专业英语课文
11单元•Unit 11 Typical Measurement Technology1 Altitude Measurement•1高度测量•Accurate monitoring of aircraft cruising height is required in order to reduce vertical separation to minimum standard. Interest here focuses on the measurement of the distance between aircraft level and the sea surface level. This distance can be estimated onboard via barometric altimeters or it can be measured—either onboard or in ground stations—via electronic radio wave systems. The indication of the first equipment is referred to as pressure altitude, or simply altitude, whereas that of the second category is referred to as geometric height or simply height. 飞机巡航高度精确的控制要求以减少垂直分离到最低的标准。
重点感兴趣的测量飞机之间的距离水平和海平面水平。
这个距离估计通过机载altimeters气压或者它能在地面stations-via measured-either或机载电子无线电波系统。
第一个设备或信封上注明所称为压力的高度,或简单地高度,而第二类的称为几何高度或简单的高度。
• The altitude information at air traffic control (ATC) centers is based on pressure altitude measurement that the aircraft transponder system sends after it receives an appropriate interrogation——known as mode C interrogation——transmitted by a secondary surveillance radar. Actually, the altitude information is an atmospheric pressure measurement transformed to altitude indication through a formula expressing the pressure/altitude relationship. When a flight level is cleared for an aircraft, it actually means that the pilot must keep flying on an isobaric surface. However, the altimetry system may present systematic errors (biases) that are different for each airplane, and that significantly affect safety. Thus, the altimetry system performance as well as the aircraft height keeping performance must be monitored by an independent radar or satellite system. 信息的高度,在空中交通管制中心(ATC)根据压高度测量,飞机的应答机系统发给后都把它珍藏一个适当的审讯——被称为模式C讯问——通过二级监视雷达。
实际上,高度的大气压力测量信息转化为高度通过公式显示表达压力/高度的关系。
当一个飞行高度是允许飞机时,实际上就意味着飞行员必须不停地飞在一个isobaric表面。
然而,altimetry系统系统误差可能出现偏差)(飞机的不同而有所区别,明显影响安全。
因此,altimetry系统性能以及飞机高度保持性能均须由独立的雷达或卫星电视系统• 2.Thickness Measurement 2。
厚度测量•One can measure thickness on many scales .The galaxy is spiral disk about 100 Em(1020m)thick.. 你可以测量厚度,在许多尺度螺旋星系的约100 Em(1020m磁盘)深•The solar system is pancake-like ,about 1 Tm(1012 m) thick .The rings of Saturn are about 10 km thick .Closer to home ,Earth‘s atmosphere is a spherical shell about 40 km thick ;the weather occurs in the troposphere ,about 12 km thick .The outermost shell of the solid Earth is the crust，about 35 km thick .The ocean has a mean depth of 3.9 km .In the Antarctic，the recently discovered objectsbelieve to be microfossils indicative of ancient Martian life are less than 100 nm thick .In terms of the man-made environment，industry must contend with thickness varying from meters，for construction projects，to millimeters on assemble lines，to micrometers and nanometers for the solid-state，optical，and coatings industries .Perhaps the most familiar way of measuring thickness is by mechanical means，such as by ruler or caliper .Other means are sometimes called for ,either because both sides of an object are not accessible ,the dimension is either too big or too small for calipers ,the object is too fragile ,too hot ,or too cold for direct contact , or the object is in motion on an assemble line--it may not even be a solid .Thickness may also be a function of position ,as either the object may have originally been made with nonuniform thickness ,deliberately or not ,or the thickness may have become nonuniform with time due either to corrosion ,cracking ,or some other deterioration .The thickness may also be changing with time due to deliberate growth or etching ,as example for thin films .Thus it follows that ,in more general terms ,measuring thickness might require measuring the topography or height profile of two surfaces and taking the different .Alternatively ,the measurement technique may produce a reading directly related to the difference. 太阳系的薄烤饼似的,约需 1 Tm(1012米,厚的土星环10公里厚.Closer带回家,地球大气层中约40公里球壳厚;天气发生的对流层中,大约12公里最厚的外壳,固体地球是地壳厚,大约35公里,海洋的平均深度39公里在南极洲,最近发现在对象认为是化石代表古老火星生命在小于100海里厚条款的人造环境,行业必须满足不同厚度从米,建设项目上,毫米组装系列,以便和奈米的固态的跳动、光学、涂料行业最熟悉的方法也许测量厚度用机械的方法,例如由尺还是卡尺是意味着有时被称为,要么因为双方不能获取物体的尺寸,要么是太大或太小都为卡钳,对象很脆,太热或太冷,或直接接触的目的是在运动中,在一个生产线——它并不会在立体图形厚度也可以是一个函数的位置,无论是对象最初可能已经与均匀厚度、故意与否,厚度随时间可能已经变得不均匀腐蚀,要么由于裂,或其他一些恶化,厚度随时间的变化也可能是由于故意生长或腐蚀、为例对薄膜,紧随其后的工作,在更广泛的来说,测量厚度可能需要测量地形或高度两个平面的概况,以不同的.Alternatively、测量技术可能会引起阅读直接关系到的不同• 3.Distance measurement 3。
距离测量•The tools and techniques of distance measurement are possibly one of humankind's longest-running inventive pursuits .This chapter concerns itself with methods to measure a relatively small segment of this range-from centimeters to kilometers .Even within this limited segment ,it would hardly be possible to list ,much less describe ,all of the distance measurement approaches that have been devised .Nevertheless ,the small sampling of technologies that are covered here should be of help to a broad range of readers.•Distance measurement , at its most basic ,is concerned with determining the length of a unidimensional line joining two points in three-dimensional space . Oftentimes , a collection of distance measurements is called for ,so that shape ,the orientation , or the changesin position of an object can be resolved . therefore , one must consider not only the measurement of distances ,but also their spatial and temporal distributions .The terminology “ranging” will be used in reference to systems that perform single sensor-to-target measurement ,”range-imaging” for systems that collect a dense map or grid of spatially distributed range measurement ,and “position tracking” for systems that record the time history of distance measurement to one or several targets . 工具和技术的距离测量的可能是人类漫长的发明之一。
园艺专业英语课文.doc.docx
Lesson 1The History and the Development of Protected CultivationSelected and rewritten from u The History and Geography of the Greenhouse by Il・ Zvi Enoch and Yaeln Enoch, in Greenhouse Ecosyslems20, echled by G・ Stanhill and H・ Zvi Enoch, a series book of Ecosystems ofthc World (Li Yaling, Shanxi Agricuhural University)This lesson briefly describes the development of the greenhouse from antiquity to the present day. Il includes a discussion of p「o(ec(ed cropping in cokband ho(・f¥ames, glass cloches, lean-to houses, winter gardens» orangeries, conservatories and glasshouses in their varied forms, and plastic-clad plant enclosures of all sizes ranging from low tunnels • walk-in tunnels, to large plastic houses・For the purpose of this lesson, the greenhouse is defined as a transparent enclosure designed to grow or temporarily protect plants ・ Thus the definition does not include enclosures for growing mushrooms or tissue cultures・In antiquity, however» there were probably no greenhouses in the sense defined here> but there were various practices adopted to provide out-of-secison flowers and vegetables・The cultivation of out-of-season plants was intensely studied in ancient Athens and Rome・ This Can be seen for instance in the work of Theophrastus [who lived from 372 to 287 BCE (before the common era)]. He mentioned moving plants into the peristyle (verandah iii a dosed courtyard of a Greek house) at night and heating soil by mixing it with decaying manure or compost.Growers in China> Mesopotamia« Egypt, Israeh Greece and Rome grew valuable plants in pots and placed them indoors at night or during cold periods to protect them ・ Sometimes» plants were grown on wheelbarrdws that could easily be brought into a grotto» cellar or room at night. Chinese plant culture may have included greenhouses that» xcording to tradition, go back to antiquity. A Chinese greenhouse(Fig. 1-1 in the text book ) consisted of a brick wall oriented east-west. On its southernside, a transparent surface consisting of bamboo sticks covered with oiled paper was placed at an angle 30 ・40 to the horizontal. During the day, the brick wall became heated by the sun and at night it released its heat ・ In add it ion> at n ight the paper window was covered by rush mats which acted as thermal insulation. Similar simple greenhouses are in use today♦ and it is claimed that they increase the night temperature by up to 69C ・In the 20th century > in both northwestern Europe and North America > there was a development from smaller to larger greenhouse units 9 usually even・span or ridge・ and furrow multi-span