语言学复习资料 英语专业
语言学复习资料(全英)
第一部分选择题nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__.Ca. writingb. speakingc. communicationd. reading2. The study of language as a whole is ofen called__. Ba. applied linguisticsb. general linguisticsc.3. Saussure is a___ lingusit. Ca. Americanb. Russianc. Swiss4. It is generally believed that the beginning of morden lingusitics marked by the publication of the book?course in general linguistics5. Which of the following is not a major branch of lingusitic? Ba. syntaxb.speechc. phonologyd. pragmatics6. __ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced? Ba. pragmaticsb. psycholinguisticsc. Anthropological linguistics7. Design features are proposed by the American linguist? Ca. Bloomfieldb. Hallc. Hockettd. Harris8. ___is not a design feature of human language? Da. Arbitrarinessb. displacementc. Dualityd. Diachronicity9. Among the following words, __ ends with a voiceless sound? Ca. bangb. thudc. crashd. wham10. Among the following words, __does not ends with a voiceless voiced?Aa. splatb. kinc. telld. bridge11. All the initial sounds of the following words are stops(爆破音) except? Ca. Billyb. crazyc. happyd. dizzy12. All the initial sounds of the following words are fricatives(摩擦音) except? Ba. fineb.writec. shyd. think13. All the initial sounds of the following words are bilabials(双唇音,如b p m) except? Ba. bellyb. calfc. playd. medicine14. All the following pair words would be treated minimal pairs(最小分别) except? Aa. meal—heatb. heat—healc. meal—heald. bell—bet15. The word glorification has entered the language by? Aa. derivational processb. add of inflectionsc. coinaged. functional shift16. The word gym is formed by ? Aa. clippingb. coinagec. borrowing17.UNESCO belongs to ? Da. clipped wordsb. borrowed wordsc. blendd. acronyms18. Syntax is the study of ? Ba. language functionsb. sentence structuresc. textual organization19. The word “lcid, child, offspring” are examples of ? Ba. dialectal synonymsb. stylistic synonymsc. emotive synonymsd. collocational synonyms20. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy(从属关系) except? Ca. automobile vehicleb. father , parentc. magazine, dictionaryd. fish, shark21. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy except? Aa. water , watemelonb. hurricane, stormc. ceremony , weddingd. captain, officer22. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called? Da. hyponymyb. synonymyc. polysemyd. homonymy(同形异义)23. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy except? Da. emotion , loveb. move, runc. occupation, teachingd. rose, tree24. ___ are a pair of complementary antonyms(互补反义关系)? Ba. doctor, patientb. absent, presentc. old, youngd. hot, cold25. ___ are a pair of gradable antonyms(等级关系)? Ca. alive, deadb. male, femalec. wide, narrowd. vacant, occupied26. ___ are a pair of relational antonyms? Aa. let, rentb. single, marriedc. fail, passd. appear, diasppear27. __ is best described as polysemy? Ca. The bookstores has some new titles in linguistics.b. Yes, I love those. I ate a whole box on Sunday.c. I had to park on the shoulder of the road.28. Leila: whoa! Has us boss gone crazy?Mary: Let’s go get some coffee.In the conversation, the maxim of ___ has been flouted(违背什么原则)? C(1) a. quantity b. quality c. relation d. mannerIn the utterance “Business is business.” The maxim of ___ has been flouted? A(2) a. quantity b. quality c. relation d. manner29. Charlence: I hope you brought the bread and cheese.Dether: Ah. I brought the bread.”In the conversation, the maxim of ___ has been flouted? Aa. quantityb. qualityc. relationd. manner30. In the utterance, “ John runs as fast as a deer.”The maxim of ___ has been flouted? Ba. quantityb. qualityc. relationd. manner第二部分T or F1 In ancient China, a famous philosopher named XUN ZI reasoned that a name was accepted, through public agreement, and the appropriateness of naming a thing laying convention. T2 Aristotle held that there was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas. F (Plato)3 A diachronic statement is one about a language at one point in time, whereas a synchronic statement is one about a change or changes that took place over a period of time. F (弄反了)4 Language study today is descriptive rather prescriptive. T5 Auditory phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, the way sounds travel from the speaker to the hearer. FArticulatory phonetics (production)Acoustic phonetics (transmission)6 Place of articulation English speech sounds can be divided into voiceless and voiced sounds. F ( manner of articulation)7 Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. T (Phoneme is the focus of Phonetics)8 Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted for another without bringing about a change of meaning. T9 Language of the world can be classified morphologically into 2 types: isolating&inflecting. F( 还有 agglutinating)10 Today’s English is more similar to an isolating language. T11 Words can have 2 kinds of meanings: denotative(字面) and connotative. Connotative meaning includes all the feelings, associations and emotions that a word touches off in different type. T12 According to Austin, illocutionary act refers to the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by particular words and structures which the utterance contains. F (locutionary)13 The cooperative principle holds that people in conversation normally cooperate with one another, and that they assume that the others are cooperating to a maximum extent. T14 The uss of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is calledconversational implicative. T第三部分1 what determines whether a string of words in language is language is a sentence or simply a string of un related words----syntax (句子如何组成合法句)2 how do people use language within a context --pragmatics3 what are words like? –morphology4what are speech sounds? What is their physical nature?—phonetics (孤立研究詞,句意義)5 how do sounds behave in languages? –phonology6 why does one set of words mean one thing and a similar set mean something very different?—semeics 語義學,特定語境下的意義7 when do two different sentences mean the same thing? How can one sentence mean more than one thing? --pragmatics 語境(同距在不同地方有不同意義)8 How similar are the process of listening and reading ?—Psycholinguistics (comprehension production , mental process through 語言習得acquisition)9 What are the major feature of the English language as it is used by women native speakers?—sociolinguistics10 How do we decide what is a dialect or accent and what is a language?—sociolinguistics11 (comprehension)What mechanisms operate during speech production to ensure that all the words come out in the right order and with the right intonation? –Psycholinguistics12 How do speakers signal their identity in the language they use, and why do people who live in specific communities sometimes speak in a similar way?—sociolinguistics13 How to teach a foreign language?—applied linguistics14 To what extent do children vary in their language acquisition and usage? And why?—Psycholinguistics15 Examine the text of a play for evidence of implicit messages, and consider what the playwright is deliberately conveying about the attitudes and personality of the characters?—applied linguistics把語言學運用到文學研究/statistics大题考下面三个. Key wordsContext 語境Speech act theory first, second language acquisition。
