外国文献翻译
USING OF EXTENSIBLE FRAMEWORK FORDISTRIBUTED CONTROL DESIGNJiri KoziorekAbstract:The contribution brings results of a general framework extension developmentwith final aim to obtain a CASE-like tool for distributed control systems design. Thetool should be suitable for the systems with programmable controllers and should bebased on the international standards IEC 61131 and IEC 61499. The generalframework was developed at Department of Measurement and Control, VSB-TU Ostrava. The described system allows covering of main steps of design process fromsystem analysis to implementation of control application.Keywords:Distributed control, Control system design, Programmable controllers, CASE,Control system analysis.1、INTRODUCTIONA lot of the methods that are used in hardware and software engineering have common some general features. They often use graphic representation of described system, graphic diagrams with individual nodes connected by oriented (or not oriented) edges. The edges represent relations between two nodes of the system. The diagrams represent general mathematical structures - graphs that can be investigate using some techniques of graph theory.The graph theory uses particular methods to express the diagram/graph structure and solution of various tasks defined over graph. Because diagrams describing particular HW or SW aspects of a system have also particular semantic interpretation, the interpretation can be given also to the results acquired by the applied graph theoretical method.When we have a general kernel that covers universal features of the graphs, the particular tools can be created by the specialization of common general kernel - general framework kernel.This idea was fundamental for creating common development base that can be extendable by particular extensions. Such common base (framework) was developed at Department of Measurement and Control, VSB-TU of Ostrava, Czech Republic during years2000 - 2003(Cernohorsky and Hrudka, 2003). As the software environment for its realization was chosen system the Black Box Component Builder (BBCB). BBCB has character of a framework itself and its power consists in the ability to provide a basis for development of more specialised frameworks by s elf-extending.In year 2003 was realized first extension of general framework kernel (Hrudka, 2004). The extension implement CODARTS notation to the framework. CODARTS (Concurrent Design Approach for Real- Time Systems) is based on DARTS (Design Approach for Real-Time Systems) method of software design, which uses RTSAD (Real-Time Structured Analysis and Design). A software system is decomposed by using data and control flow hierarchy. CODARTS uses this methodology and appends facilities for object approach during the system analysis and modelling phase. CODARTS also supports the development of distributed systems.The second, currently realized extension is the methodology for design of distributed control system with programmable controllers. The extension conforms to international standards with scope to PLC systems and should cover system design from stage of system analysis to implementation of control application. In following text, more details will be described.The methodology should have following basic characteristics:-to cover all stages of distributed control applications design-to be suitable for control applications based on programmable controllers-the international standards IEC 61131 and 61499 are basis for used models-the principle of methodology is based on structured analysis and design approach。
2、TYPES OF DESIGN METHODSThere is a lot of methods for analysis and design of the real-time systems. An aim of using the design method is finding an optimal hardware and software architecture of the system and eventually partial or full implementation of the application code. Generally, there are two main approaches to system design:-Structured analysis and design - a substance of the method is the design of a model where are depicted individual processes and their interconnections by data and control flows. The model is then a basis for implementation of application software.-Object-oriented design - defines a structure of objects that reflects characteristics andperformance of individual elements of a real system.At the present, the graphic methods realized at computers are frequently used. Such tools are called as CASE tools (Computer Assisted Software Engineering). They provide a graphic interface for making system analysis and design.The methods based on object-oriented design are recently very popular. The most famous representative is UML (Unified Modelling Language). The UML is complex design methodology characterized especially by consistence of views that make the design easier in all stages of the application life-cycle. The UML methodology is a basis of several CASE tools as for example Rational Rose of Rational Software Corporation or Rhapsody of I-Logix Company.The UML methodology and CASE applications that use it are suitable for design of the software in object oriented programming languages (as C++, JAVA etc.). The result of design is generated base of software application code. In the area of industrial control systems, programming languages enabling object oriented approach can be found very rarely.The most popular control device today is programmable controller (PLC) which is used in majority of applications. The basic source, that defines programming languages for PLCs, is the international standard IEC 61131-3. There is not any object-oriented programming language at this standard. The basic element of its languages is not the object but a function block. Some PLC producers enable to program their PLCs in C language (for example B&R) or in others higher programming languages - but usually without object-oriented programming (OOP) support.So, it is not reason to suppose that using of CASE tools based on OOP will be possible for design of industrial control applications in near future.For such group of systems, the structured design is advantageous. In the near past, many design methodologies for structured design were developed but only some of them were realized as CASE tools. As an example can be mentioned a methodology for real-time applications software architecture design - DARTS (Design Approach for Real-Time Systems). It covers all steps of developed