houses・The Use of small electrical motors allowed automated climate control, including the opening of vents ・Heating by thermsiphon hot water circulation was replaced by forced circulation・ Electrical putnps were used for irrigation and to operate shading systems, etc.Lean-to glasshouse slowly became obsolete and heating by smoke flues disappeared in the first decades of the 20thcentury・However> these changes all occurred very gradual!y・An example of thisdevelopment in the Netherlands is outlined below・Simple over-winter sheds were used in Aalsmeer, the Netherlands, up to the 1920% and storc-framcst placed against the walls to protect vines in the Westland region were photographed in 1928.At the beginning of the 20th century, 90 % of the area used for protected cultivation in the Netherlands consisted of cold frames or hotbeds (heated by decomposition of manure and compost)・ By 1950, the area was still about 30%, and in 1964 it was 10% ・The use of Dutch lights was introduced at the beginning of the 20th century. Initially, only single-span frames were used； double -light frames date from about 1920・ Comparing the building practices in the Netherlands with those in the more advanced United States» one sees that in 1904, 90 % of the glass-covered area in the Netherlands con sisted of light frames ・ while 25 % of the glass・covered area in the US A in the year 1900 was of proper glasshouses ・ The area under glass in the Netherlands increased from 1.6 km2 in 1904 to 4.0 km2 in 1912, to 32. 9 km2 in 1950, reaching 60.2 knf in 1964.Heating and carbon-dioxide fertilization of hotbed through the decomposition of mixtures of horse manure and plant residues was widely used in the Netherlands at the beginning of the last century, and remained the com IT Ion way for growing cucumbers and melons until horses were replaced by tractors in the years after the Second World War.Claassen and Haze loop (1933)mentioned that at that time flue heaters were only used by a few growen; in the Netherlands♦ whereas in Belgium* most of the 4.40 kirT used for fruit-growing in 1939 was heated by flues. Dutch greenhouses suitable tor a variety of crops were developed gradually over half a century. In 1900, at Loosduinen» a steel-framed greenhouse was built which became the forerunner for the “\Enlo Warenhuis\ a house that could be used for different crops ・ This glasshouse» first built in 1937, consists of large sheets of glass held within the grooves of the two sides of a separating narrow steel bar, permitting the maxinium transmission of light・V?nlo-typc structures (Fig・1・2) were becoming popular ill Westland of the Netherlands iii the 1950's ・ Burning natural gas for the supply of carbon dioxide to greenhouse crops began in the Netherlands in 1961» following work done by J・ Stender from the Institute of Horticultural Engineering in Wageningen, and became globally applied over the next decade・ Glossary 1.glass cloche园艺用钟形玻璃西(E钟形玻璃罩，一种通常呈钟状的罩子，主耍用丁保护植物避免严寒冻害)2.cold-and hot-frame 阳畦和温床3.Ican-to house 一面坡温室，单屋面温室4.winter garden冬季花园(或菜园)5.orangery 柑橘温室，橘园,养橘温室(a sheltered placet especially a greenhouse»used for the cultivation of orange trees in cool climates)6・ conscrvatoiy 话人室(a greenhouse。
英语专业综英教程课文
NEVER GIVE IN, NEVER, NEVER, NEVERWinston Churchill1Almost a year has passed since I came down here at your Head Master’s kind invitation in order to cheer myself and cheer the hearts of a few of myfriends by singing some of our own songs. The ten months that have passedhave seen very terrible catastrophic events in the world —ups and downs,misfortunes — but can anyone sitting here this afternoon, this October afternoon, not feel deeply thankful for what has happened in the time that has passed andfor the very great improvement in the position of our country and of our home?Why, when I was here last time we were quite alone, desperately alone, and wehad been so for five or six months. We were poorly armed. We are not so poorlyarmed today; but then we were very poorly armed. We had the unmeasuredmenace of the enemy and their air attack still beating upon us, and youyourselves had had experience of this attack; and I expect you are beginning tofeel impatient that there has been this long lull with nothing particular turningup!2But we must learn to be equally good at what is short and sharp and what is long and tough. It is generally said that the British are often better at the last.They do not expect to move from crisis to crisis; they do not always expect thateach day will bring up some noble chance of war; but when they very slowlymake up their minds that the thing has to be done and the job put through andfinished, then, even if it takes months — if it takes years — they do it.3Another lesson I think we may take, just throwing our minds back to our meeting here ten months ago and now, is that appearances a re often verydeceptive, and as Kipling well says, we must “…meet with Triumph andDisaster. And treat those two impostors just the same.”4You cannot tell from appearances how things will go. Sometimes imagination makes things out far worse than they are; yet without imaginationnot much can be done. Those people who are imaginative see many moredangers than perhaps exist; certainly many more will happen; but then they mustalso pray to be given that extra courage to carry this far-reaching imagination.But for everyone, surely, what we have gone through in this period —I amaddressing myself to the school — surely from this period of ten months this isthe lesson: never give in, never give in, never, never, never, never — in nothing,great or small, large or petty — never give in except to convictions of honourand good sense. Never yield to force; never yield to the apparentlyoverwhelming might of the enemy. We stood all alone a year ago, and to manycountries it seemed that our account was closed, we were finished. All thistradition of ours, our songs, our school history, this part of the history of thiscountry, were gone and finished and liquidated.5Very different is the mood today. Britain, other nations thought, had drawn a sponge across her slate. But instead our country stood in the gap. There was no flinching and no thought of giving in; and by what seemed almost amiracle to those outside these islands, though we ourselves never doubted it, wenow find ourselves in a position where I say that we can be sure that we haveonly to persevere to conquer.6You sang here a verse of a school song: you sang that extra verse written in my honour, which I was very greatly complimented by and which you haverepeated today. But there is one word in it I want to alter — I wanted to do solast year, but I did not venture to. It is the line: “Not less we praise in darkerdays.”7I have obtained the Head Master’s permission to alter darker to sterner.“Not less we praise in sterner days.”8Do not let us speak of darker days: let us speak rather of sterner days.These are not dark days; these are great days — the greatest days our countryhas ever lived; and we must all thank God that we have been allowed, each of usaccording to our stations, to play a part in making these days memorable in thehistory of our race.SPACE INVADERSRichard Stengel1 At my bank the other day, I was standing in a line snaking around some tiredvelvet ropes when a man in a sweat-suit started inching toward me in his eagernessto deposit his Social Security check. As he did so, I minutely advanced toward thewoman reading the Wall Street Journal in front of me, who, in mild annoyance,began to sidle up to the man scribbling a check in front of her, whoabsent-mindedly shuffled toward the white-haired lady ahead of him, until wewere all hugger-mugger against each other, the original lazy line having collapsedin on itself like a Slinky.2 I estimate that my personal space extends eighteen inches in front of my face,one foot to each side, and about ten inches in back —though it is nearlyimpossible to measure exactly how far behind you someone is standing. Thephrase “personal space” invading myhas a quaint, seventies ring to it (“You’re space, man”), b ut it is one of those gratifying expressions that are intuitivelyunderstood by all human beings. Like the twelve-mile limit around our nationalshores, personal space is our individual border beyond