英国文学史启蒙运动英文版
康德：什么是启蒙运动［英文版］
康德：什么是启蒙运动［英文版］What Is Enlightenment?By Immanuel KantThe 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant published his influential work The Critique of Pure Reason in 1781. Three years later, he expanded on his study of the modes of thinking with an essay entitled "What is Enlightenment?" In this 1784 essay, Kant challenged readers to "dare to know," arguing that it was not only a civic but also a moral duty to exercise the fundamental freedoms of thought and expression.Enlightenment is man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity. Immaturity is the incapacity to use one's intelligence without the guidance of another. Such immaturity is self-caused if it is not caused by lack of intelligence, but by lack of determination and courage to use one's intelligence without being guided by another. Sapere Aude! [Dare to know!] Have the courage to use your own intelligence! is therefore the motto of the enlightenment.Through laziness and cowardice a large part of mankind, even after nature has freed them from alien guidance, gladly remain immature. It is because of laziness and cowardice that it is so easy for others to usurp the role of guardians. It is so comfortable to be a minor! If I have a book which provides meaning for me, a pastor who has conscience for me, a doctorwho will judge my diet for me and so on, then I do not need to exert myself. I do not have any need to think; if I can pay, others will take over the tedious job for me. The guardians who have kindly undertaken the supervision will see to it that by far the largest part of mankind, including the entire "beautiful sex," should consider the step into maturity, not only as difficult but as very dangerous.After having made their domestic animals dumb and having carefully prevented these quiet creatures from daring to take any step beyond the lead-strings to which they have fastened them, these guardians then show them the danger which threatens them, should they attempt to walk alone. Now this danger is not really so very great; for they would presumably learn to walk after some stumbling. However, an example of this kind intimidates and frightens people out of all further attempts.It is difficult for the isolated individual to work himself out of the immaturity which has become almost natural for him. He has even become fond of it and for the time being is incapable of employing his own intelligence, because he has never been allowed to make the attempt. Statutes and formulas, these mechanical tools of a serviceable use, or rather misuse, of his natural faculties, are the ankle-chains of a continuous immaturity. Whoever threw it off would make an uncertain jump over the smallest trench because he is not accustomed to such free movement. Therefore there are only a few who have pursued a firm path and have succeeded in escaping from immaturity by their own cultivation of themind.But it is more nearly possible for a public to enlighten itself: this is even inescapable if only the public is given its freedom. For there will always be some people who think for themselves, even among the self-appointed guardians of the great mass who, after having thrown off the yoke of immaturity themselves, will spread about them the spirit of a reasonable estimate of their own value and of the need for every man to think for himself. It is strange that the very public, which had previously been put under this yoke by the guardians, forces the guardians thereafter to keep it there if it is stirred up by a few of its guardians who are themselves incapable of all enlightenment. It is thus very harmful to plant prejudices, because they come back to plague those very people who themselves (or whose predecessors) have been the originators of these prejudices. Therefore a public can only arrive at enlightenment slowly. Through revolution, the abandonment of personal despotism may be engendered and the end of profit-seeking and domineering oppression may occur, but never a true reform of the state of mind. Instead, new prejudices, just like the old ones, will serve as the guiding reins of the great, unthinking mass.All that is required for this enlightenment is freedom; and particularly the least harmful of all that may be called freedom, namely, the freedom for man to make public use of his reason in all matters. But I hear people clamor on all sides: Don't argue! The officer says: Don't argue, drill! The tax collector: Don't argue, pay! The pastor: Don't argue, believe!(Only a single lord in the world says: Argue, as much as you want to and about what you please, but obey!) Here we have restrictions on freedom everywhere. Which restriction is hampering enlightenment, and which does not, or even promotes it? I answer: The public use of a man's reason must be free at all times, and this alone can bring enlightenment among men: while the private use of a man's reason may often be restricted rather narrowly without thereby unduly hampering the progress of enlightenment.I mean by the public use of one's reason, the use which a scholar makes of it before the entire reading public. Private use I call the use which he may make of this reason in a civic post or office. For some affairs which are in the interest of the commonwealth a certain mechanism is necessary through which some members of the commonwealth must remain purely passive in order that an artificial agreement with the government for the public good be maintained or so that at least the destruction of the good be prevented. In