software life-cycle and contains criterias for optimal decomposition during design of real-time systems architecture. Despite of existence potentiallysuitable design methods for control applications with programmable controllers, their using in practice in engineering companies is minimal.The question is - Why? The design methods should ease the system analysis and the control software design and should make application development faster and more transparent. So this fact should mean their frequent usage.The main problem is apparently caused by problematic link between CASE tool and concrete programming language. Another important fact is that absolute majority of PLC producers don’t provide the engineering tools based on such design methods for their products. For example Siemens Company, important world producer of the PLCs, gives in its technical documentation (Siemens, 2004) some recommendations for approach to design of control applications (similar to structured design), but engineering tools for Siemens PLCs don’t reflect them sufficiently. Similar situation is in engineering tools of others companies. Using stand-alone CASE tool in this situation can also increase level of transparency, reduce number of faults in developed application but means likewise more time and additional activities needed for the design.The solution of described situation is existence of such development tool that covers application development from system analysis to software implementation for concrete control system. The basis for this tool can be any of existing structured design method. But it must be extended with specific set of abstractions for particular control system. Such extension of the general design tool should be based on widely accepted international standards and should follow future progress of control systems.There are two international standards that are commonly supported by PLC producers and that provide recommendations for programming languages, communications, a design of distributed applications and other basic problems:IEC 61131 - ”Programmable controllers“-fundamental standard for programmable controllers, especially parts 3 (programming languages) a 5 (Communications).IEC 61499 - ” Function blocks for industrial- process measurement and control systems“ - Standard describes programming of distributed applications and using function blocks as elementary components of distributed applications.3、INTERNATIONAL STANDARDSAs mentioned above, there are two important international standards concerning programmable controllers at the present - IEC 61131 and IEC 61499. The first is basic standard for PLCs, widely supported by industrial producers. The recommendations of standard are commonly accepted and they are implemented to majority of programming tools for PLCs. Part 3 (and also part 5) is applied most often.The second, in the other hand, is the new standard defining function blocks as the basic elements of distributed control applications. Its recommendations aren’t commonly implemented in engineering tools of main PLC producers today and the standard can be taken as a definition of future development.IEC 61131 Stαndαrd - Progrαmmαble controllersThe standard was published during years 1992 and 1998. It contains eight parts that cover various problems of PLC systems. Following list present the parts of the standard (Lewis, 1998):1- General information - Definition of basic terminology and conception.2- Equipment requirements and test - Electronic and mechanical construction, verification tests3- Programmable languages - Structure of PLC software, languages and program processing.4- User guidelines - Guidance on selection,installation and maintenance of PLCs.5- Messaging service specification - Software components for communication between devices based on MAP ( Manufacturing Messaging Services ).6- Communication via fieldbuses - Software components for communication using IEC fieldbuses.7- Fuzzy control programming - Software components including standard function blocks for using fuzzy logic in programmable controllers.8- Guidelines for implementation of languages for programmable controllers - Application and implementation rules for IEC 61131-3 languages.For the purpose of creation the framework extension, the most important part is part no.3, 5 eventually 6.Pαrt no. 3. This part defines a set of programming languages (5 languages) for PLCs and describescommon rules for program structure, notation, data types etc (IEC 61131-3, 1996). Defined languages do not support object-oriented programming despite of fact that one of them is high level programming language (ST - Structured Text). Standard defines the function block as basic element of the application. At the Figure 1 is described IEC 61131-3 software model.Fig. 1. IEC software model.Pαrt no. 5. This part concerns purely communications. It deals with features that enable PLC connected to communication network to exchange information and to initialize various actions. Part no. 5 deals with all aspect of external communication of PLCs.IEC 61499 Stαndαrd - Function blocks for industriαl process meαsurement αnd control systemsThe standard evolves an important idea defined in IEC 61131-3; the idea that function blocks are basic elements of local control application in PLC. IEC 61499 tells that the functions blocks are also basic elements of distributed control applications. The standard describes how the function blocks should looks like how to use them in distributed applications how toPristupove cestyTask Task Task Tas kGlobaln岳a primo reprezentovane prom岳nneKomunikacni funkcedefinovane IEC 61131-5establish connection between them etc (IEC 61499, 2002; Lewis, 2001).At the end of year 2003, the standard had four parts and works on it still continue:1- Architectures - defines scope of the standard,basic terminology and describes types of models that are useful for distributed control application design.2- Software Tools Requirements - contains specification of resources and devices types.3- Application Guidelines - brings examples for implementation of software tools for tasks defined in previous parts.4- Rules for Compliance Profiles - defines rules for compatibility profiles.4、DESCRIPTION OF IMPLEMENTED METHODOLOGYDuring the design of a distributed control application, an engineer must perform two main stages:-Stage of functional design - an engineer analyses a physical structure of a controlled system and describes demands of highest level. This can be realized by set of blocks that represent main software components. At this level of design, physical placing of software block is not mentioned.