which no stranger canpenetrate without making us uneasy.3 Lately, I’ve found that my personal space is being invaded more than everbefore. In elevators, people are wedging themselves in just before the doors close;on the street, pedestrians are zigzagging through the human traffic, jostling others,refusing to give way; on the subway, riders are no longer taking pains to c arve outlittle zones of space between themselves and fellow-passengers; in lines at airports, people are p ressing forward like fidgety taxis at red lights.and the4 At first, I attributed this tendency to the “population e xplosion” relentless M althusian logic that if twice as many people inhabit the planet now asdid twenty years ago, each of us has half as much space. Recently, I’ve wonderedif it’sthe season: T-shirt weather can make proximity more alluring (or much, much less). Or perhaps the proliferation of coffee bars in Manhattan — the numberseems to double every three months —is infusing so much caffeine into thealready jangling locals that people can no longer keep to themselves.5 Personal space is mostly a public matter; we allow all kinds of invasions ofpersonal space in private. (Humanity wouldn’t exist without them.) The logisticsof it vary according to geography. People who live in Calcutta have less personalspace than folks in Colorado. “Don’t tread on me” could have been coined only by someone with a spread. I would wager that people in the Northern Hemispherehave roomier conceptions of personal space than those in the Southern. To anEnglishman, a handshake can seem like trespassing, whereas to a Brazilian,anything less than a hug may come across as chilliness.6 Like drivers who plow into your parked and empty car and don’t leave a note,you. The decline of people no longer mutter “Excuse me” when they bump intomanners has been widely lamented. Manners, it seems to me, are about givingpeople space, not stepping on toes, granting people their private domain.7 I’ve also noticed an increase in the ranks of what I think of as space invaders,mini-territorial expansionists who seize public space with a sense of manifestdestiny. In movie theatres these days, people are staking a claim to both armrests,annexing all the elbow room, while at coffee shops and on the Long IslandRailroad, individuals routinely commandeer booths and sets of facing seats meantfor foursomes.8 Ultimately, personal space is psychological, not physical: it has less to do withthe space outside us than with our inner space. I suspect that the shrinking ofpersonal space is directly proportional to the expansion of self-absorption: peoplewhose attention is inward do not bother to look outward. Even the focus of sciencethese days is micro, not macro. The Human Genome Project is mapping theuniverse of the genetic code, while neuroscientists are using souped-up M.R.I.machines to chart the flight of neurons in our brains.wings in Japan may9 In the same way that the breeze from a butterfly’seventually produce a tidal wave in California, I have decided to expand thecontracting boundaries of personal space. In the line at my bank, I now refuse tomove closer than three feet to the person in front of me, even if it means that thefellow behind me starts breathing down my neck.ALIENATION AND THE INTERNETWill Baker1The Internet provides an amazing forum for the free exchange of ideas.Given the relatively few restrictions governing access and usage, it is thecommunications modal equivalent of international waters. It is my personalbelief that the human potential can only be realized by the globalization of ideas.I developed this position years before the Internet came into widespread use.And I am excited at the potential for the Internet to dramatically alter our globalsociety for the better. However I am also troubled by the possible unintendednegative consequences.2There has been much talk about the “new information age.” But much less widely reported has been the notion that the Internet may be responsible forfurthering the fragmentation of society by alienating its individual users. At firstthis might sound like an apparent contradiction: how can something, that is onthe one hand responsible for global unification by enabling the free exchange ofideas, alienate the participants?3I had a recent discussion with a friend of mine who has what he described as a “problem” with the Internet. When I questioned further he said that he was-line. He said that he felt like an “addicted,” and has “forced” himself to go offalcoholic, in that moderate use of the Internet was just not possible for him. Ihave not known this fellow to be given to exaggeration, therefore when hedescribed his Internet binges, when he would spend over twenty-four hours online non-stop, it gave me pause to think. He said, “the Internet isn’t real, bu was spending all my time on line, so I just had to stop.” He went on to say tha all of the time that he spent on line might have skewed his sense of reality, andthat it made him feel lonely and depressed.4The fragmentation of society has been lamented for some time now. It seems to me that it probably began in earnest after World War II when ageneration returned from doing great deeds overseas. They won the war, and byGod they were going to win the peace. Automobile ownership becamecommonplace and suburbs were created. “Progress” was their mantra. So evenwidespread popularity, folks were already becoming prior to the Internet’sdistanced from their extended families and neighbors. And when wefast-forward to today we see an almost cruel irony in that people can and oftendo develop on-line relationships with folks on the other side of the globe,without leaving their homes. But at the expense of the time that would haveotherwise been available for involvement in other activities which might foster asense of community in their villages, towns and cities.5Last weekend my wife and I invited our extended family to our home tobirthday. During the celebration my young nephew celebrate our daughter’sspent the entire time on my computer playing a simulated war game. Mybrother-in-law and I were chatting nearby and it struck us that in generationspast, his son, my nephew, would have been outside playing with his friends. Butnow the little fellow goes on line to play his games against his friends incyberspace.6It seems to me that the Internet is a powerful tool that presents an opportunity for the advancement of the acquisition and application ofknowledge. However, based on my personal experience I can understand how,as they surf the web some folks might be confronted with cognitive overload.And I can also understand how one might have his or her sense of realitydistorted in the process. Is the Internet a real place? Depending upon how a “realplace” is defined it might very well be. At the very least, I believe that when weuse the Internet, we are forced to ask fundamental questions about how weperceive the world about us—perhaps another unintended consequence. S omewould argue that the virtual existences created by some users who debate, shop,travel and have romance on line are in fact not real, while others would arguethat, since in practical terms, folks are debating, shopping, traveling and havingromance, the c onverse is true.7 All of this being said, I believe that the key to realizing the potential of theInternet is in achieving balance in our lives. This would allow us to maximize itspotential without losing our sense o f place. However, like most things, that iseasier said than done. It seems to me that we are a society that values immediategratification above all else, and what better place to achieve it than in cyberspace,where the cyber-world is your cyber-oyster. The widespread use of theautomobile forever changed our society and culture, and perhaps a similar sort ofthing is occurring now. I am not at all certain where the “informationsuperhighway” will lead us: some say to Utopia, while others feel it’s the ro hell. But I do know that we all have the ability to maintain our sense of place inthe world. Whether we choose to take advantage of this ability is another matter.THE TAPESTRY OF FRIENDSHIPEllen Goodman1It was, in many ways, a slight movie. Nothing actually happened. T here was no big-budget