such a situation it is not permitted to argue; one must obey. But in so far as this unit of the machine considers himself as a member of the entire commonwealth, in fact even of world society; in other words, he considers himself in the quality of a scholar who is addressing the true public through his writing, he may indeed argue without the affairs suffering for which he is employed partly as a passive member. Thus it would be very harmful if an officer who, given an order by his superior, should start, while in the service, to argue concerning the utility or appropriateness of that command. He must obey, but he cannot equitably be prevented frommaking observations as a scholar concerning the mistakes in the military service nor from submitting these to the public for its judgment. The citizen cannot refuse to pay the taxes imposed upon him. Indeed, a rash criticism of such taxes, if they are the ones to be paid by him, may be punished as a scandal which might cause general resistance. But the same man does not act contrary to the duty of a citizen if, as a scholar, he utters publicly his thoughts against the undesirability or even the injustice of such taxes. Likewise a clergyman is obliged to teach his pupils and his congregation according to the doctrine of the church which he serves, for he has been accepted on that condition. But as a scholar, he has full freedom, in fact, even the obligation, to communicate to the public all his diligently examined and well-intentioned thoughts concerning erroneous points in that doctrine and concerning proposals regarding the better institution of religious and ecclesiastical matters. There is nothing in this for which the conscience could be blamed. For what he teaches according to his office as one authorized by the church, he presents as something in regard to which he has no latitude to teach according to his own preference.… He will say: Our church teaches this or that, these are the proofs which are employed for it. In this way he derives all possible practical benefit for his congregation from rules which he would not himself subscribe to with full conviction. But he may nevertheless undertake the presentation of these rules because it is not entirely inconceivable that truth may be contained in them. In any case, there is nothing directly contrary to inner religion to be found in such doctrines. For, should he believe that the latter was not the case he could notadminister his office in good conscience; he would have to resign it. Therefore the use which an employed teacher makes of his reason before his congregation is merely a private use since such a gathering is always only domestic, no matter how large. As a priest (a member of an organization) he is not free and ought not to be, since he is executing someone else's mandate. On the other hand, the scholar speaking through his writings to the true public which is the world, like the clergyman making public use of his reason, enjoys an unlimited freedom to employ his own reason and to speak in his own person. For to suggest that the guardians of the people in spiritual matters should always be immature minors is a nonsense which would mean perpetuating forever existing nonsense.But should a society of clergymen, for instance an ecclesiastical assembly, be entitled to commit itself by oath to a certain unalterable doctrine in order to perpetuate an endless guardianship over each of its members and through them over the people? I answer that this is quite inconceivable. Such a contract which would be concluded in order to keep humanity forever from all further enlightenment is absolutely impossible, even should it be confirmed by the highest authority through parliaments and the most solemn peace treaties. An age cannot conclude a pact and take an oath upon it to commit the succeeding age to a situation in which it would be impossible for the latter to enlarge even its most important knowledge, to eliminate error and altogether to progress in enlightenment. Such a thing would be a crime against human nature, the original destiny of which consistsin such progress. Succeeding generations are entirely justified in discarding such decisions as unauthorized and criminal. The touchstone of all this to be agreed upon as a law for people is to be found in the question whether a people could impose such a law upon itself. Now it might be possible to introduce a certain order for a definite short period as if in anticipation of a better order. This would be true if one permitted at the same time each citizen and especially the clergyman to make his criticisms in his quality as a scholar.… In the meantime, the provisional order might continue until the insight into the particular matter in hand has publicly progressed to the point where through a combination of voices (although not, perhaps, of all) a proposal may be brought to the crown. Thus those congregations would be protected which had agreed to (a changed religious institution) according to their own ideas and better understanding, without hindering those who desired to allow the old institutions to continue.