-Distribution of function stage - in distribution system design is necessary the distribution of functionality to process resources. IEC 61499 provides concepts and models for realizing this stage. Result of this stage is a network of function blocks that are allocated to process resources.In following text are described models that are parts of developed framework extension.The implemented methodology covers all steps of distributed control system design by following models:-Function model - the aim of the model is to understand the system that should be controlled, describe its structure, decompose it to sub- systems or processes that can be then represented by software components.-System model - the system model describes physical structure of a distributed control system. It defines relations between communicating devices and applications, defines way of communication between devices and its characteristics, and describesdistribution of applications between individual devices interconnected by communicationnetwork.-Device model - the model depicts which resources and hardware components are available in device and which applications use them, defines hardware configuration of the device and describes connected I/O signals.-Resource model - the resource model describes which applications (or application parts) are processed by the resource. In the case of an application distributed to several resources, the resource model defines the ways of their communications. The way of communication is dependent to used communication connection but in fact, possibilities described in IEC 61131-5 can be chosen.-Application model - the application model describes structure of applications, interconnections between sub-applications, between function blocks. When the function blocks are defined as basic elements of control applications, then the realization of application model is practically equal to creation of application.5、A PILOT ANALYSIS AND DESIGNThe following pilot analysis and design was realized to demonstrate the above mentioned methodology. It presents all described models.A coke-oven plant was chosen as a technological system for which the distributed control system should be designed. The coke-oven plant is complex system with number ofsub-systems that interact more or less between each other. The dimension of this technological system and its segmentation tosub-systems are the reasons, why the coke-oven plant is optimal for control by distributed control system. During realization of pilot application, practical experiences with such type of technological plant were used because the author took part in realization of centralized control system of the coke-oven plant in Ostrava, Czech Republic (Koziorek, 1999).Function designThe goal of function design is a description of coke- oven plant structure and functions. The result of this stage is relatively complicated set of models -graphs. Each graph describes the system from highest level, through description of concrete parts of the system, to functional description of particular subsystems at the lowest level.The coke-oven plant was divided to four parts:-Co ke battery - main part of the plant, contains following subsystems -cokery gasdistribution, mining gas distribution, raw cokery gas distribution) and exhaustion.-Changing device - a part that contains only one,relatively independent sub-system.-Mix station - a part containing three sub-systems - MxG ratio, MG pressure, calorific value.-Others subsystems - additional subsystems, that supports systems operation - hydro-injection,water distribution, pumps.6、CONCLUSIONSThe contribution brings results of general frameworks extension development. It describes the structured design methodology that covers all steps of design process. The contribution contains also the pilot application of concrete technological system analysis and design. The design using presented methodology is very fluent and transparent which has positive influence at quality of distributed control applications.译文可扩展框架在分布式控制设计中的应用Jiri Koziorek摘要：分布式控制系统设计的贡献带来的结果，最终目的是获得一个类似的工具来分布式控制系统设计的总体框架扩展开发。
外文参考文献翻译-中文
外⽂参考⽂献翻译-中⽂基于4G LTE技术的⾼速铁路移动通信系统KS Solanki教授，Kratika ChouhanUjjain⼯程学院，印度Madhya Pradesh的Ujjain摘要：随着时间发展，⾼速铁路（HSR）要求可靠的，安全的列车运⾏和乘客通信。
为了实现这个⽬标，HSR的系统需要更⾼的带宽和更短的响应时间，⽽且HSR的旧技术需要进⾏发展，开发新技术，改进现有的架构和控制成本。
为了满⾜这⼀要求，HSR采⽤了GSM的演进GSM-R技术，但它并不能满⾜客户的需求。
因此采⽤了新技术LTE-R，它提供了更⾼的带宽，并且在⾼速下提供了更⾼的客户满意度。
本⽂介绍了LTE-R，给出GSM-R与LTE-R之间的⽐较结果，并描述了在⾼速下哪种铁路移动通信系统更好。
关键词：⾼速铁路，LTE，GSM，通信和信令系统⼀介绍⾼速铁路需要提⾼对移动通信系统的要求。
随着这种改进，其⽹络架构和硬件设备必须适应⾼达500公⾥/⼩时的列车速度。
HSR还需要快速切换功能。
因此，为了解决这些问题，HSR 需要⼀种名为LTE-R的新技术，基于LTE-R的HSR提供⾼数据传输速率，更⾼带宽和低延迟。
LTE-R能够处理⽇益增长的业务量，确保乘客安全并提供实时多媒体信息。
随着列车速度的不断提⾼，可靠的宽带通信系统对于⾼铁移动通信⾄关重要。
HSR的应⽤服务质量（QOS）测量，包括如数据速率，误码率（BER）和传输延迟。
为了实现HSR的运营需求，需要⼀个能够与 LTE保持⼀致的能⼒的新系统，提供新的业务，但仍能够与GSM-R长时间共存。
HSR系统选择合适的⽆线通信系统时，需要考虑性能，服务，属性，频段和⼯业⽀持等问题。
4G LTE系统与第三代（3G）系统相⽐，它具有简单的扁平架构，⾼数据速率和低延迟。
在LTE的性能和成熟度⽔平上，LTE- railway（LTE-R）将可能成为下⼀代HSR通信系统。
⼆ LTE-R系统描述考虑LTE-R的频率和频谱使⽤，对为⾼速铁路（HSR）通信提供更⾼效的数据传输⾮常重要。
收藏知乎网友总结的23种英文文献翻译软件,助力文献阅读
01搜狗翻译搜狗翻译的文档翻译功能有三个优点：第一，可以直接上传文档，流程操作简单化，这才是一键翻译哇，我之前只能说是很多键……；第二，在线阅读翻译结果时，系统可实时提供原文与译文的双屏对照，方便对比查看；第三，译文可直接免费下载，方便进一步研读或分享。
02Google Chrome浏览器假设一个情景，你想在PubMed上找到以清华大学为第一单位的施一公教授的文章，那么，可以在Chrome浏览器上，登上PubMed，搜索格式为Yigong Shi Tsinghua University，即可找到其发表的文章。
接着，看上一篇蛮不错的，点击进去看看，然后，还是全英文。
这时候，你可以试下Chrome自带的网页翻译，真的可以秒翻译，将英文翻译为中文，而且还可以快速转换中/英界面。
03Adobe Acrobat笔者在这里给大伙介绍另一款秒翻译PDF文档的神器（笔者使用的Adobe Acrobat Pro DC，至于具体的下载和安装方式，读者可自行百度）。
但是，需要注意一点，这是Adobe Acrobat，而不是Adobe Reader。
在这里，请应许笔者介绍下开发出Adobe Acrobat的公司——Adobe。
Adobe，在软件界绝对是巨头中巨头的存在。
打个比方，我们常用的PS、PR、AE、In、LR等，无一例外都是领域中的顶尖水平，而且都是Adobe家的。
其中，Adobe家中就有一款几位出色的PDF编辑及处理软件——Adobe Acrobat。
（据说PDF作为国际通用的文件存储格式，也是依它而起）OK，进入主题，Adobe Acrobat是长这个样子的。
它可能干嘛呢？PDF 转word、图片合拼为PDF、编辑PDF等等，可以说，与PDF相关的，它都可以搞定。
那如何使用它来帮助我们翻译文献PDF呢？第一步，用它打开文献PDF文件；第二步，点击使用界面上的“文件”，接着点击“另存为”，选择存储格式为“HTML”，如下图；第三步，PDF文档在导出完成后，会得到两个文件，一是将PDF转为HTML格式的网页文件，另一个则是支持网页文件里面的图片（若删，网页里面的图片显示不出来）第四步，找到网页文件，打开方式选择Google Chrome浏览器，接着，结合Chrome浏览器的网页翻译，即可秒翻。
外文文献及翻译