chase scene, no bloody shoot-out. The story ended withoutany cosmic conclusions.2Yet she found Claudia Weill’s filmGirlfriend gentle and affecting. Slowly, it panned across the tapestry of friendship – showing its fragility, its resiliency,its role as the connecting tissue between the lives of two young women.3When it was over, she thought about the movies she had seen this year –Julia，The Turning Point and now Girlfriends. It seemed that the peculiar eye,the social lens of the cinema, had drastically shifted its focus. Suddenly the MaleBuddy movies had been replaced by the Female Friendship flicks.rité.4This wasn’t just anotherbinge of trendiness, but a kind of cinema véFor once the movies were reflecting a shift, not just from men to women butfrom one definition of friendship to another.5Across millions of miles of celluloid, the ideal of friendship had alwaysof Butch Cassidys and been male –a world of sidekicks and “partners” Sundance Kids. There had been something almost atavistic about these visionsof attachments – as if producers culled their plots from some pop anthropologybook on male bonding. Movies portrayed the idea that only men, those directdescendants of hunters and Hemingways, inherited a primal capacity forfriendship. In contrast, they portrayed women picking on each other, the waythey once picked berries.6Well, that duality must have been mortally wounded in some shootout atNow, on the screen, they were at least aware of the You’re OK, I’m OK Corral.the subtle distinction between men and women as buddies and friends.7About 150 years ago, Coleridge had written, “A w oman’s f riendshipMen affect each other in the reflection borders more closely on love than man’s.of noble or friendly acts, whilst women ask fewer proofs and more signs andexpressions of attachment.”8Well, she thought, on the whole, men had buddies, while women had friends. Buddies bonded, but friends loved. Buddies faced adversity together,but friends faced each other. There was something palpably different in the waythings together; friends simply they spent their time. Buddies seemed to “do” “were” together.9Buddies came linked, like accessories, to one activity or another. People have golf buddies and business buddies, college buddies and club buddies. Menoften keep their buddies in these categories, while women keep a specialcategory for friends.10 A man once told her that men weren’t real buddies until they had been“through the wars” together –corporate or athletic or military. They had tocount themselves as soldier together, he said. Women, on the other hand, didn’tfriends until they had shared three loathsome confidences.11Buddies hang tough together; friends hang onto each other.12It probably had something to do with pride. You don’t show off to a friend;you show need. Buddies try to keep the worst from each other; friends confessit.13 A friend of hers once telephoned her lover, just to find out if he was home.She hung up without a hello when he picked up the phone. Later, wretched with-five-year-old embarrassment, the friend moaned, “Can you believe me? A thirtylawyer, making a chicken call?” Together they laughed and made it better.14Buddies seek approval. But friends seek acceptance.15She knew so many men who had been trained in restraint, afraid of each other’s judgment or awkward with each other’s affection. She wasn’t sure wh Like buddies in the movies, they would die for each other, but never hug eachother.16She had reread Babbitt recently, that extraordinary catalogue of male grievances. The only relationship that gave meaning to the claustrophobic life ofGeorge Babbitt had been with Paul Riesling. But not once in the tragedy of theirlives had one been able to say to the other: You make a difference.17Even now men shocked her at times with their description of friendship.Does this one have a best friend? “Why, of course, we see each other everyDoes that one call his most intimate pal long distance? “Why, February.” a real reason.” Do those two old chums ever have certainly, whenever there’sdinner together? “You mean alone? Without our wives?”18Yet, things were changing. The ideal of intimacy wasn’t this parallel playmate, this teammate, this trenchmate. Not even in Hollywood. In the doublestandard of friendship, for once the female version was becoming accepted asthe general ideal.19After all, a buddy is a fine life-companion. But one’s friends, as Santayana once wrote, “are that part of the race with which one can be human.”。
（完整版）船舶专业英语（课文+翻译）
（完整版）船舶专业英语（课文+翻译）Chapter 1 Ship Design（船舶设计）Lesson 2 Ships Categorized（船舶分类）2.1 Introduction（介绍）The forms a ship can take are innumerable. 一艘船能采用的外形是不可胜数的A vessel might appear to be a sleek seagoing hotel carrying passengers along to some exotic destination; a floating fortress bristling with missile launchers; 。
or an elongated box transporting tanks of crude oil and topped with complex pipe connections. 一艘船可以看做是将乘客一直运送到外国目的地的优美的远航宾馆。
竖立有导弹发射架的水面堡垒及甲板上铺盖有复杂管系的加长罐装原油运输轮None of these descriptions of external appearance, however, does justice to the ship system as a whole and integrated unit所有这些外部特点的描述都不能说明船舶系统是一个总的集合体self-sufficient,seaworthy, and adequately stable in its function as a secure habitat for crew and cargo. ——船员和货物的安全性功能：自给自足，适航，足够稳定。
This is the concept that the naval architect keeps in mind when designing the ship and that provides the basis for subsequent discussions, not only in this chapter but throughout the entire book.这是一个造船工程师设计船舶使必须记住的、能为以后讨论提供根据的观念，不仅涉及本章也贯穿全书。
刚整理的专业英语课文翻译
第一单元Human bodyTo understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc.了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。
研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。
其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。
Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article.解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。
大学-英语专业-精读教材第一单元课文内容及翻译
大学英语专业精读教材第一单元课文内容及翻译《Half a Day》一、①I walked alongside my father ,clutching his right hand.〔走在父亲的身旁，我紧紧地抓住他的右手〕②All my clothes were new : the black shoes , the green school uniform ,and the red cap.〔那时，我穿着黑鞋子，绿校服，戴着红帽子，它们都是新的。
〕③They did not make me happy, however, as this was the day I was to be thrown into school for first time.〔然而，因为今天是我第一次被送去上学，所以这些衣服并没有给我带来一丝快乐。
〕二、①My mother stood at the window watching our progress, and I turned towards her from time to time, hoping she would help.〔母亲站在窗前望着我们缓缓前行，我也不时地回头看她，希望会从她那里得到帮助。
〕②We walked along a street lined with gardens, and fields planted with crops, pears, and date palms.〔我们沿着街道走着，街道两旁是花园和田野，田野里栽满了梨树和椰枣树。
〕三、①“Why school ?”I asked my father .“What haveI done ?”〔“我为什么要去上学？”我问父亲，“是我做错了什么吗？”〕四、①“I’m not punishing you,”he said ,laughing.“School’s not a punishment. It’s a place that makes useful men out ofboys. Don’t you want to be useful like your brothers?”〔“我不是在惩罚你，”父亲笑着说道，“上学不是一种惩罚。
建筑专业英语课文1.4(华中科技大学出版社)
SECTION 1: ARCHITECTURE 11.4 Great Architects and Their Masterpieces1.4.1 Zaha Hadid — Space for Art①Architectural expectations for a museum are always high because of the aspirationthat the structures themselves might be works of art. But hopes were especially elevatedat the CAC②, where the building would effectively become the only artifact permanentlyowned by a museum that pointedly does not collect. The CAC was not only commissioning a structure but also committing itself to an image that might affirm itslong-standing record as an innovative, risk-taking institution. On several occasions—most famously in its support of a controversial exhibition of photographs byRobert Mapplethorpe—the CAC took stands that attracted national attention. With thechoice of London architect Zaha Hadid, the museum affirmed its own traditions of“innovation and free inquiry” by hiring an architect with a comparable record of uncompromising integrity.Hadid’s building is quietly complicit③with its surroundings because it growsindirectly out of the city. Sited opposite large-scale modern structures, but adjacent toolder buildings in a more finely grained urban fabric, Hadid’s design pivots④the newer neighborhood to the older, suturing⑤two sides of a split boulevard. The architect recallsthe scale of the adjacent older section because, conceptually, she tooktraditionally-scaled building volumes, laid them on their sides, and then rolled themtoward Sixth Street like so many Cleopatras in a rug: the volumes stack lengthwise alongthe street, and the carpet turns up the back wall of the site. By looking at the urbancontext broadly and transforming buildings in the older city into abstract after-images,she automatically inherits the scale of the city in her stacked cluster. The materiality ofthe volumes, surfaced mostly in precast concrete panels left raw, refers to the newer①This text is from Joseph Giovannini: Zaha Hadid Space for Art, 1st Edition, Switzerland: LarsMuller Publishers, 2004.