大学英语专业语言学重点概念复习
术语解释：Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific and systematic study of language.Design features（甑别性特征）: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationArbitrariness(任意性): It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and soundsProductivity /creativity (创造性）: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Recursiveness(递归性）: according to some linguistic theories , the capacity that enables the grammar of a language to produce an infinite number of sentences.Cultural transmission（文化传递性）：It refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.Interchangeability(可交替性）：means that any human being can be both a producer and receiver of messages.Displacement（移位性）: Displacement means that human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space) at the moment of communication.Duality（二元性）: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.Informative(信息功能）: The use of language to record facts to state what things are like, and to exchange information.Interpersonal Function(人际功能）: It is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.Performative(行为功能）:Language can be used to do things, to change the social status or the immediate state of affairs of people.Emotive Function(情感功能）：Language can be used to express the emotional state of the speaker.Phatic Communion(交流功能）:This function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.Ritual exchange: exchange that have little meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.Recreational Function(娱乐功能）: the use of language to have fun.Metalingual Function(元语言功能）：language can be used to explain or describe itself or other languages.研究语言学坚持的原则：Exhaustiveness穷尽性Consistency一致性Economy 经济性Objectivity客观性Phonetics（语言学）: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. / the characteristics of speech sounds and provide methods for their description, classification, transcriptionPhonology(音韵学): The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology（形态学）: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.Syntax（句法）: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. / the rule governing the combination of words into sentencesSemantics（语义学）: It studies how meaning is encoded in a language. / The study of meaning in language is called semantics.Pragmatics(语用学): The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. Macrolinguistics(宏观语言学）: the interdisciplinary study of language.Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.Anthropological Linguistics(人类语言学）: It mainly concerned with the change of language, the different between language in the past and in the present, and its evolution.Computational Linguistics(计算机语言学）: an interdisciplinary branch of study in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied often with the aid of a computer.Applied linguistics（应用语言学）: Finding in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学）：It studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Descriptive(描述的）:If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use.Prescriptive(规定的）：It aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language.Competence（能力）: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal speaker's knowledge of the underlying system of rules in a language,Performance(表现）: refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker in a real communicational context.Synchronic(共时性）：study of language takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. It refers to the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic(历时性）：study examines language through the course of time. It studies the development or history of language.In other words, it refers to the description of a language as it changes through time.langue（语言）: refers to the speaker's understanding and knowledge of the language that he speaks.It's a social phenomenon,an abstraction shared by all the members within a speech community.Parole（言语）: Parole refers to the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker. It's an individual linguistic phenomenon .Differences: Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language use rs all have to follow; Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is relatively stable, while Parole varies fro m person to person, from situation to situation. Langue is abstract; Parole is concrete.第二章Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）: is the study of the production of speech sounds.Acoustic phonetics（听觉发音学）: is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.Auditory/Perceptual phonetics（感知语音学）: is concerned with the perception of …Speech Organs（发音器官）: Organs in human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds.International phonetic alphabet（国际音标）: It is a standardized and internation ally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Consonants(辅音):The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the airstream at some point of the vocal tract.Vowels(元音）:sounds in the production of which no two articulators come very close together and no airstream is obstructed at any point of vocal tractVowel glides/ Diphthongs(双元音）: It's produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.It's has an audible change of quality.Coarticulation(协同发音）：when such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.Complementary distribution(互补分布）：when two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.Free variation(自由变体）;when the substitution of one sound for the other does not produce a new word.Phoneme(音素）: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. / minimal linguistic unit of sound that can distinguish.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonetic similarity(语音相似性）：means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.Intonation（声调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.phone （音子）: Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.phonemic contrast（音位对立）: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.Tone（语气）: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.minimal pair（最小音差）: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.。