（（英文参考文献及译文）二〇一六年六月本科毕业论文 题 目：STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED INTHE AUDIT学生姓名：王雪琴学 院：管理学院系 别：会计系专 业：财务管理班 级：财管12-2班 学校代码： 10128 学 号： 201210707016Statistics and AuditRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED IN THE AUDIT - views, recommendations, fi ndingsPhD Candidate Gabriela-Felicia UNGUREANUAbstractThe rapid increase in the size of U.S. companies from the earlytwentieth century created the need for audit procedures based on the selectionof a part of the total population audited to obtain reliable audit evidence, tocharacterize the entire population consists of account balances or classes oftransactions. Sampling is not used only in audit – is used in sampling surveys,market analysis and medical research in which someone wants to reach aconclusion about a large number of data by examining only a part of thesedata. The difference is the “population” from which the sample is selected, iethat set of data which is intended to draw a conclusion. Audit sampling appliesonly to certain types of audit procedures.Key words: sampling, sample risk, population, sampling unit, tests ofcontrols, substantive procedures.Statistical samplingCommittee statistical sampling of American Institute of CertifiedPublic Accountants of (AICPA) issued in 1962 a special report, titled“Statistical sampling and independent auditors’ which allowed the use ofstatistical sampling method, in accordance with Generally Accepted AuditingStandards (GAAS). During 1962-1974, the AICPA published a series of paperson statistical sampling, “Auditor’s Approach to Statistical Sampling”, foruse in continuing professional education of accountants. During 1962-1974,the AICPA published a series of papers on statistical sampling, “Auditor’sApproach to Statistical Sampling”, for use in continuing professional educationof accountants. In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, “AuditSampling”, which provides general guidelines for both sampling methods,statistical and non-statistical.Earlier audits included checks of all transactions in the period coveredby the audited financial statements. At that time, the literature has not givenparticular attention to this subject. Only in 1971, an audit procedures programprinted in the “Federal Reserve Bulletin (Federal Bulletin Stocks)” includedseveral references to sampling such as selecting the “few items” of inventory.Statistics and Audit The program was developed by a special committee, which later became the AICPA, that of Certified Public Accountants American Institute.In the first decades of last century, the auditors often applied sampling, but sample size was not in related to the efficiency of internal control of the entity. In 1955, American Institute of Accountants has published a study case of extending the audit sampling, summarizing audit program developed by certified public accountants, to show why sampling is necessary to extend the audit. The study was important because is one of the leading journal on sampling which recognize a relationship of dependency between detail and reliability testing of internal control.In 1964, the AICPA’s Auditing Standards Board has issued a report entitled “The relationship between statistical sampling and Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS)” which illustrated the relationship between the accuracy and reliability in sampling and provisions of GAAS.In 1978, the AICPA published the work of Donald M. Roberts,“Statistical Auditing”which explains the underlying theory of statistical sampling in auditing.In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, named “Audit Sampling”, which provides guidelines for both sampling methods, statistical and non-statistical.An auditor does not rely solely on the results of a single procedure to reach a conclusion on an account balance, class of transactions or operational effectiveness of the controls. Rather, the audit findings are based on combined evidence from several sources, as a consequence of a number of different audit procedures. When an auditor selects a sample of a population, his objective is to obtain a representative sample, ie sample whose characteristics are identical with the population’s characteristics. This means that selected items are identical with those remaining outside the sample.In practice, auditors do not know for sure if a sample is representative, even after completion the test, but they “may increase the probability that a sample is representative by accuracy of activities made related to design, sample selection and evaluation” [1]. Lack of specificity of the sample results may be given by observation errors and sampling errors. Risks to produce these errors can be controlled.Observation error (risk of observation) appears when the audit test did not identify existing deviations in the sample or using an inadequate audit technique or by negligence of the auditor.Sampling error (sampling risk) is an inherent characteristic of the survey, which results from the fact that they tested only a fraction of the total population. Sampling error occurs due to the fact that it is possible for Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthe auditor to reach a conclusion, based on a sample that is different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would have been subject to audit procedures identical. Sampling risk can be reduced by adjusting the sample size, depending on the size and population characteristics and using an appropriate method of selection. Increasing sample size will reduce the risk of sampling; a sample of the all population will present a null risk of sampling.Audit Sampling is a method of testing for gather sufficient and appropriate audit evidence, for the purposes of audit. The auditor may decide to apply audit sampling on an account balance or class of transactions. Sampling audit includes audit procedures to less than 100% of the items within an account balance or class of transactions, so all the sample able to be selected. Auditor is required to determine appropriate ways of selecting items for testing. Audit sampling can be used as a statistical approach and a non- statistical.Statistical sampling is a method by which the sample is made so that each unit consists of the total population has an equal probability of being included in the sample, method of sample selection is random, allowed to assess the results based on probability theory and risk quantification of sampling. Choosing the appropriate