②CAC：Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati, USA③complicit a. having complicity④pivot v. axis consisting of a short shaft that supports something that turns⑤suture v. an immovable joint2建筑专业英语concrete structures across the street. Like the older building neighbors, all slightlydifferent, the volumes are variously sized and shaped, and displaced in what appears tobe a Rubik’s Cube rocked slightly out of regularity. Hadid’s building, then, does notstand aloof in detached aesthetic object-hood. Without being literal, Hadid derived herbuilding from the surrounding context and then wove her building back into the fabricthrough plays of scale and material. One of the most formally gifted architectspracticing today, Hadid is also a dedicated urbanist. She believes in dense, intense citiesas a forum and springboard①for lively democratic societies, and in downtownCincinnati, she invites the streetscape into the building via what she calls an “urbancarpet”. The architect simply extends the idea of the sidewalk into the building, throughthe lobby, to the back, where the concrete floor curves up to form the rear wall of theseven-story structure. In the canyon between this verticalized sidewalk and the volumesstacked along the street, long steel channels of stairs scissor their way past the galleriesand administrative floors up to the children’s Museum on the sixth floor.Hadid’s dancing flight of angled stairs is a successor of the ramp of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Guggenheim. Both handle the verticality of a tight city site, encouragingvisitors onto an architectural promenade②instead of ushering③them through a mazeof white spaces or an enfilade of doors in a line-up of rooms. The stairwell is notremoved from the museum experience but plays an active role in shaping it. Hadid’sstairs, however, improve on the Guggenheim ramp. They lead visitors to expansivelandings in Piranesian atria④that double as galleries opening into other galleries,located within the stacked volumes at the front of the building. Hadid keeps herramp-like stairs detached from the galleries, so that visitors never feel they are lookingat works of art from a traffic lane. The stacked gallery volumes and elevator banks areseparated, creating flows of interior space that climb through a porous interior. Naturallight washes down and through the interior from skylights above the stairs.……The CAC competition brief originally called for adaptable loft-like spaces, but Hadid proposed instead what she termed “a catalogue of galleries” that collectively, allowed for avariety of viewing environments-short and tall, grand and intimate, structured andunstructured. Individually defined on the outside by their separate respective volumes, thegalleries may appear simple, but each prism is different in size, material and lighting.①springboard n. a flexible board for jumping upward②promenade n. a public area set aside as a pedestrian walk③usher v. someone employed to conduct others④atria n. the central area in a building; open to the skySECTION 1: ARCHITECTURE 3……Some critics misconstrue Hadid’s elusive end illusory geometries as arbitrary. Theyare, instead, highly disciplined results of a rigorous design process and philosophy aboutthe change and perceptual flux that permeate our world: Hadid’s architecture isanti-classical because spaces and shapes exist in a constant becoming that is neitherPlatonic nor eternal. The instability of forms always changing relative to each other on apromenade creates an interpretative space that stimulates the eye and mind to make itsown sense and find its owe order. In Cincinnati, her forms and spaces deliver visitors tothe art preconditioned for the experience.But the architectural statement that now presides in the middle of Cincinnati is notjust a work of art: Hadid has also designed a portrait building that captures the characterof this experimental institution, consolidates①its identity and expands its mission.Hadid’s design ushers the CAC and its programs into a more public arena that is participatory, democratic, and open. The building represents the kind of stand andstatement people would expect the CAC to make. After its long sojourn②in a nearbymall, the Center has succeeded in repositioning the institution in the city—and perhapsin the national consciousness, meanwhile the art in it achieves a larger life through environmental experience Hadid has invented. Art and institution both escape thecooling limitations of the white box. Museums today are taking the lead as patrons ofadvanced thinking in architecture. With its new building, the CAC has taken the leadamong museums.ExercisesI. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.1.Zaha Hadid’s architectural drawings are more often like paintings than workingdrawings, which express architecture so free that it appears to ______ gravity.A. controlB. changeC. escapeD. catch2.Hadid’s boldness lies precisely in the fact that she does not compromise withconventions but behaves as an .A. archeologistB. engineerC. artistD. inventor3.Hadid’s structures came close to an experience of space exploding _______ tensionand movement.①consolidate v. make firm or secure; strengthen②sojourn n. a temporary stay4建筑专业英语A. byB. atC. withD. in4.With the choice of London architect Zaha Hadid, the museum affirmed its owntraditions of “innovation and free inquiry” hiring an architect with acomparable record of uncompromising integrity.A. byB. inC. atD. with5.The first woman to win the Pritzker Prize for Architecture in its 26 year history,Zaha Hadid has defined a radically new approach to architecture by creatingbuildings, such as the Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art in Cincinnati,with multiple perspective points and fragmented geometry to evoke the ofmodern life.A. chaosB. systemC. orderD. logic6.Zaha Hadid was single-minded an early age. Born in 1950 in Baghdad, shegrew up in a very different Iraq from the one we know today.A. fromB. withC. byD. inII. Translate the italic sentences in the text into Chinese.SECTION 1: ARCHITECTURE 51.4.2 Venturi House①Robert Venturi is famous for his book Complexity and Contradiction(1966) inwhich he called attention to the importance of Baroque architecture in contradiction torectilinear②Modernism. In his later book Learning from Las Vegas (1972), Venturi andDenise Scott Brown proposed the idea of the “decorated shed③” (ordinary American architecture) and proposed it could be perceived as artistic inspiration. Venturi arguedfor an architecture that was neither pure nor picturesque, but which made the most of complexities, contradictions, ambiguities and paradoxes④—qualities which he thoughtwere more understanding of the times. Venturi said that architecture did not have to be“heroic and original”. Instead it was “OK” to look back upon r ich architectural historyfor inspiration and references.Venturi calls the house “a small house on a large scale” thus Venturi’s mother sits ina chair with a pot⑤of flowers at her feet to help create a sense of scale. This house forhis mother allowed Venturi to build his ideas about complexity and contradiction.Historical references were used boldly with a bit of humor. Venturi violates the rules ofModernism with his gabled roof, fake arch, exposed post and lintel and green paint. Thebroad roof and prominent⑥chimney are classic symbols of “home”, except the widechimney is not what it seems to be (actually much smaller) and the sheltering roof(inspired by the Low House) is split⑦down the middle. The classic string course isbroken by the windows. The lintel that joins the two halves looks unusually narrow forthe weight above. Thus, Venturi adds the symbolic arch above, which was just a molding(attached decoration), to give more support — except the arch is also broken! Still, thearch helps break the weight of the facade. The tension between the large and smallwindows on the front facade contributes to the conflict of a broken arch over arectangular entrance. To add to the confusion, the building is not trying to be quaint⑧or picturesque but has a very tight modern—like surface. To Venturi, these decorative①This text is from anonymousness.