…A man may postpone for himself, but only for a short time, enlightening himself regarding what he ought to know. But to resign from such enlightenment altogether either for his own person or even more for his descendants means to violate and to trample underfoot the sacred rights of mankind. Whatever a people may not decide for themselves, a monarch may even less decide for the people, for his legislative reputation rests upon his uniting the entire people's will in his own. If the monarch will only see to it that every true or imagined reform (of religion) fits in with the civil order, he had best let his subjects do what they consider necessary forthe sake of their salvation; that is not his affair. His only concern is to prevent one subject from hindering another by force, to work according to each subject's best ability to determine and to promote his salvation. In fact, it detracts from his majesty if he interferes in such matters and subjects to governmental supervision the writings by which his subjects seek to clarify their ideas (concerning religion). This is true whether he does it from his own highest insight, for in this case he exposes himself to the reproach: Caesar non est supra grammaticos [Caesar is not above the laws of grammar]; it is even more true when he debases his highest power to support the spiritual despotism of some tyrants in his state against the rest of his subjects.The question may now be put: Do we live at present in an enlightened age? The answer is: No, but in an age of enlightenment. Much still prevents men from being placed in a position or even being placed into position to use their own minds securely and well in matters of religion. But we do have very definite indications that this field of endeavor is being opened up for men to work freely and reduce gradually the hindrances preventing a general enlightenment and an escape from self-caused immaturity. In this sense, this age is the age of enlightenment and the age of(the Great)[Frederick II of].A prince should not consider it beneath him to declare that he believes it to be his duty not to prescribe anything to his subjects in matters of religion but to leave to them complete freedom in such things. In other words, a princewho refuses the conceited title of being "tolerant," is himself enlightened. He deserves to be praised by his grateful contemporaries and descendants as the man who first freed humankind of immaturity, at least as far as the government is concerned and who permitted everyone to use his own reason in all matters of conscience. Under his rule, venerable clergymen could, regardless of their official duty, set forth their opinions and views even though they differ from the accepted doctrine here and there; they could do so in the quality of scholars, freely and publicly. The same holds even more true of every other person who is not thus restricted by official duty. This spirit of freedom is spreading even outside (the country ofthe Great) to places where it has to struggle with the external hindrances imposed by a government which misunderstands its own position. For an example is illuminating them which shows that such freedom (public discussion) need not cause the slightest worry regarding public security and the unity of the commonwealth. Men raise themselves by and by out of backwardness if one does not purposely invent artifices to keep them down.I have emphasized the main point of enlightenment, that is of man's release from his self-caused immaturity, primarily in matters of religion. I have done this because our rulers have no interest in playing the guardian of their subjects in matters of arts and sciences. Furthermore immaturity in matters of religion is not only most noxious but also most dishonorable. But the point of view of a head of state who favors freedom in the arts and sciences goes even farther; for he understands that there is no danger in legislation permitting his subjectsto make public use of their own reason and to submit publicly their thoughts regarding a better framing of such laws together with a frank criticism of existing legislation. We have a shining example of this; no prince excels him whom we admire. Only he who is himself enlightened does not fear spectres when he at the same time has a well-disciplined army at his disposal as a guarantee of public peace. Only he can say what (the ruler of a)dare not say: Argue as much as you want and about whatever you want but obey! Thus we see here as elsewhere an unexpected turn in human affairs just as we observe that almost everything therein is paradoxical. A great degree of civic freedom seems to be advantageous for the freedom of the spirit of the people and yet it establishes impassable limits. A lesser degree of such civic freedom provides additional space in which the spirit of a people can develop to its full capacity. Therefore nature has cherished, within its hard shell, the germ of the inclination and need for free thought. This free thought gradually acts upon the mind of the people and they gradually become more capable of acting in freedom. Eventually, the government is also influenced by this free thought and thereby it treats man, who is now more than a machine, according to his dignity.。
启蒙运动(完全版)
• The “Enlightenment” was not a single movement or school of thought, for these philosophies were often mutually contradictory（矛盾的） or divergent（有分歧的）. The Enlightenment was less a set of ideas than it was a set of values. At its core was a critical questioning of traditional institutions, customs, and morals, and a strong belief in rationality and science. Thus, there was still a considerable degree of similarity between competing philosophies.
• The authors of the American Declaration of Independence, the United States Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and the Polish–Lithuanian Constitution of May 3, 1791, were motivated by Enlightenment principles.