population make that auditor’ findings can be extended to the entire population.Non-statistical sampling is a method of sampling, when the auditor uses professional judgment to select elements of a sample. Since the purpose of sampling is to draw conclusions about the entire population, the auditor should select a representative sample by choosing sample units which have characteristics typical of that population. Results will not extrapolate the entire population as the sample selected is representative.Audit tests can be applied on the all elements of the population, where is a small population or on an unrepresentative sample, where the auditor knows the particularities of the population to be tested and is able to identify a small number of items of interest to audit. If the sample has not similar characteristics for the elements of the entire population, the errors found in the tested sample can not extrapolate.Decision of statistical or non-statistical approach depends on the auditor’s professional judgment which seeking sufficient appropriate audits evidence on which to completion its findings about the audit opinion.As a statistical sampling method refer to the random selection that any possible combination of elements of the community is equally likely to enter the sample. Simple random sampling is used when stratification was not to audit. Using random selection involves using random numbers generated byRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit a computer. After selecting a random starting point, the auditor found the first random number that falls within the test document numbers. Only when the approach has the characteristics of statistical sampling, statistical assessments of risk are valid sampling.In another variant of the sampling probability, namely the systematic selection (also called random mechanical) elements naturally succeed in office space or time; the auditor has a preliminary listing of the population and made the decision on sample size. “The auditor calculated a counting step, and selects the sample element method based on step size. Step counting is determined by dividing the volume of the community to sample the number of units desired. Advantages of systematic screening are its usability. In most cases, a systematic sample can be extracted quickly and method automatically arranges numbers in successive series.”[2].Selection by probability proportional to size - is a method which emphasizes those population units’recorded higher values. The sample is constituted so that the probability of selecting any given element of the population is equal to the recorded value of the item;Stratifi ed selection - is a method of emphasis of units with higher values and is registered in the stratification of the population in subpopulations. Stratification provides a complete picture of the auditor, when population (data table to be analyzed) is not homogeneous. In this case, the auditor stratifies a population by dividing them into distinct subpopulations, which have common characteristics, pre-defined. “The objective of stratification is to reduce the variability of elements in each layer and therefore allow a reduction in sample size without a proportionate increase in the risk of sampling.” [3] If population stratification is done properly, the amount of sample size to come layers will be less than the sample size that would be obtained at the same level of risk given sample with a sample extracted from the entire population. Audit results applied to a layer can be designed only on items that are part of that layer.I appreciated as useful some views on non-statistical sampling methods, which implies that guided the selection of the sample selecting each element according to certain criteria determined by the auditor. The method is subjective; because the auditor selects intentionally items containing set features him.The selection of the series is done by selecting multiple elements series (successive). Using sampling the series is recommended only if a reasonable number of sets used. Using just a few series there is a risk that the sample is not representative. This type of sampling can be used in addition to other samples, where there is a high probability of occurrence of errors. At the arbitrary selection, no items are selected preferably from the auditor, Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthat regardless of size or source or characteristics. Is not the recommended method, because is not objective.That sampling is based on the auditor’s professional judgment, which may decide which items can be part or not sampled. Because is not a statistical method, it can not calculate the standard error. Although the sample structure can be constructed to reproduce the population, there is no guarantee that the sample is representative. If omitted a feature that would be relevant in a particular situation, the sample is not representative.Sampling applies when the auditor plans to make conclusions about population, based on a selection. The auditor considers the audit program and determines audit procedures which may apply random research. Sampling is used by auditors an internal control systems testing, and substantive testing of operations. The general objectives of tests of control system and operations substantive tests are to verify the application of pre-defined control procedures, and to determine whether operations contain material errors.Control tests are intended to provide evidence of operational efficiency and controls design or operation of a control system to prevent or detect material misstatements in financial statements. Control tests are necessary if the auditor plans to assess control risk for assertions of management.Controls are generally expected to be similarly applied to all transactions covered by the records, regardless of transaction value. Therefore, if the auditor uses sampling, it is not advisable to select only high value transactions. Samples must be chosen so as to be representative population sample.An auditor must be aware that an entity may change a special control during the course of the audit. If the control is replaced by another, which is designed to achieve the same specific objective, the auditor must decide whether to design a sample of all transactions made during or just a sample of transactions controlled