②rectilinear a. characterized by a straight line or lines③shed n. an outbuilding with a single story; used for shelter or storage④paradox n. (logic) a statement that contradicts itself⑤pot n. a container in which plants are cultivated⑥prominent a. having a quality that thrusts itself into attention⑦split v. separate into parts or portions⑧quaint a. strange in an interesting or pleasing way6建筑专业英语elements and symbols glamorized①cheap materials through association with classicalforms—all in an attempt to celebrate middle-class lifestyle and values.On the ground floor plan a recess②leads to the front door which is hidden from view. The plan is based on the symbolic idea of the fireplace as the center of the house.Space feels ambiguous (creates many ways of understanding) as the staircase collideswith the fireplace. In the dining area, the ceiling is half-vaulted (recalling the half-circlearch form tacked③-on to the facade) .The vault seems to just miss a structural columnwhich supports the flat ceiling above. Thus, the vault appears to be resting on a wall ofglass doors! The entire design is full of complexity and contradiction. After squeezing④past the fireplace on the way upstairs, one arrives in the master bedroom complete withan enormous arched window. Another set of step with extremely high risers lead to …nowhere—one last architectural ambiguity.ExercisesI. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.1.Robert Venturi is famous for his book “and Contradiction” (1966) in whichhe called attention to the importance of Baroque architecture in contradiction torectilinear Modernism.A. CompactB. ImplicitlyC. SimplicityD. Complexity2.Venturi argued ______ an architecture that was neither pure nor picturesque, butwhich made the most of complexities, contradictions, ambiguities and paradoxes.A. atB. inC. onD. for3.Venturi said that architecture did not have to be “heroic and original”. Instead itwas “OK” to look back upon rich architectural for inspiration andreferences.A. styleB. historyC. formD. color4.This house ______ his mother allowed Venturi to build his ideas about complexityand contradiction.A. withB. for①glamorize vt. make glamorous and attractive②recess n. an enclosure that is set back or indented③tack v. fix to; attach④squeeze v. the act of gripping and pressing firmlySECTION 1: ARCHITECTURE 7C. byD. on5.The classic string course is broken by the . The lintel that joins the two halveslooks unusually narrow for the weight above.A. doorB. roofC. windowsD. portico6.To Venturi, these decorative elements and symbols glamorized cheap materialsthrough association with classical forms-all in an attempt to celebratelifestyle and values.A. high-classB. gutterC. middle-classD. noble-classII. Translate the italic sentences in the text into Chinese.8建筑专业英语1.4.3 An Introduction to Foster’s Projects①1. Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank Headquarters Hong Kong, 1979-1986When the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank Corporation commissioned Foster and Partners to design “the best bank building in the world”, the practice responded byvirtually reinventing②the office tower.Conceived during a sensitive period in the former colony’s h istory, the brief for the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank Headquarters was a statement of confidence: to createthe best bank building in the world. Through a process of questioning andchallenging—including the involvement of a Fengshui geomancer—the project addressedthe nature of banking in Hong Kong and how it should be expressed in built form. Indoing so it virtually reinvented the office tower.The requirement to build in excess of one million square feet in a short timescale suggested a high degree of prefabrication, including factory-finished modules, while theneed to build downwards and upwards simultaneously led to the adoption of a suspensionstructure, with pairs of steel masts arranged in three bays. As a result, the building formis articulated in a stepped profile of three individual towers, respectively twenty-nine,thirty-six and forty-four storeys high, which create floors of varying width and depthand allow for garden terraces. The mast structure allowed another radical move, pushingthe service cores to the perimeter so as to create deep-plan floors around a ten-storeyatrium. A mirrored sunscoop reflects sunlight down through the atrium to the floor of apublic plaza below a sheltered space that at weekends has become a lively picnic spot.From the plaza, escalators rise up to the main banking hall, which with its glassunderbelly was conceived as a shop window for banking.The bridges that span between the masts define double-height reception areas that break down the scale of the building both visually and socially. A unique system ofmovement through the building combines high-speed lifts to the reception spaces withescalators beyond, reflecting village-like clusters of office floors. From the outset, theBank placed a high priority on flexibility. Interestingly, over the years, it has been able toreconfigure office layouts with ease, even incorporating a large dealer’s room into onefloor—a move that could not have been anticipated when the building was designed.①This text is from .②reinvent vt. create anew and make over；bring back into existenceSECTION 1: ARCHITECTURE 92. Commerzbank Headquarters Frankfurt, Germany, 1991-1997At fifty-three storeys, the Commerzbank is the world’s first ecological office towerand the tallest building in Europe. The project explores the nature of the office environment, developing new ideas for its ecology and working patterns. Sky gardensthat spiral around the building bring daylight and fresh air into the central atrium andare the visual and social focus for village-like clusters of offices.Working patterns: Central to this concept is a reliance on natural systems oflighting and ventilation. Every office in the tower is daylight and has openable windows,allowing occupants to control their own environment, and resulting in energyconsumption levels equivalent to half those of conventional office towers.The plan of the building is triangular, comprising three petals—the officefloors—and a stem①formed by a full-height central atrium. Pairs of vertical mastsenclose services and circulation cores in the corners of the plan and support eight-storeyVierendeel beams, which in turn support clear-span office floors. Four-storey gardensare set at different levels on each side of the tower, forming a spiral of landscapingaround the building, and visually establishing a social focus for village-like officesclusters. These gardens play an ecological role, bringing daylight and fresh air into thecentral atrium, which acts as a natural ventilation chimney for the inward-facing offices.The gardens are also places to relax during refreshment breaks, bringing richness andhumanity to the workplace, and from the outside they give the building a sense oftransparency and lightness.Depending on their orientation, planting is from one ofthree regions: North America, Asia or the Mediterranean②.The tower has a distinctive presence on the Frankfurt skyline but is also anchoredinto the lower-scale city fabric, with restoration and sensitive rebuilding of theperimeter structures reinforcing the original scale of the block. These developments atstreet level provide shops, car parking, apartments and a banking hall, and forge linksbetween the Commerzbank and the broader community. At the heart of the scheme apublic galleria with restaurants, cafes and spaces for social and cultural events forms apopular new route cutting across the site. Interestingly, on the day the Commerzbankopened, the Financial Times adopted it as the symbol of Frankfurt, just as it features BigBen and the Eiffel Tower as symbols of London and Paris.