Immaturity
• Kant answers the question quite succinctly in the first sentence of the essay: “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-incurred immaturity.” He argues that the immaturity is self-inflicted not from a lack of understanding, but from the lack of courage to use one’s reason, intellect, and wisdom without the guidance of another. Our fear of thinking for ourselves.
英国文学史启蒙运动英文版
• His ideas lead to very productive economies
• Early 1700’s: If people used reason to find laws that governed the physical world, why not use reason to discover natural laws?
– Laws that govern human nature – Reformers begin studying human nature and
Separation of Powers
• Baron de Montesquieu: Criticized absolute monarchy and admired British government
– British protected themselves from tyranny by dividing powers of government between three branches: legislative, executive and judicial (misconception)
Who believed that people are naturally cruel and greedy? a) Montesquieu b) Hobbes c) Rousseau d) Voltaire
英国文学史名词解释
1. Ballad(民谣)A ballad originally is a song intended as an accompaniment to a dance or a popular song. In the relatively recent sense, now most widely used, a ballad is a single, spirited poem in short stanzas, in which some popular story is graphically narrated. The ingredients of ballads usually include a refrain, stock descriptive phrases, and simple, terse dialogue.2. Alliteration(头韵)It refers to a repeated initial consonant to successive words and it is the most striking feature in its poetic form. In alliterative verse, certain accented words in a line begin with the same consonant sound. There are generally 4 accents in a line, three of which show alliteration, and it is the initial sound of the third accented syllable that normally determiners the alliteration. In old English verse, alliteration is not an unusual or expressive phenomenon but a regular recurring structural feature of the verse.3. Sonnet (十四行诗)It is a poem of 14 lines (of 11 syllables in Italian and 10 in English), typically in rhymed iambic pentameter. Sonnets characteristically express a single theme or idea.The sonnet was introduced to England by Sir T. Wyatt and developed Henry Howard (Earl of Surrey) and was thereafter widely used notably in the sonnet sequences of Shakespeare, Sidney, and Spenser. 4. Tragedy(悲剧)The word is applied broadly to dramatic works in which events move to a fatal or disastrous conclusion. It is concerned with the harshness and apparent injustice of life. Often the hero falls from power and his eventual death leads to the downfall of others. The tragic action arouses feelings of awe in the audience.5. Lyric(抒情诗)As a genre, it was the tradition of popular song flourishing in all the medieval literatures of Western Europe. In England lyric poems flourished in the Middle English period, and in the 16th century, heyday of humanism. This tradition was enriched by the direct imitation of ancient models. During the next 200 years the links between poetry and music was gradually broken, and the term “lyric” came to be applied to short poems expressive of a poet’s thoughts or feelings.6. Epic(史诗)It is a poem that celebrates in the form of a continuous narrative the achievements of one or more heroic personages of history or tradition. Among the great epics of the world may be mentioned the Iliad, Odyssey, Aeneid, and Paradise Lost.7. Renaissance(文艺复兴)The word “renaissance” means rebirth or revival. It is commonly applied to the movement or period of great flowering of art, architecture, politics, and the study of literature, usually seen as the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern worn world. It came about under the influence of Greek and Roman models. It began in Italy in the late 14th century, reached the highest development in the early 16th century, and spread to the rest of Europe in the 15th century and afterwards. Its emphasis was humanist: that is , on regarding the human figure and reason without a necessary relating of it to the superhuman.8. Enlightenment(启蒙运动)Enlightenment also called the neoclassic movement. It refers to the philosophical and artistic movement growing out of the Renaissance and continuing until the 19th century. The term is generally used to describe the