again. Appropriate decision depends on the overall objective of the audit test.Verification of internal control system of an entity is intended to provide guidance on the identification of relevant controls and design evaluation tests of controls.Other tests:In testing internal control system and testing operations, audit sample is used to estimate the proportion of elements of a population containing a characteristic or attribute analysis. This proportion is called the frequency of occurrence or percentage of deviation and is equal to the ratio of elements containing attribute specific and total number of population elements. WeightRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit deviations in a sample are determined to calculate an estimate of the proportion of the total population deviations.Risk associated with sampling - refers to a sample selection which can not be representative of the population tested. In other words, the sample itself may contain material errors or deviations from the line. However, issuing a conclusion based on a sample may be different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would be subject to audit.Types of risk associated with sampling:Controls are more effective than they actually are or that there are not significant errors when they exist - which means an inappropriate audit opinion. Controls are less effective than they actually are that there are significant errors when in fact they are not - this calls for additional activities to establish that initial conclusions were incorrect.Attributes testing - the auditor should be defining the characteristics to test and conditions for misconduct. Attributes testing will make when required objective statistical projections on various characteristics of the population. The auditor may decide to select items from a population based on its knowledge about the entity and its environment control based on risk analysis and the specific characteristics of the population to be tested.Population is the mass of data on which the auditor wishes to generalize the findings obtained on a sample. Population will be defined compliance audit objectives and will be complete and consistent, because results of the sample can be designed only for the population from which the sample was selected.Sampling unit - a unit of sampling may be, for example, an invoice, an entry or a line item. Each sample unit is an element of the population. The auditor will define the sampling unit based on its compliance with the objectives of audit tests.Sample size - to determine the sample size should be considered whether sampling risk is reduced to an acceptable minimum level. Sample size is affected by the risk associated with sampling that the auditor is willing to accept it. The risk that the auditor is willing to accept lower, the sample will be higher.Error - for detailed testing, the auditor should project monetary errors found in the sample population and should take into account the projected error on the specific objective of the audit and other audit areas. The auditor projects the total error on the population to get a broad perspective on the size of the error and comparing it with tolerable error.For detailed testing, tolerable error is tolerable and misrepresentations Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditwill be a value less than or equal to materiality used by the auditor for the individual classes of transactions or balances audited. If a class of transactions or account balances has been divided into layers error is designed separately for each layer. Design errors and inconsistent errors for each stratum are then combined when considering the possible effect on the total classes of transactions and account balances.Evaluation of sample results - the auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether assessing relevant characteristics of the population is confirmed or needs to be revised.When testing controls, an unexpectedly high rate of sample error may lead to an increase in the risk assessment of significant misrepresentation unless it obtained additional audit evidence to support the initial assessment. For control tests, an error is a deviation from the performance of control procedures prescribed. The auditor should obtain evidence about the nature and extent of any significant changes in internal control system, including the staff establishment.If significant changes occur, the auditor should review the understanding of internal control environment and consider testing the controls changed. Alternatively, the auditor may consider performing substantive analytical procedures or tests of details covering the audit period.In some cases, the auditor might not need to wait until the end audit to form a conclusion about the effectiveness of operational control, to support the control risk assessment. In this case, the auditor might decide to modify the planned substantive tests accordingly.If testing details, an unexpectedly large amount of error in a sample may cause the auditor to believe that a class of transactions or account balances is given significantly wrong in the absence of additional audit evidence to show that there are not material misrepresentations.When the best estimate of error is very close to the tolerable error, the auditor recognizes the risk that another sample have different best estimate that could exceed the tolerable error.ConclusionsFollowing analysis of sampling methods conclude that all methods have advantages and disadvantages. But the auditor is important in choosing the sampling method is based on professional judgment and take into account the cost / benefit ratio. Thus, if a sampling method proves to be costly auditor should seek the most efficient method in view of the main and specific objectives of the audit.Romanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit The auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether the preliminary assessment of relevant characteristics of the population must be confirmed or revised. If the evaluation sample results indicate that the relevant characteristics of the population needs assessment review, the auditor may: require management to investigate identified errors and likelihood of future errors and make necessary adjustments to change the nature, timing and extent of further procedures to take into account the effect on the audit report.Selective bibliography:[1] Law no. 672/2002 updated, on public internal audit[2] Arens, A şi Loebbecke J - Controve …Audit– An integrate approach”, 8th edition, Arc Publishing House[3] ISA 530 - Financial Audit 2008 - International Standards on Auditing, IRECSON Publishing House, 2009- Dictionary of macroeconomics, Ed C.H. Beck, Bucharest, 2008Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit摘要美国公司的规模迅速增加，从第二十世纪初创造了必要的审计程序，根据选定的部分总人口的审计，以获得可靠的审计证据，以描述整个人口组成的帐户余额或类别的交易。