(最新版)新编英语语言学复习知识点整理
第一单元What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology 形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics 应用语言学Phonetics语音学：the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics Phonology音系学:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.Morphology形态学:the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.Syntax句法学:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistics studies Semantics语义学:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semanticsPragmatics语用学:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistics社会语言学:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics心理语言学: Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology\Applied linguistics应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsOther related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematical linguistics,and computational linguistics.Some important distinctions in linguistics。
《英语语言学》复习重点
《英语语⾔学》复习重点《英语语⾔学》复习重点Chapter I Invitation to linguistics1. What is language and linguistics?●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barestdefinition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.●Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2. What are the design features of language? The definition of these design features: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, and displacement●Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..●Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningLanguage is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words●Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.●Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood bypeople who have never come across that usage before.●Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语⾔功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function ⼈际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语⾔功能4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)langue & parole;Langue: (说话者的语⾔能⼒.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole: (语⾔的实际现象或语料.) the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(⼀个语⾔使⽤者关于语⾔系统规则的基本理解.)a language user’s underlyin g knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语⾔的真实使⽤.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?①Saussure's language is social product, a set of conversations for a speech community.②Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.③Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics4. Basic information about the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5. Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio7. English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元⾳Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元⾳8. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description1. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4. lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).Phonology9. definition:1) Co-articulation: Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2) broad /narrow transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription; The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)4) Phoneme: a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)5)allophone phonic: variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneMinimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc7)Suprasegmental features: features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress（重⾳），length （⾳程）, rhythm（节奏），tone（⾳调），intonation（语调）juncture（⾳渡）．8) syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone..Phone（⾳素): the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)i) phonetic unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ].Phoneme （⾳位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /..allophone (⾳位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:p ot, s p ot, cu p: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p? ] (unreleased)11. What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in languageChapter 3 Morphology12. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word. Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:★(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)★(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)★(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(封闭词/开放词)★(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article..the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)14. definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2) Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.3) Affix: is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme (root or stem) to form word. It can’t be used freely in sentence.prefix: change meaning eg: dis-; un-; mis-suffix: change part of speech eg: -ly; -ness; -tioninfix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as tense, number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5) word-formation①Compound: referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word. ②Derivation: the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15. examples of Lexical change proper★(1) Invention 新造词Nylon★(2) Blending 混合词smoke + fog→ smog★(3) Abbreviation 缩合词TV → television★(4) Acronym ⾸字母缩略词NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)★(5) back-formation 逆构词editor edit★(6) analogical creation 类⽐造词p76★(7) Borrowing 借词、外来词Kong FuChapter 4 Syntax16. Definition:Syntax: is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as awhole, that is, ther e is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19. Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.20. Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics21. Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning: Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. English word“river” →“江”and“河”Connotative meaning: The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience Social meaning:What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Affective meaning: --Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Reflected and meaning:--Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.Collocative meaning: --The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. Thematic meaning:--What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.23. Use some examples to explain three sense relations:Synonymy; Antonymy; HyponymySynonymy 同义buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/undergroundGradable antonymy 渐次对⽴关系good ------------- bad long --------------- short big ---------------- smallComplementary antonymy 互补反义关系alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : failboy : girlhit : missConverse antonymy 逆向反义关系buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employeeHyponymy 上下义Superordinate （上义词）: the more general termHyponym （下义词）: the more specific termCo-hyponyms （同义词）: members of the same class24. Componential relations （成分分析）“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components 25. Sense relations between sentences 1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不⼀致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction ⾃相⽭盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常26. Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be expressed by moreThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus. Chapter 6 Psychology and cognitive lingusitics27. What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从⼀个语域到另⼀个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（⽬标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of charact er of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从⼀个语域到另⼀个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（⽬标域）, within the same domain.Chapter 7 Language, culture and society28. the relationship between language and thought?29. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages mayprobably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structuraldifferentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.30. What is the importance of culture in classroom teaching?Standard language.Chapter 8 Pragmatics31. Speech act theory32.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilationof its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.A: 昨天上街买了些什么?> I don’t want to tell you what I bought.2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. (violation of quantity)Aunt: How did Jimmy do his history exam?Mother: Oh, not at all well. Teachers asked him things that happened before the poor boy was born.> Her son should not be blamed.1. Do not say what you believe to be false. (violation of quality)He is made of iron.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.A: Beirut is in Peru, isn’t it?B: And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.> It’s ridiculous.Be relevant. (violation of relation)A: Prof. Wang is an old bag.B: Nice weather for the time of year.> I don’t want to tal k about Prof. Wang.1. Avoid obscurity of expression (violation of manner)A: Let’s get the kids something.B: Ok, but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.> Don’t give them chocolate.2. Avoid ambiguityA: Name and title, please?B: John Smith, Associate Editor and professor.3. Be briefA: Did you get my assignment?B: I received two pages clipped together and covered with rows of black squiggles.> not satisfied.33.What are the main differences between pragmatics and semantics?Semantics and pragmatics are both lingustic studies of meaning. The essential difference lies in whether in thestudy of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is,the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics.Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the system.The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The formar regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; the latter analyses utternaces in close connnection with their contexts of situation.Chapter 9 Language and literature34.What is ‘foregrounding’?In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech aktualisace (actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.The English term ‘foregrounding’has come to mean several things at once:-the (psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence; -specific devices (asproduced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;-an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.35.Literal language and figurative language-A language is called literal when what is meant to be conveyed is same as what the word to word meaning of what is said. In contrast the figurative language, the words are used to imply meaning which is other than their strict dictionary meaning.-Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. These alterations result in figures of speech.Chapter 11 Linguistics & Language Teaching36. As to learning English well, what do you think is the most desirable syllabus for English majors?37. Definition: Applied linguistics; Universal Grammar; syllabus; interlanguage; contrastive analysis.the Input HypothesisApplied linguistics:the study of the relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching, of theways of applying linguistic theories to the practice of foreign language teaching.Universal Grammar:is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that allpossible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggeststhat some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without beingtaught. There is still much argument whether there is such a thing and what it would be.Syllabus:a syllabus is a specification of what take place in the classroom,which usually containsthe aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.Interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who arestill in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.contrastive analysis:A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purposeof isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy tolearn and what will be difficult.Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism.the Input Hypothesis:according to krashen's input hypothessis,learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.Chapter 12 Theories & schools of modern linguistics38.Transformational-Generative GrammarThe five stages of development of TG Grammar:1) The classical theory (1957)2) The standard theory (1965)3) Extended standard theory4) GB/PP theory (1981)5) The Minimalist ProgramCHOMSKY’S TG GRAMMAR DIFFERS FROM THE STRUCTURAL GRAMMARIN A NUMBER OF WAYS1 rationalism 2innateness 3 deductive methodology4 emphasis on interpretation 5formalization 6.emphasis on linguistic competence7.strong generative powers 8.emphasis on linguistic universals。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性: One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2.Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Minimal pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课1.Morphology形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammarwhich studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1.Syntax语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.Syntactic categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.3.Deep structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D- structure.4.Surface structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties. It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language. 2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules forpeople to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2) Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be moreinterested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and th e i r f i n d d i f f e r e n c e s . / p > p > P h o n o l o g y d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o u n d s y s t e m s o f p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e s a n d h o w s o u n d s f u n c t i o n t o d i s t i n g u i s h m e a n i ng . / p > p > A p h o n e t i c i a n w o u l d b e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s c o s s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l n o t c o s d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n i n g . / p > p > 2 . W h a t i s p h o n e ? H o w i s i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m a p h o n e m e ? h o w a r e a l l o p h o n e s r e l a t e d t o a p h o n e m e ? / p > p > P h o n e i s a p h o n e t i c u n i t , i t h a s n o m e a n i n g . / p > p > P h o n e m e i s a p h o n o l o g i c a l u n i t w i t h d i s t i n c t i v e v a l u e . / p > p > T h e p h o n e m e / l / c a n b e r e a l i z e d a s d a r k / l - / a n d c l e a r / l / , w h i c h a r e a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e p h o n e m e / l / / p > p > A l l o p h o n e s - - - a c t u a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f a p h o n e m e i n d i f f e r e n t p h o n e t i c c o n t e x t s . / p >。
英语专业语言学复习资料.doc
1Arbitrariness: Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the f act that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, f or the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, inCh inese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese.2Duality:To human language, the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters) combine to f orm meaningf ul units (words) at anotherlevel.3A descriptive linguisticsattempts to tell what is in the language, it attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used. While the prescriptive linguistics tells people what should be in the language and tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.4Immediate constituent analysis: The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis. IC analysis is a hierarchical analysis showing the dif ferent constituents at dif ferent structural levels based on the distribution of linguistic f orms. The best way to show IC structure is to use a tree diagram. The f irst divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents(ICs), and the f inal cuts as the ultimate constituents(UCs).5Assimilation:Sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables. As the f ollowing sounds bring about the change, this process is called regressive assimilation.e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when f ollowed by a [+nasal] consonant.6Phonetics: The study of linguistic speech sounds that occur in all human languages , how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties, is called phonetics. The task of phonetics is to identif y what are speech sounds in a language, and then to study their characteristics. It includes three main areas: articul atory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.7 Phonology: It is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language. 8 Allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language.9Recursiveness：It refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any def inite limit. The rules introducing prepositional phrases also introduce the important concept of recursion.10 Stress: The prominence given to certain sounds in speech. When a word has more than one syllables, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of stress. When a word belongs to dif ferent word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on diff erent syllables. When all the words above are stressed on thefirst syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verb s. Stress may also have af unction at the sentence level. In this case, the phonetic f orm of word stress may be show which part of sentence is in f ocus.11Morphology: is thus the study of the internal structure, f orms and classes of words, intended structure relevant rule f or word f ormation.12Allomorph: An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme. Allophones are in complementary distribution, allomorphs are also in complementary distribution, that is to say, they cannot occur in the same environment. e.g. -s, -es, and -en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.13Derivation: the f ormation of new words by adding aff ixes to other words or morphemes in morphology and word f ormation.14Acronym: words which are composed of the first letter of a series of words and are pronounced as single words. Exmples: NATO, radar and yuppy.15blending: A single new word can be f ormed by combining two separate f orms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example, brunch is f ormed by the shortened f orms of breakfast and lunch.16Compounding:is the f ormation of new words by joining two or more stems. We have three types of compounds: 1, noun compounds:noun+noun: armchair, rainbow; 2, verb compounds: verb+verb: to sleep-walk; 3, adjective compounds: verb+adjectives: stir-crazy17Root: Some morphemes like car, talk, f riend and tour can stand alone as words. Such morphemes are called f ree morphem es. A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. remains when all aff ixes are stripped from a complex word, e.g. system f rom un- + system + atic + ally. 18Minimal pairs and sets: The phonologist is concerned with what differences are signif icant, or technically speaking, distinctive. A distinctive diff erence is one that brings about the change of meaning. In order to determine which are distinctive sounds, the customary practice is to set up minimal pairs-pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.19Stem: A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an aff ix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, dif ferent from, a root. For example, in the w ord “f riends” , “f riend” is both the root and the stem, but in the word “f riendships”, “f riendships” is its stem, “f riend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e.g., “mailman” , “girlf riend” ,ect.20Suffix: Af f ixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suff ixes.An “affix” is the collective term f or the type of f ormative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Aff ixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classif i ed into three subtypes: pref ix, suff ix and inf ix, e. g. , “mini-”, “un-”, ect.(pref ix); “-ise”, “-tion”, ect.(suff ix).21Syntax: the term used to ref er to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.22IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents byusing binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents. 23Semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.24Sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, to gether with the context, determines its ref erent. 25Reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and \ the things, actions, events and qualities they stand f or. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree” (ref erent) in the real world.26Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning; thematic meaning ; connotative meaning; social meaning; affective meaning；ref l ective meaning; collocative meaning;后5种称associ ative meaning27Lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes f or “male” and“f emale” cousin.28Pragmati cs: can be def ined as the study of languages in use. It deals with how speakers use languages in ways which cannot be predicted f rom linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. In a broad sense, pragmatics studies the principles observed by human beings when communicate with each other. We can roughly say that pragmatics takes care of meaning that is not covered by semantics. So people use the f ormula as itsdef inition:PRAGMATICS=MEANING-SEMANTICS. 29Anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.30Cohesion: the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elem ents of a text. This may be the relationship between di ff erent sentences or different parts of a sentence.31Coherence: the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.32Prototype: what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category, e.g. f or some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegetable. 33 Prototype theory: a theory of human categorization that was posited by Eleanor Rosch. Following this theory, natural categories are organized according to prototypes which are considered as the most typical or representative of the category. A robin or sparrow is regarded as a prototype of the category of “bird”. People decide whether an entity belongs to a category by comparing that entity with a prototype.34iconicity: a feature of a language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the world, including the perspective imposed on the world by the speaker. Caesar’s historic words “Veni, vidi, vici (I ca me, I saw, I conquered)” is a good case to prove the iconicity of order(the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction). Iconicity of distance a ccounts f or the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance. This entails that conceptual distance corresponds to linguistic distance not merely physical distance. eg: a, I killed the chicken. b, I caused the chicken to die. Iconicity of complexity: The phenomenon that linguistic complexity ref lects conceptual complexity is usually called iconicity of complexity.35Reflective meaning: is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word f orms part of our response to another sense. Ref lective meaning is the product of people’s recognition and imagination.36Ambiguity: It refers to the phenomenon that an expression has more than one meaning. Two diff erent types of ambiguity can be distinguished on the basis of what is causing it: lexical ambiguity (more than one word meaning) and structural ambiguity (more than one synt actic structure) 37The diacritics: are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in theirpronunciation38Complementary distribution: [p.pH] are two different phones and are varivants of the phoneme /p/such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution, because they never occur in the same context. [p] occurred af ter [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.39syllable: A unit in speech which isof t en longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.41 the difference between derivational affix and inflectional affix (1)Inf lectional aff ixes very of t en add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. In contrast, derivational aff ixes of ten change the lexical meaning.E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2)Inf lectional aff ixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational aff ixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness f or the f ormer, and that between brother and brotherhood f or the latter. (3)In English, inf lectionalaff ixes are mostly suffixes, which are always wordf inal. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational aff ixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.定义：Derivational morphemes which are used to make new words in the language and are of ten used to make words of a di ff erent grammatical category from the stem Inflectional morphemes, which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical f unction of a word.。
英语语言学-语言学知识点
定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.
Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:
3. Design feature 定义特征
语言学知识点
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演讲人姓名
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I 语言学导论
II 语言学主要分支学科
III 语言学的流派和理论
design feature of language （语言的定义特征） Language Families (世界语言分类) important distinctions in linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范围)
Arbitrariness（任意性）
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Duality(二层性)
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Creativity/Productivity(创造性)
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Displacement（移位性）
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Cultural Transmission(文化传递性)
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1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 举例： 书, book, livre 喜欢，like，aimer
Duality（二层性）:
定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.
英语专业-语言学考点汇总
Chapter 1三、问答题1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s langu ages. Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Synta*-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics---the study of meaning in conte*t of words.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical e*ample to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’.3.what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为根底。
英语语言学概论复习题集
英语语言学概论复习题集一、选择题1. 语言学是研究什么的学科？A. 语言的发音B. 语言的结构C. 语言的社会功能D. 所有以上2. 下列哪项不是语言学的分支？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 词汇学D. 化学3. 英语中的“语言学”一词来源于哪个希腊词？A. LogosB. PhoneC. GlossaD. Syntax4. 英语的音素有多少个？A. 20个B. 44个C. 100个D. 取决于方言5. 英语中的“辅音”和“元音”有何区别？A. 辅音是浊音，元音是清音B. 辅音是清音，元音是浊音C. 辅音可以单独发音，元音不可以D. 辅音不可以单独发音，元音可以二、填空题6. 语言学的主要研究对象是_________。
7. 语言学的三大分支包括语音学、语法学和_________。
8. 英语中的音素数量因_________而异。
9. 英语中的“辅音”和“元音”的区别在于_________。
10. 英语语言学中，“语用学”研究的是语言的_________。
三、简答题11. 请简述语言学的定义及其研究范围。
12. 描述语音学和音系学的区别。
13. 举例说明英语中的音节结构。
14. 解释什么是形态学，并简述其研究内容。
15. 什么是社会语言学？它研究哪些方面？四、论述题16. 论述英语语言学中“语义学”的重要性及其研究内容。
17. 描述英语中的词类系统，并解释它们各自的功能。
18. 论述英语语法的复杂性及其对学习者的影响。
19. 讨论英语作为国际语言对全球语言生态的影响。
20. 分析英语中的双关语现象及其在语言使用中的作用。
五、案例分析题21. 阅读以下对话，并分析其中的语用学现象。
- A: Can you pass the salt?- B: Sure, here you go.22. 观察以下句子，并讨论其语法结构：- The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.23. 分析以下广告语中的修辞手法：- Just do it.24. 考虑以下情景，讨论社会语言学在其中的应用：- 在一个多语言社区中，不同语言群体如何交流？25. 研究以下英语习语，并解释其在不同文化背景下的含义：- Break the ice.六、综合应用题26. 设计一个英语语言学的课程大纲，包括至少五个主要模块及其子主题。
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料英语语言学复习资料英语语言学是英语语言文学专业培养计划中的一门基础必修课，其重要性不言而喻。
以下是店铺帮大家整理的英语语言学复习资料，欢迎大家分享。
一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶D ualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的'体现。
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I. Multiple Choice1. The study of language as a whole is often called _____ linguistics.A. particularB. generalC. ordinaryD. generative2. A _____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle3. 3. The low, back and tense, unrounded vowel is ____.A. [ ɑ:]B. [ɔ:]C. [ə: ]D. [u:]4. ____ are sometimes called “semivowels”.A. vowelsB. fricativeC. glidesD. nasals5. _____ is a typical tone language.A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. American English6. Human beings are the only species that learns and acquires language ____ explicit instruction.A. withB. withoutC. withinD. through7. According to F. de Saussure, _____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. language8. Acoustic phonetics try to describe the _____ properties of the stream of sounds which a speakers issues.A. oralB. mentalC. physicalD. recorded9. _____ is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.A. PhonologyB. phoneticsC. MorphologyD. Phonemics10. _____ transcription is the use of more specific symbols to sow more phonetic details.A. BroadB. DetailedC. WideD. Narrow11. The word “motel” is formed via word formation rule of _____.A. clippingB. blendingC. acronymD. coinage12. If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e., to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be ______.A. productiveB. arbitraryC. prescriptiveD. creative13. _____ is a kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.A. AbbreviationB. AcronymC. ClippingD. Blending14. Since the phonetic contrast between /k/ in the word “kill” and /k/ in the word “coal” is not a distinctive one, the two /k/-s are only ____.A. phonemesB. phonesC. segmentsD. allophones15. When /p/ and /b/ occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in _____.A. minimal pairB. minimal setC. phonemic contrastD. complementary distribution16. ____ at the end of stems can modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.A. RootsB. PrefixesC. SuffixesD. Free morphemes17. As /k/ in the word “came” and /g/ in the word “game” are said to form a distinctive opposition in English, they are _____.A. soundsB. phonemesC. allophonesD. varieties18. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are _____ sounds.A. consonantalB. voicedC. vowelD. voiceless19. _____ are added to an existing form to create a word, which is a very common way to create new words in English.A. Inflectional affixesB. Free morphemesC. Derivational affixesD. Stems20. _____ studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication.A. PhonologyB. MorphologyC. LexicologyD. Phonetics21. A compound word consists of ______.A. two wordsB. two morphemesC. two root morphemesD. two or more morphemes22. “alive” and “dead” are _____ .A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above23.The meaning carried by inflectional morphemes is _____.A. lexicalB. grammaticalC. morphemicD. semanticII. Fill in each blank with ONE word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue.1.The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called p___________.2.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are calleds_______________ features.3.C_______________ is a process of combining two or more words into a new word.4.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to bed________________.5.F________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.6.B___________ is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.7.C______________ distribution means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occurin different phonetic environment.8.Affixes like “im-”, “il-”, “un-”, “-tion”, are called d___________ affixes.9.P________ occur at the beginning of a word and suffixes at the end.10.Linguistics is generally defined as the s____________ study of language.11.D______________ means that language can be used to refer to things present or not present,real or imagined in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places.12.I____________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas number, degree and case.13.The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b__________.14.M______________ is branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words andthe rules by which words are formed.15.S____________ can be define as the study of meaning.III. Judge if each of the following is true or false:1.The root of a word is the smallest meaningful unit of language.2.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: wordstress and sentence stress.3.An acronym is a shorthand form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.4.Suffixes, in contrast with prefixes, are added to the end of stems.5.It is the property of arbitrariness that provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about awide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.7.The location of one of the suprasegmental features in English ---- stress does not distinguishmeaning.nguages vary in the order of the subject, the verb and the object.9.Words are the smallest unit of language that can not be broken down into even smallercomponents.10.Blending is process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.IV. Explain the following terms briefly:2. Duality: one design feature of human language which refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such as units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Displacement: one design feature of human language which means human language enables their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.4. Creativity: one design feature of human language by which we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.6. Langue: According to Saussure, refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.V. Questions:1. What are the major functions of language according to Holliday?Language functions include informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic function, recreational function and metalingual function.4. How are pure vowels classified?There are four ways to classify simple vowels: (1) According to the height of the tongue raising: high, middle, low. (2) According to the position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, back. (3) According to the shape of the lips (the degree of lip-rounding): rounded, unrounded. (4) According to the length or tenseness of the vowel: long v.s short or tense v.s lax.。