philosophical, scientific, and rational spirit, the freedom from superstition, the skepticism and faith in religious tolerance of much of 18th-century Europe. Te Enlightenment writers would use satire to ridicule the illogical errors in government, social custom, and religious belief. This period’s poetry in England was typified by Alexander Pope, John Dryden and others.9. Classicism(古典主义)The term, when applied generally, means clearness, elegance, symmetry, and repose (清新、优雅、对称与和谐) produced by attention to traditional forms. More precisely, the term refers to the admiration and imitation of Greek and Roman literature, art, and architecture. It stands for certain definite ideas and attitudes including dominance of reason, balance and other etc. Classicism is usually contrasted with romanticism.10. Romanticism or Romantic Movement(浪漫主义)The term refers to the literary and artistic movements of the late 18th and early 19th century. Romanticism rejected the rejected the earlier philosophy of the Enlightenment, which stressed that logic and reason were the best response humans had in the face of cruelty, stupidity, superstition, and barbarism. The Romantics asserted that reliance upon emotion and natural passions provided a valid and powerful means of knowing and a reliable guide to ethics and living. Its stylistic keynote is intensity, and its watchword is imagination. Their writings are often set in rural, or Gothic setting and they show an obsessive concern with “innocent” characters----children, young lovers, and animals. The major Romantic poets included Blake, Wordsworth, Keats, Shelley, and Byron.11. Genre (样式):A type of category of literature marked by certain shared features or customs. The three broadest categories of genre include poetry, drama, and fiction. These general genres are often subdivided into more specific genres and subgenres. For example, the poetry can be sub-classified as epic, elegy, lyric and pastoral etc.12. Critical realism(批判现实主义)Critical realism is one of the literary genres that flourished mainly in the 19th century. It reveals the corrupting influence of the rule of eash upon human nature. Here lies the essentially democratic and humanistic character of critical realism. The English critical realists of the 19th century not only gave a satirical portrayal of the bourgeoisie and all the ruling classes, but also showed profound sympathy for the common people. In their best works, they used humor and satire to contrast the greed and hypocrisy classes. Humorous scenes set off the actions of the positive characters, and the humor is often tinged with a lyricism which serves to stress the fine qualities of such characters. At the same time, bitter satire and grotesque is used to expose the seamy side of the bourgeois society. The critical realists, however, did not find a way to eradicate the social evils they knew so well. They did not realize the necessity of changing the bourgeois society through conscious human effort. Their works do not point toward revolution but rather evolution or reformism. They often start with a powerful exposure of the ugliness of the bourgeois world in their works, but their novels usually have happy endings or an impotent compromise at the end. Here are the strength and weakness of critical reali sm.。
启蒙运动【英文】 The enlightenment
Key Vocabulary
► Enlightenment:
a period during the 1600s and 1700s in which educated Europeans changed their outlook on life by seeing reason as the key to human progress. ► Age of Reason: another name for the Enlightenment ► Salons: in France, a simple meeting of philosophers to discuss ideas during the Enlightenment ► Philosopher: a scholar or thinker ► Reason: Using logical thinking, not superstition
Think/Pair/Share
• In what new areas did Enlightenment philosophers want to use reason? • B’s share with A’s • A’s share with B’s • I will now choose someone to explain to the class. • Ans: They wanted to use reason for problems in government and society.
Think/Pair/Share
• In what ways are the periods of the Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution similar to the Enlightenment? • A’s share with B’s • B’s share with A’s • I will now choose someone to explain to the class. • Ans: They are similar because they all challenged accepted beliefs.