外文文献翻译(图片版)
本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学（贸易方向）年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文（一）中国银行业的改革和盈利能力（第1、2、4部分） (1)2 外文文献原文（一）CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY（Part 1、2、4） (9)1概述世界银行（1997年）曾声称，中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。
当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候，金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要（Lardy，1998年，Prasad，2007年）。
事实上，不久前，中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”，它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。
但是，在银行改革开展以来，最近，强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。
但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路，它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。
此外，其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲，但不可持续增长。
随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化，银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。
本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响，这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。
相反，我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略，并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现，但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。
本文有三个部分。
在第二节中，我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略，以及其执行情况，这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。
第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行：中国工商银行（工商银行），中国建设银行（建行），对中国银行（中银）和交通银行（交通银行）。
引人注目的是中国农业银行，它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。
第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。
zotero翻译英文文献
zotero翻译英文文献如果你正在进行英文论文写作或者学术研究，那么你一定知道翻译英文文献这个问题非常重要。
如果你的英文水平较低或者文献来源于国外，那么你可能需要一些辅助工具。
今天，我们将介绍一个非常重要的翻译工具，那就是Zotero。
Zotero是一个免费的引用管理器，它可以帮助你轻松地保存，管理和分享你的文献。
除此之外，它还内置了一个翻译工具，可以帮助你翻译英文文献。
以下是使用Zotero翻译英文文献的步骤：第一步，下载并安装Zotero。
你可以在Zotero的官方网站上下载并安装。
第二步，添加你的文献。
你可以通过复制粘贴文献的URL或者ISBN号码来添加一个文献到Zotero中。
当然，最好的方法是安装Zotero的浏览器扩展程序，这样你可以直接抓取网页上的文献。
第三步，选择你要翻译的文献。
在Zotero中选中你要翻译的文献，右键点击鼠标，在弹出菜单中选择“翻译”选项。
第四步，选择翻译的语言。
在弹出的翻译菜单中，选择你要翻译的语言。
Zotero支持多种语言的翻译，包括英语、中文、德语、法语、西班牙语等。
第五步，等待翻译完成。
Zotero会自动连接翻译引擎，并在几秒钟内为你翻译好整个文献的内容。
在翻译完成后，你可以看到翻译后的文献内容，帮助你更好地理解文献。
值得一提的是，虽然Zotero内置了翻译工具，但是翻译质量并不保证。
Zotero只是调用了一些免费的翻译引擎，并不能保证所有内容都翻译得准确无误。
因此，在使用翻译工具时，我们还是需要对翻译结果进行验证和调整。
综上所述，使用Zotero翻译英文文献非常简单，只需要几个简单的步骤即可完成。
但需要注意的是，翻译结果并不保证翻译得十分精确，我们需要对翻译后的文献内容进行验证和调整。
最好的方法是学习英语并自己翻译文献，这样可以更好地理解文献，提高自己的语言能力。
英文文献全文翻译
英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：LeGuin, Ursula K. (December 18, 2002). "Dancing at the Edge of the World: Thoughts on Words, Women, Places".《世界边缘的舞蹈：关于语言、女性和地方的思考》Introduction:In "Dancing at the Edge of the World," Ursula K. LeGuin explores the intersection of language, women, and places. She writes about the power of words, the role of women in society, and the importance of our connection to the places we inhabit. Through a series of essays, LeGuin invites readers to think critically about these topics and consider how they shape our understanding of the world.Chapter 1: LanguageConclusion:第二篇示例：IntroductionEnglish literature translation is an important field in the study of language and culture. The translation of English literature involves not only the linguistic translation of words or sentences but also the transfer of cultural meaning and emotional resonance. This article will discuss the challenges and techniques of translating English literature, as well as the importance of preserving the original author's voice and style in the translated text.Challenges in translating English literature第三篇示例：Title: The Importance of Translation of Full English TextsTranslation plays a crucial role in bringing different languages and cultures together. More specifically, translating full English texts into different languages allows for access to valuable information and insights that may otherwise be inaccessible to those who do not speak English. In this article, we will explore the importance of translating full English texts and the benefits it brings.第四篇示例：Abstract: This article discusses the importance of translating English literature and the challenges translators face when putting together a full-text translation. It highlights the skills and knowledge needed to accurately convey the meaning and tone of the original text while preserving its cultural and literary nuances. Through a detailed analysis of the translation process, this article emphasizes the crucial role translators play in bridging the gap between languages and making English literature accessible to a global audience.IntroductionEnglish literature is a rich and diverse field encompassing a wide range of genres, styles, and themes. From classic works by Shakespeare and Dickens to contemporary novels by authors like J.K. Rowling and Philip Pullman, English literature offers something for everyone. However, for non-English speakers, accessing and understanding these works can be a challenge. This is where translation comes in.Translation is the process of rendering a text from one language into another, while striving to preserve the original meaning, tone, and style of the original work. Translating afull-length English text requires a deep understanding of both languages, as well as a keen awareness of the cultural andhistorical context in which the work was written. Additionally, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to convey the beauty and complexity of the original text in a new language.Challenges of Full-text TranslationTranslating a full-length English text poses several challenges for translators. One of the most significant challenges is capturing the nuances and subtleties of the original work. English literature is known for its rich and layered language, with intricate wordplay, metaphors, and symbolism that can be difficult to convey in another language. Translators must carefully consider each word and phrase in order to