①stem n. cylinder forming a long narrow part of something②Mediterranean n. the largest inland sea between Europe, Africa and Asia10建筑专业英语ExercisesI. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.1.The Commerzbank has a plan, with the elevator and stairs situated at thecorners thus allowing for a 49-story atrium.A. foursquareB. rectangularC. polygonalD. triangular2.Norman Foster is the founder and chairman of Foster and Partners. Founded inin 1967, it is now a worldwide practice, with project offices in more than twenty countries.A. ParisB. New YorkC. ManchesterD. London3.The bridges that span between the masts define double-height reception areas thatbreak the scale of the building both visually and socially.A. downB. inC. outD. into4.Sir Norman Foster attempted to create a new skyscraper type which was ______ tothe environment, to the users of the building and to the surrounding city.A. illegalB. uglyC. harmfulD. friendly5.To allow for natural ventilation and operable windows, Foster designed adouble-facade or “climate facade” which is made of a exterior layer, amiddle air layer and an interior double-glazed operable window.A. illegalB. uglyC. fixedD. movable6.The building is a reversal of the Modernist phrase “machine in the G arden” as theCommerzbank is the “”.A. urban in the villageB. village in the urbanC. garden in the machineD. garden in the urbanII. Translate the italic sentences in the text into Chinese.SECTION 1: ARCHITECTURE 111.4.4 Gehry House①Cloze: Fill in the blanks with any word you think fit:Frank Gehry has said “ 1 definition, a building is a sculpture, because it is athree-dimensional object” In his Los Angeles studio, all designs are developed in modelform first and then, after many developmental models, construction drawings are madefor the builder and client. Gehry is perhaps one of the most influential architects of ourtime partly because his designs are actually built and partly because with each buildinghe creates unexpected forms with unexpected materials.But it is the Gehry House (1978) that is the most influential of all his buildings as itwas the 2 time an architect deconstructed an existing house (and published theresults in newspapers, magazines and books). Construction materials and chain-linkwere used as “ 3 ” materials. While Venturi was looking at history books on theway to Las Vegas, Gehry was digging in the 4 . What he found was a newexpression of form that had never been seen before. In architecture he created sculpture,which was both shocking and exciting to see and experience.Over the past twenty years Frank Gehry has remodeled his 1920’s bungalow manytimes. 5 the existing house (1978), Gehry organizes a series of interconnectedvolumes. The living, dining, kitchen and child’s bedroom are on the ground floor. Onthe second floor, Gehry 6 walls to enlarge the master bedroom and bathroom,and created another child’s room for the future. During the first remodeling in 1978,Gehry used materials normally used in industrial architecture 7 chain-linkfencing, corrugated metal siding, plywood boarding and wire-reinforced glass. Duringlater changes, he used more refined materials such as the apple-green ceramic tiles laidaround a new pool.The house is filled with windows, skylights and unusual openings, which reveal,reflect and frame different views of the house and grounds. Gehry always intended thehouse to change with his family’s needs. In 1992 he made major changes again. The newfloor plan is similar to the old plan as the hall; kitchen and dining room have remainedin the U-shaped space on the ground floor. On the upper floor, Gehry’s son’s room hasbeen turned 8 a studio and part of the master bedroom floor has been replaced①This cloze text is from anonymousness.12建筑专业英语by glass, thus allowing more natural 9 to reach the ground floor. The old garage,previously a guesthouse, has been turned into a children’s “hangout”.In many ways, the Gehry House is like Monticello—as Jefferson was constantly ripping down, building and changing Monticello. On a much smaller scale and in amuch 10 landscape, the Gehry House is for America what Monticello was just200 years ago—the architect’s experiment, laboratory and home.。
专业英语课文翻译
Lesson 16 Basic Concepts of MechanismsA combination of interrelated parts(相关零件的组合体) having definite（确定的）motions and capable of performing useful work may be called machine.具有确定的运动轨迹,并且能做有用的功联接在一起的零件的组合称为机器.A mechanism is a component of a machine consisting of two or more bodies arranged so that the motion of one compels the motion of the others.机构是机器的组成要素.机器由二个及以上的机构组合而成.因此其中一个构件的运动会带动其它的构件的连锁运动.Kinematics is the study of motion in mechanisms without reference to the forces that act on the mechanism运动学仅研究机构的运动而不考虑作用在机构上的力.Dynamics is the study of motion individual bodies and mechanisms under the influence of forces and torques.动力学研究独立构件的运动及力和扭矩作用下对机构的影响.The study of forces and torques in stationary systems (and systems with negligible inertial effects) is called statics研究平衡中的力和扭矩,该系统忽略惯性影响,称之为静力学.Synthesis is the procedure by which a product (a mechanism, for example) is developed to satisfy a set of performance requirements合成是一个程序,通过该程序能够不断改进一个产品(例如一个机构)直到满足一系列的性能要求.If a product configuration is tentatively specified and then examined to determine whether the performance requirements are met, the process is called analysis.如果需要探索性的详细阐述产品的构造结构,然后检验,判断该产品是否满足性能要求,这个过程称为分解.The design of mechanisms involves both synthesis and analysis.机构设计包括合成和分解.The design process begins with the recognition of a need. A set of requirements is then listed设计从对于需求的确认开始,罗列出一系列的要求.Detailed analyses of displacements, velocities, and accelerations are usually required通常需要对位移,速度,加速度进行具体分析.This part of the design process is followed by an analysis of forces and torques. 设计过程中的这个部分是紧跟在对力和扭矩的分析之后.The design process may continue long after（很久以后）the first models have been produced and may include redesigns of components that affect velocities, accelerations, forces, and torques在制造完毕第一个模型之后,该设计过程仍有可能持续很长一段时间. 并且有可能会重新设计这些会影响速度,加速度及所知扭矩的零部件In order to successfully compete from year to year, most manufactures must continuously modify their product and their methods of production为了在年复一年的技术中取得优势,大多数制造商必须不断调整修改他们的产品及加工方式.Increases in the production rate, upgrading of product performance, redesign for cost and weight reduction are frequently required,为了增加出产率,提高产品的性能,经常需要重新设计来降低成本以及减轻重量. Success may hinge on（决定于） the accuracy of the kinematic and dynamic analysis 对问题进行正确的运动学和动力学分析是成功的关键.Many of the basic linkage configurations have been incorporated into（成为……的一部分）machines designed centuries ago, and the terms we use to describe them have changed over the years很久以前,许多基本的连杆构造就已经运用在机器设计中去了,并且我们用来称呼它们的术语在不断的变化,.Thus, definitions and terminology are not consistent throughout thetechnical literature.因此技术供应文献中的定义和说明不是一成不变的In most cases, however, meanings will be clear from the context of the descriptive matter.在大多数的情况下,然而定义,义意可以在的解释性的描述内容中清晰的获得,A few terms of particular interest to the study of kinematics and dynamics of machines are defined below下面定义了在学习,研究机构运动学和动力学中一些特别重要的术语.Link A link is one of the rigid bodies or members joined together to form a kinematic chain.杆件是一个刚体或者连接在一起形成运动链的零部件,因此被称为刚性构件或者是简单构件.The term rigid link, or sometimes simply link, is an idealization used in the study of mechanisms that does not consider small deflections due to strains in machine members刚性构件是在机械装置中的理想化模型.这样就不无需考虑由机器零部件所产生的应力造成的微小偏移量.A perfectly rigid or inextensible link can exist only as a textbook type of model of a real machine member.一个绝对刚性或不可延展的构件只能存在于教科书上的机械零部件的模型.For typical machine parts, the maximum changes in dimension are on the order of only a one-thousandth of the part length.对于典型的零部件,最大的尺寸变化量仅仅是沿着该部件长度方向的千分之一.We are justified（合理的） in neglecting this small motion when considering the much greater motion characteristic of most mechanisms当考虑到大多数的机构相对较为显着的运动特征,忽略这点微量的偏移是合情合理的. The word link is used in a general sense to include cams, gears, and other machine members in addition to cranks, connecting rods and other pin-connected（铰接） components通常意义所说的杆件包括凸轮,齿轮以及它的机器零件的曲柄,连杆机构和其它的销件连接部分.Frame The fixed or stationary link in a mechanism is called the frame机架机械装置中固定或静止不动的构件称为机架.When there is no link that is actually fixed, we may consider one as being fixed and determine the motion of the other links relative to it如果实际中确实没有构件是固定的,我们可以假设其中某个是固定的,这样可以判断出其它与之相连构件的运动.In an automotive engine, for example, the engine block (see Fig.14.1) isconsidered the frame, even though the automobile may be moving例如汽车发动机,我们通常是把发动机气缸视为机架,让它保持静止不动,实际上整部汽车者是运动的.Degree of Freedom The number of degrees of freedom of a linkageis the number of independent parameters required to specify the position of every link relative to the frame or fixed link自由度连杆机构的自由度是给定独立参数的数目，需要自由度来确定某一个与机架或固定杆件相连接的构件的位置，If the instantaneous configuration of a system may be completely defined bespecifying one independent variable, that system has one degree of freedom如果系统的瞬间结构完全可以由一个独立的变量来确定，这样系统就具有一个自由度，An unconstrained rigid body has six degrees of freedom:大多数实际上运用的机构装置只有一个自由度。