the rise of english literary history
the rise of english literary history
（原创实用版）
目录
1.英文文学史的崛起
2.英文文学史的发展
3.英文文学史的重要性
正文
英文文学史的崛起可以追溯到中世纪，这个时期被认为是英国文学的开端。
最早的英国文学作品是古老的英语诗歌，如贝奥武甫。
在这个时期，英国文学主要是口头传统，没有留下很多书面记录。
随着英国文艺复兴的到来，英国文学开始有了更大的发展。
文艺复兴时期，英国文学开始受到古典文学的影响，同时也开始有了更多的书面作品。
这个时期最著名的作家是莎士比亚，他的作品包括哈姆雷特、罗密欧与朱丽叶等，这些作品至今仍然被广泛阅读和研究。
18 世纪是英国文学的另一个重要时期，也被称为启蒙时代。
这个时期，英国文学开始反映社会和政治的变化。
丹尼尔·笛福的《鲁滨逊漂流记》和简·奥斯汀的《傲慢与偏见》等作品都是这个时期的代表作。
19 世纪是英国文学的黄金时期，这个时期出现了许多伟大的作家和作品。
狄更斯的《雾都孤儿》、艾米莉·勃朗特的《呼啸山庄》、夏洛蒂·勃朗特的《简·爱》等都是这个时期的代表作。
20 世纪，英国文学继续发展，出现了很多新的文学流派和作品。
这个时期最著名的作家之一是乔治·奥威尔，他的《1984》和《动物庄园》等作品对后世影响深远。
英文文学史的发展不仅反映了英国的社会和政治变化，也展示了人类思想和情感的复杂性。
The Enlightenment and Classicism
The Enlightenment Movement
The 18th century marked the beginning of an intellectual movement in Europe known as the Enlightenment. It was, on the whole, an expression of struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism. The enlighteners fought against class inequality, stagnation, prejudices and other survivals of feudalism. They thought the chief means for improving society was … or …
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Back
The Important Terms
• • • • 1) 2) 3) 4) enlightenment classicism sentimentalism realism 启蒙运动 古典主义 感伤主义 现实主义
The Enlightenment Movement
P45
1) What is the Enlightenment Movement? 2) The Features of English Enlightenment (1)English enlighteners believed in the power of reason. That is why the 18th century has often been called “ “the age of reason” or “the kingdom of reason”. (2) Most of the enlighteners believed that social problems could be solved by human intelligence.
英国文学史大纲
A Brief Outline of British Literature（英国文学概要）I. The early and Medieval literature（早期和中世纪文学）1. Beowulf （贝奥武夫，有记载的最早的一部英国文学作品）2. Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales。
（杰弗里乔叟的坎特伯雷故事集）II. The English Renaissance (1485-1603) （英国文艺复兴时期）1. Edmund Spence r’s The Shepherd's Calendar and Faerie Queen（埃德蒙斯宾塞的牧羊人日记和精灵女王）2. Francis Bacon’s Essays（弗朗西斯培根的散文）3. William Shakespeare’s dramas（威廉莎士比亚的戏剧）III. The 17th century (1603-1660)1. The English Revolution （英国革命）2. John Milton’s Paradise Lost（弥尔顿的失乐园）3. John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress（约翰班扬的天路历程）IV. The Restoration and the 18th Century (1660-1798) （复辟与十八世纪）1. enlightenment （启蒙运动）2. neo-classicism:（新古典主义）a. John Dryden’s dramas（约翰德来端的戏剧）b. Ale xander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock （亚历山大蒲柏的夺发记）c. Richard Steele and Joseph Addison's essays（理查德斯蒂尔和约瑟夫艾迪生的散文）d. Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary（赛缪尔约翰逊的词典）3. rise of the novel writing:（小说创作的兴起）a. Daniel DeFoe’s Robinson Crusoe（丹尼尔笛福的鲁滨逊漂流记）b. Janathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels（贾纳森斯威夫特的格列佛游记）V. The Age of Romanticism (1798-1830)（浪漫主义时代）1. Pre-Romanticism : （前浪漫主义）a. William Blake （威廉布雷克英国诗人和画家）b. Robert Burn （罗伯特彭斯）c. William Wordsworth（威廉华兹华斯英国诗人）2. Romanticism （浪漫主义）a. P. B. Shelley （Percy Bysshe Shelley 珀西比西雪莱）b. G. G. Byron（George Gordon Byron 乔治戈登拜伦）c. J. Keats（John Keats 约翰济慈）3. Jane Austen’s novels（简奥斯丁小说）VI. The Victorian Age (1832-1901)（维多利亚时代）1. industrial revolution （工业革命）2. realism （现实主义）a. Charles Dickens （查尔斯狄更斯英国作家）b. Thomas Hardy（托马斯哈代英国小说家）c. Bronte sisters（勃朗特三姐妹）d. George Eliot（乔治艾略特）3. aestheticism: Oscar Wilde （唯美主义，奥斯卡王尔德）VII. The 20th century (1901-)1. two world wars（两次世界大战）2. modernism（现代主义）3. psychological fiction and stream of consciousness (心理小说与意识流)a. D. H. Lawrence （David Herbert Lawrence大卫赫伯特劳伦斯）b. James Joyce（詹姆斯乔伊斯）c. Virginia Woolf（弗吉尼亚伍尔夫）4. Poetry（诗歌）Definition of Literature ：Literature refers to All written or spoken compositions ( discourses) designed to tell stories, dramatize situations and reveal thoughts and emotions, and also more importantly, to interest, entertain, stimulate, broaden and ennoble readers. （文学的定义：文学是所有口头或书面的成分设计讲故事，戏剧化情况，揭示思想和情感，而且更重要的是，兴趣，娱乐，刺激，拓宽和授予爵位的读者。
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• Laissez-Faire: allowing business to operate with little or no government interference
– Real wealth comes from productive land not gold and silver – Supported free trade and opposed tariffs
Enlightenment Thinkers
Voltaire John Locke
Baron de Montesquieu
Social Contract
Thomas Hobbes
•Humans are naturally cruel, greedy and selfish. •To escape this “brutish” life people entered into a social contract. •Only a powerful government could ensure an orderly society. •Believed only an absolute monarchy could keep a society completely orderly.