accurately convey the author's intended meaning.Another challenge of full-text translation is maintaining the author's unique voice and style. Each writer has a distinct way of expressing themselves, and a good translator must be able to replicate this voice in the translated text. This requires a deep understanding of the author's writing style, as well as the ability to adapt it to the conventions of the target language.Additionally, translators must be mindful of the cultural and historical context of the original work. English literature is deeply rooted in the history and traditions of the English-speaking world, and translators must be aware of these influences in orderto accurately convey the author's intended message. This requires thorough research and a nuanced understanding of the social, political, and economic factors that shaped the work.Skills and Knowledge RequiredTo successfully translate a full-length English text, translators must possess a wide range of skills and knowledge. First and foremost, translators must be fluent in both the source language (English) and the target language. This includes a strong grasp of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary in both languages, as well as an understanding of the cultural and historical context of the works being translated.Translators must also have a keen eye for detail and a meticulous approach to their work. Every word, sentence, and paragraph must be carefully considered and translated with precision in order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. This requires strong analytical skills and a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of language.Furthermore, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to craft a compelling and engaging translation. Translating a full-length English text is not simply a matter of substituting one word for another; it requires creativity, imagination, and a deep appreciation for the beauty of language. Translators mustbe able to capture the rhythm, cadence, and tone of the original work in their translation, while also adapting it to the conventions of the target language.ConclusionIn conclusion, translating a full-length English text is a complex and challenging task that requires a high level of skill, knowledge, and creativity. Translators must possess a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural and historical context of the work being translated. Through their careful and meticulous work, translators play a crucial role in making English literature accessible to a global audience, bridging the gap between languages and cultures. By preserving the beauty and complexity of the original text in their translations, translators enrich our understanding of literature and bring the works of English authors to readers around the world.。
外文文献及翻译
Yunnan Ethnic pattern in Packaging DesignAbstract: Art is a folk Mother of the arts，is the source of the new art, From which to draw a strong tradition of high—grade Nutrition。
The persons belonging to national folk arts Ethnic patterns，are folk arts Intraoperative a gem, its development Research，and with the means of modern art，art wind Grid，professional skills combine to form a unique Style and features a modern design There are important applications，this paper focuses on Minority Folk pattern in modern packaging design Meter applications are discussed.Keywords: Yunnan Ethnic. Pattern。
Packaging Design.IntroductionYunnan is a multi-ethnic province, Here multiply survive the Han, Yi, Bai More than twenty families， Zhuang, Miao， Dai, etc。
Nation. Long history of various ethnic groups in Yunnan Province， the source is far Long, creating a rich and colorful Folk art。
外文翻译范例
外文翻译范例在全球化日益加深的今天，外文翻译的重要性愈发凸显。
无论是学术研究、商务交流，还是文化传播，准确而流畅的外文翻译都起着至关重要的桥梁作用。
下面为大家呈现几个不同领域的外文翻译范例，以帮助大家更好地理解和掌握外文翻译的技巧与要点。
一、科技文献翻译原文：The development of artificial intelligence has brought about revolutionary changes in various fields, such as healthcare, finance, and transportation译文：人工智能的发展给医疗保健、金融和交通运输等各个领域带来了革命性的变化。
在这个范例中，翻译准确地传达了原文的意思。
“artificial intelligence”被准确地翻译为“人工智能”，“revolutionary changes”翻译为“革命性的变化”，“various fields”翻译为“各个领域”，用词准确、贴切，符合科技文献严谨、客观的语言风格。
二、商务合同翻译原文：This Agreement shall commence on the effective date and shall continue in force for a period of five years, unless earlier terminated in accordance with the provisions herein译文：本协议自生效日起生效，并将持续有效五年，除非根据本协议的规定提前终止。
商务合同的翻译需要格外注重准确性和专业性。
上述译文中，“commence”翻译为“生效”，“in force”翻译为“有效”，“terminated”翻译为“终止”，清晰准确地表达了合同条款的含义，避免了可能的歧义。
三、文学作品翻译原文：The sun was setting, painting the sky with hues of orange and pink, as if nature were a master artist at work译文：太阳正在西沉，把天空涂成了橙色和粉色，仿佛大自然是一位正在创作的艺术大师。
论文外文文献翻译
论文外文文献翻译以下是一篇700字左右的论文外文文献翻译：原文题目：The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Medical Diagnostics: A Review原文摘要：In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the field of medical diagnostics. AI has the potential to improve the accuracy and efficiency of medical diagnoses, and can assist clinicians in making treatment decisions. This review aims to examine the current state of AI in medical diagnostics, and discuss its advantages and limitations. Several AI techniques, including machine learning, deep learning, and natural language processing, are discussed. The review also examines the ethical and legal considerations associated with the use of AI in medical diagnostics. Overall, AI has shown great promise in improving medical diagnostics, but further research is needed to fully understand its potential benefits and limitations.AI在医学诊断中发挥的作用：一项综述近年来，人工智能（AI）在医学诊断领域的应用引起了越来越多的关注。
五分钟搞定5000字-外文文献翻译
五分钟搞定5000字－外文文献翻译在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。
由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本）和CNKI“翻译助手"。
具体操作过程如下：1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅读文献；2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了；3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很高。
另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。
注：1、Google翻译：/language_tools google，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。
我利用它是这样的。
一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。
回到我自己说的翻译上来。
下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译，首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。
在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。
大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。