(完整版)船舶专业英语(课文+翻译)
Chapter 1 Ship Design（船舶设计）Lesson 2 Ships Categorized（船舶分类）2.1 Introduction（介绍）The forms a ship can take are innumerable. 一艘船能采用的外形是不可胜数的A vessel might appear to be a sleek seagoing hotel carrying passengers along to some exotic destination; a floating fortress bristling with missile launchers; 。
or an elongated box transporting tanks of crude oil and topped with complex pipe connections. 一艘船可以看做是将乘客一直运送到外国目的地的优美的远航宾馆。
竖立有导弹发射架的水面堡垒及甲板上铺盖有复杂管系的加长罐装原油运输轮None of these descriptions of external appearance, however, does justice to the ship system as a whole and integrated unit所有这些外部特点的描述都不能说明船舶系统是一个总的集合体self-sufficient,seaworthy, and adequately stable in its function as a secure habitat for crew and cargo. ——船员和货物的安全性功能：自给自足，适航，足够稳定。
This is the concept that the naval architect keeps in mind when designing the ship and that provides the basis for subsequent discussions, not only in this chapter but throughout the entire book.这是一个造船工程师设计船舶使必须记住的、能为以后讨论提供根据的观念，不仅涉及本章也贯穿全书。
专业英语课文翻译
Lesson 1 Why GIS?现在，许多组织在地理信息系统和地理数据库方面花费大量的金钱。
预言显示，在整个下一个十年，将有数十亿美元花费在这些上面。
为什么在现今成为现实，而在仅仅几年前，GIS还是稀有之物？迅速下降的计算机硬件成本，使得能够负担得起GIS的人迅速增多，范围变广。
更重要的是，我们终于认识到，地理学（和数据描述的地理学）是我们日常生活环境的部分：几乎我们所做的每一个决策都是被一些地学事实所限制，所影响，或是所支配的。
我们派消防车以最快的速度，尽可能短的路径到达着火现场。
我们的中央政府经常根据人口数量拨款物给地方政府。
我们通过确认疾病的流行地区和传播速度来研究疾病。
这种对地理信息的需求与对GIS的需要相吻合，解释了它迅速普及的原因。
然而，如此概括不能够解释GIS为什么能帮助和怎样帮助你。
首先，你必须知道GIS 是什么和它能用来做什么。
下面的主题将帮助你理解GIS。
GIS是什么？在1980年代，GIS的使用显著地增长。
现在，对企业、政府和学术界来说，运用GIS 的许多不同的应用已是寻常之事。
因而GIS的许多定义已经出现了。
例如，翻到本书的词汇表，你将发现GIS被描述为：由计算机硬件、软件、地理数据和人员构成的有机集成，被设计来有效搜集、储存、更新、处理、分析和展示各种空间相关信息。
尽管这个定义正确、全面、并被广泛接受，但它对初学GIS的人帮助不多。
当你读完此工作手册，这个定义的含义将变得清晰，但目前，考虑一个更简单的定义：能够支持和使用数据描述地表区域的计算机系统。
空间操作许多计算机程序，诸如spreadsheets, statistics packages, 或drafting packages能处理简单的地理或空间数据，那么，为什么他们不是通常所认为的是GIS呢？一个通常被接受的回答是，如果它允许对数据进行空间操作，这样的GIS才是GIS。
作为一个例子，考虑下面的表格：这个表格表明，在所选择的活动中心，从事GIS某一方面工作者的大致数量。
专业英语课文翻译
Lesson 10 Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids1.Chemistry of EstersEsters are neutral compounds derived from reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. The esters of any individual carboxylic acid form a homologous series whose lower members are volatile liquids with pleasant, often fruit-like odours. As the relative molecular mass increases, volatility decreases and the esters gradually become viscous, oily liquids or waxy solids. They are immiscible with water and ethyl ethanoate is widely used as an organic solvent. They are polar compounds with boiling points well below those of carboxylic acids of corresponding relative molecular mass, since there is no intermolecular hydrogen bonding:CH3CO2CH2CH3CH3CH2CO2CH3CH3CH2CH2CO2H Ethyl ethanoate (M r=88) methyl propanoate (M r=88) butanoic acid (M r=88) b.p.=77℃ b.p.=80℃ b.p.=163℃Esters occur naturally. Those derived from certain long-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acids) and the alcohol propane-1,2,3-triol(glycerol)are important constituents of vegetable oils and animal fats. Ester polymers, called polyesters, are very important synthetic materials; an example is the synthetic polyester fibre Terylene.The following reactions are typical of esters.1.1HydrolysisThe hydrolysis of an ester to carboxylic acid and alcohol is the reverse of the esterification process and involves an equilibrium:RCOOR’+H2O RCOOH+R’OHThe composition lf the equilibrium mixture is the same, no matter whether one has started from an equimolar mixture of acid and alcohol, or ester and water. Like esterification, the rate of hydrolysis is very slow but hydrolysis is catalysed by acid or alkali. Alkali hydrolysis is usually the more effective method because the salt of the carboxylic acid, rather than the free acid, is obtained, so that the equilibrium position is pushed so much towards the products that reaction is virtually complete. The hydrolysis is normally effected by heating the aster with sodium hydroxide solution under reflux. As hydrolysis proceeds, the separate ester and aqueous layers gradually merge into one. If the alcohol is wanted is can be distilled out of the alkaline mixture; acidification of the residue with sulphuric acid will liberate the free carboxylic acid, which may then be distilled from the solution. The alkaline hydrolysis of esters is sometimes referred to as saponification because the reaction is used in soap-making.1.2 ReductionEsters are reduced by lithium tetrahydridoaluminate to primary alcohols corresponding to the acid from which the ester is derived. The other organic product is the alcohol corresponding to the alcohol component of the ester:RCOOR’→RCH2OH+R’OHe.g.CH3COOCH3→CH3CH2OH+CH3OHMethyl ethanoate ethanol methanol2.Chemistry of Acid ChloridesAcid chlorides are very reaction compounds and hence are not found in nature. Theyare conveniently prepared by the action of sulphur dichloride oxide ( thionyl chloride ) on a carboxylic acid, since the other product of the reaction are gases. The acid chlorides are generally volatile liquids and find applications, in many small-scale laboratory syntheses. The following reactions, in which the chlorine is replaced by other groups, are typical of acid chlorides.2.1 HydrolysisAcid chlorides are vigorously hydrolyzed on contact with water, heat and fumes of hydrogen chloride being evolved. The acid chlorides even fume on contact with moist air, and hence must always be protected from moisture during storage. For the same reason reactions involving acid chlorides must be carried out with water-free reagents, and if a solvent is used, it must also be dry. Care must always be exercised when handling them.RCOCL+H2O→RCOOH+HCLThe acid chlorides are named according to the corresponding carboxylic acid, the suffix-oic being replaced by –oyl; thus ethanoic acid forms the acid chloride, ethanoyl chloride.2.2 Reaction with alcoholsAcid chlorides react with alcohols, although slightly less vigorously than with water, to form eaters;RCOCl+R’OH→RCOOR’+HClThis is a particularly useful method of making esters because the reaction goes to completion, and hence high yields may be expected.2.3 Reaction with ammonia and amines \When an acid chloride is added to a cold, concentrated ammonia solution, a vigorous reaction takes place and an acid amide is formed:RCOCl+NH3→RCONH2+HClA similar reaction occurs with an amine and the reaction is often performed in a dry ether solvent to moderate its vigour. The product is an N-substituted amide, i.e. an amide in which hydrogen attached to the nitrogen atom has been replaced by an alkly group:RCOCl+R’ NH2→RCONHR’+HClA secondary amine will also react in a similar fashion but a tertiary amine will not. The reaction of an acid chloride with an amine is used commercially in the manufacture of the very important range of semi-synthetic penicillins, first product by the Beecham Group in 1959. By varying the acid chloride, various groups can be introduced into the essential penicillin structure to produce new penicillin antibiotics with important pharmacological properties not possessed by natural penicillin.2.4 ReductionAcid chlorides can be reduced by catalytic hydrogenation or, more conveniently in the laboratory, by lithium tetrahydridoaluminate. The reduction product is a primary alcoholRCOCl→RCH2OH2.5 Friedel- Crafts reactionAcid chloride enters into a substitution reaction with aromatic compounds to formketones. This reaction is known as the Friedel- Crafts reaction.。