John Locke
•Humans are naturally reasonable, moral and good •Humans have natural rights: life liberty and property •People form governments to protect natural rights •Best government was one with limited power •If a government violates people‟s natural rights, people have the right to overthrow government
– Smith supported laissez faire, but also believed that a government had a duty to protect society, administer justice, and provide public works.
• His ideas lead to very productive economies during the Industrial Revolution (1800‟s and 1900‟s)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Who believed that people are naturally cruel and greedy? a) Montesquieu b) Hobbes c) Rousseau d) Voltaire Which of the following is true of the physiocrats? a) They rejected laissez faire in favor of mercantilism. b) They rejected mercantilism in favor of laissez faire. c) They rejected both mercantilism and laissez faire. d) They focused on social reform.
Scientific Revolution Leads to Enlightenment
• 1500-1700: European scientists using reason to discover laws of nature
– Very successful: Planetary movements, chemistry, vaccine for smallpox, etc.
Separation of Powers
• Baron de Montesquieu: Criticized absolute monarchy and admired British government
– British protected themselves from tyranny by dividing powers of government between three branches: legislative, executive and judicial (misconception) – Each branch of government should be able to „check‟ the other two • What government does this sound like?
Enlightenment Changes Society
• Women: Women were not equal and were criticized for attempting to gain equality • Salons: Men and women gather in living rooms to discuss Enlightenment ideas (chat rooms) • Music: Ballets and operas become popular (Bach, Handel, Mozart) • Art: Baroque gives way to rococo art (simple, elegant and charming) • Literature: Novels become popular (Robinson Cruesoe)
• Some peasants become eager for change, some resist change completely
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Who believed that people are naturally cruel and greedy? a) Montesquieu b) Hobbes c) Rousseau d) Voltaire Which of the following is true of the physiocrats? a) They rejected laissez faire in favor of mercantilism. b) They rejected mercantilism in favor of laissez faire. c) They rejected both mercantilism and laissez faire. d) They focused on social reform.
The Enlightenment
Summary
Objectives
• How did scientific progress promote trust in human reason? • How did the social contract and separation of powers affect views on government? • How did new ideas affect society and the economy? • Identify the philosophies of major Enlightenment thinkers such as: John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Adam Smith.
Major Enlightenment political and economic problem could be solved through the use of reason • Governments are created to secure an orderly society • Separation of powers is the best way to protect human liberties • All men are created “free and equal” • A free market should be allowed to regulate trade
Enlightenment and the Economy
• Adam Smith: Free market should be allowed to regulate business activity
– Manufacturing, trade, wages, profits and economic growth are all linked to the market forces of supply and demand – Where there is demand, suppliers will seek to meet it because there are profits and economic rewards to be had
Enlightenment Thinkers
In republican governments, men are all equal; equal they are also in despotic governments: in the former, because they are everything; in the latter, because they are nothing.
Enlightenment and the Economy
• Physiocrats rejected mercantilism in favor of a policy called laissez faire.
– Physiocrats were Enlightenment thinkers who focused on economic reforms
• Early 1700‟s: If people used reason to find laws that governed the physical world, why not use reason to discover natural laws?