特征：扁平化、弹性化的动态团队、网络化、虚拟化、柔性化13、知识工作的定义和特点：定义：所谓知识工作就是从事信息分析，用运专门的专业或技术去解决问题、提出想法，以及创造新产品和服务的工作。
特点：（1）工作内容非例行性；（2）工作过程难以监控；（3）工作绩效难以考核；（4）多采用团队，项目式的工作模式（5）工作安排弹性化15、知识工作者的特点：（1）具有自我发展的强烈动机；（2）流动意愿强；（3）其需求具有多样性和不确定性；（4）需要不断学习；（5）自我管理16、实践社团：实践社团是这样一群人，他们有着共同的关注点、对同样的问题或者同一个话题的热情，通过在不断发展的基础上的相互影响，加深这一领域的知识和专业技术。
野中郁次郎和“知识创造理论”的诞生
野中郁次郎和“知识创造理论”的诞生作者：杨柯来源：《财经界·管理学家》2008年第11期在知识管理领域，野中郁次郎（のなかいくじろう，1935－）是一颗耀眼的新星。
他1935年5月10日出生于日本东京，1958年毕业于日本早稻田大学的政治学专业，毕业后进入日本著名的富士电机制造株式会社工作，一干就是9年。
这一时期，正是日本企业突飞猛进的发展时期，野中由此对日本企业的崛起和创造力有了切身的体验。
此后，他来到大洋彼岸的美国加州大学伯克利分校商学院学习，于1968年获得硕士学位，1972年获得工商管理博士学位。
但他的学术之根，依然深深扎在日本。
1971年起，野中在日本南山大学经营学系任教，先后担任讲师、副教授和教授。
1979年到日本防卫大学任教，1982年又到日本东京一桥大学任教，担任该校商学系教授和创新研究所主任，现任一桥大学研究生院国际企业战略研究所教授。
野中郁次郎在学术上，集中于研究日本企业的知识创新经验，并在20世纪90年代提出了著名的知识创造转换模式。
如今，这个模式已经成为知识管理研究的代表理论之一。
从他的研究轨迹来看，经历了“信息管理→信息创造→知识创造”这样一个发展脉络。
野中刚到伯克利加州大学时，主修专业是营销。
在那里，他遇到了他的导师尼古夏（Francisco M. Nicosia）。
尼古夏来自意大利，他的专长是以行为科学为基础，以“信息处理”的思路解释消费者的决策过程，对消费者的选择行为进行逻辑分析。
尼古夏的研究，得到决策理论大师西蒙的肯定，有西蒙为尼古夏著作写的序言为证。
野中受到尼古夏的影响，逐渐从营销转向消费者行为研究，再进一步转向组织研究。
野中早期主要通过“信息处理”的视角来分析组织与市场之间的关系，1974年，他出版了专著《组织与市场》。
这本专著主要阐述企业是如何处理信息的。
按照野中自己的说法，这一时期，他依然囿于西方管理学的主流观点，认为组织是“处理信息”的机器。
野中郁次郎的学术特色
他所创立的理性建构方法，至今光辉犹存。然而，和笛卡 尔并，怕ｑ还有以培根为代表的经验主义方法．同样对欧 美近代思想的发展有着划时代的作肘。但是，野中仅仅 批削茁忙尔的土客＿二分，却没有批判理性建构．只揪住 ｒ笛＃尔，却放过了培根。这一点很值得注意。另外，据
笔者观察．在野中的著作中．有一个目愠的特色，就是对
万 方数据
■＝。，、０８７
“建立了计算机仿照人类大脑思考的智力模型”。如果野 中能够对啥耶克的“扩展秩序”理论进行知识管理的解 构，那么，隐性知识的显性化就可能会出现更复杂也更 准确的非建构模式（或者称为演进模式）。当然，这些只 是“如果”．而现实中的野中ｉ殳有这样做。 指出野中的不足，并不是要否定他的成就。如果就 此认为野中的著作不值得一读，那就大错特错。无论如 何，知识管理在当今具有非常重要的地位，正如德鲁克 所说：“知识是惟一有意义的资源。”而野中对知识管理 的贡献，别人无可替代。英国管理史学者摩根威策尔 （ＭｏｒｇｃｎＷｉｌｚｅｌ）认为，野中对现代管理学的贡献有两方 面：一方面，他是世界上知识管理领域最重要的思想家， 他的论述几乎覆盖该领域的每个方面；另一方面．对西 方读者而言，他是日本管理风格及技巧的最主要的解读 者之一。野中不仅加深了西方人对日本企业创新动力来 源的理解，还详细解释了那些新技术、新工艺、新概念等 是从何源源不断而来。摩根威策尔说：“他一直力求将 东西方的管理者拉近，井且为他们提供更多的‘思想食 粮’，让他们通过比较彼此的管理文化，相互借鉴，取长 补短。。在知识创造理论方面，无论腻研究的长度或深度 上，野中是最主要的贡献者之一。作为趴撰著通俗读物 见长的威策尔．对野中的评价恰如其分。这一评价说白 了．就是野中所选定的研究领域极为重要，对日本企业 的实务性说明十分有用．在沟通东西方管理观念上相当 出色。 野中在研究知识创造问题上，采取了建构主义的 方式。有人认为，他构建了一个新的范式——“知识创造 范式”（Ｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅ
SECI模型论述企业知识创新知识管理的过程和基本方法
利用知识创造和应用的SECI模型，论述企业知识创新，知识管理的过程和基本方法。
SECI模型的概念SECI知识转化模型是日本的野中郁次郎在其1995年发表的《论知识创造的动态过程》一文中首次提出来的，用于论述企业管理和创新活动的过程中隐性知识和显性知识相互作用的关系。
在企业管理和创新活动的过程中，显性知识主要是指可以用规范化和系统化的语言进行传播的可文本化的知识。
例如，企业管理过程中确定的各种文件内容。
确定的企业的规章制度都可以看作是显性知识。
在企业管理和创新活动的过程中，隐性知识主要是信仰、隐喻、直觉、思维模式和“诀窍”等或与之相类似的，如一句中国古话概括为“只可意会，不可言传”之类的知识。
例如在创业阶段的企业与形成稳定业务规章制度的企业的文化氛围是明显不同的。
又如长期在一起工作的同事之间能够形成一定的默契，这种默契甚至可以达到只需一个眼神就可以意会到对方意思的效果。
SECI知识转化模型中社会化(Socialization)、外化(Externalization)、结合(Combination)和内化(Internalization)等四个方面的内容如下图所示：其中，社会化是指，通过共同活动或实际接触实现隐性知识在个人之间的共享；外化是指，隐性知识转化为公开的、易于理解的显性知识；结合是指，显性知识向更加复杂的显性知识体系的转化，即显性知识通过组织结构和企业文化而进行交流、传递、系统化；内化是指，已经外化的显性知识在个人及组织范围内向隐性知识的转化，隐性知识根植于行动、实践、流程及战略创新等活动。
在以上四种不同显性知识与隐性知识在群体与个人的传递方向上，社会化和外化是一个个人与个人的隐性知识之间相互转化以及再将个体聚集的群体的隐性知识转化为显性知识的过程，因此，他们强调的是知识的创造过程。
而结合与内化则是将集体的的显性知识转化为个人的陷性知识的过程，强调的是个人如何学习集体确定为文本等形式的知识，并将之融会贯通到个人的知识体系当中。
知识管理的概念、策略及其对学习型组织的启示
知识管理的概念、策略及其对学习型组织的启示吴明烈一、前言二十一世纪是个知识社会，也是个知识经济时代，在此一时代中，知识与学习的重要性与价值益加受到世人的瞩目。
知识与学习无疑是个人、组织与社会持续进步与向上发展的活力泉源。
目前国内外有关学习型组织的理论探讨与实务发展，主要系以组织学习大师圣吉(P. M. Senge)在「第五项修练」(The Fifth Discipline)一书中所提的五项修练内容：自我超越、改善心智模式、建立共同愿景、团队学习及系统思考为核心。
倘能有效运筹这五项修练的内容，并充分掌握其核心精神与应用之道，则对于学习型组织的建立，将有实质影响。
然而，值得人们进一步思考的是，仅经由五项修练的途径，便能抵达学习型组织之境吗？无庸置疑的，五项修练只能视为发展学习型组织的必要条件，而非充分条件。
就此论之，任何组织要发展成为学习型组织，尚须考虑到其它必要的修练。
历来有关学习型组织的理论与实务研究，知识管理(knowledge management)总是罕被提及，而近来则渐受重视。
有鉴于知识管理对于建立学习型组织的重要性与日遽增，本文将探索知识管理作为学习型组织的第六修练之可能性，并分析知识管理的意义及其与组织智能(organizational intelligence)、知识经济(knowledge economy)之关系，此外，亦将专对知识管理的策略、阶段与步骤进行探究，全文最后则提出知识管理对于发展学习型组织的五项启示。
二、知识管理的意义及其相关概念近年来国际间兴起了一股知识管理的热潮，这股热潮亦被称之为知识管理运动。
事实上，知识管理并不是一项新颖的理念，而其实务亦早已存在，只是在早期这样的理念并未获得充分重视，同时在实务上也并未具体落实。
以下特对知识管理的意义及其与组织智能及知识经济之关连性作一剖析。
（一）知识管理的意义当代管理学大师杜拉克(P. F. Drucker)在「后资本主义社会」(Post-Capitalist Society)一书中曾明确指出，人类社会正处于一种变动的过程中，未来的社会必然不是社会主义取向，而是后资本主义社会，在此种社会型态中，知识则成为最具关键性的资源。