2011年3月

2011 Volume 100, Issue 3 (Mar)1. The evolution of intergroup bias: Perceptions andattitudes in rhesus macaques.种族偏见的进化：桓河侯对异族的感知及态度Pages 387-405Mahajan, Neha; Martinez, Margaret A.; Gutierrez, Natashya L.;Diesendruck, Gil; Banaji, Mahzarin R.; Santos, Laurie R.Social psychologists have learned a great deal about the nature of intergroup conflict and the attitudinal and cognitive processes that enable it. Less is known about where theseprocesses come from in the first plac e. In particular, do our strategies for dealing with other groups emerge in the absence of human-specific experiences? One profitable way to answer this question has involved administering tests that areconceptual equivalents of those used with adult humans inother species, thereby exploring the continuity or discontinuity of psychological processes. We examined intergrouppreferences in a nonhuman species, the rhesus macaque(Macaca mulatta). We found the first evidence that anonhuman species automatically distinguishes the faces of members of its own social group from those in other groupsand displays greater vigilance 警觉toward outgroup members (Experiments 1–3). In addition, we observed that macaques spontaneously associate novel objects with specific socialgroups and display greater vigilance to objects associated with outgroup members (Experiments 4–5). Finally, we developed a looking time procedure—the Looking Time Implicit Association Test, which resembles the Implicit Association Test(Greenwald & Banaji, 1995)—and we discovered thatmacaques, like humans, automatically evaluate ingroupmembers positively and outgroup members negatively(Experiments 6–7). These field studies represent the firstcontrolled experiments to examine the presence of intergroup attitudes in a nonhuman species. As such, these studiessuggest that the architecture of the mind that enables theformation of these biases may be rooted in phylogenetically ancient mechanisms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)2. Editorial comment.Page 406Judd, Charles M.; Gawronski, BertramAfter a rigorous review process, involving a large set of extremely thorough reviews by distinguished experts in social cognition, we are publishing the following article by Daryl J. Bem, entitled ―Feeling the Future: Experimental Evidence of Anomalous Retroactive Influences on Cognition and Affect.‖ We have also decided to publish a commentary by Eric–Jan Wagenmakers, Ruud Wetzels, Denny Borsboom, and Han van der Maas entitled ―Why Psychologists Must Change the Way They Analyze Their Data: The Case of Psi.‖ This too went through the usual rigorous review process. To some of our readers it may be both surprising and disconcerting that we have decided to publish Bem’s article. The paper reports nine studies in which the author aimed to ―time-r everse‖ classic social-cognitive phenomena (e.g., approach–avoidance, evaluative priming启动, habituation, facilitated recall) by changing the typical order of cause and effect. In a deviation偏离from the original paradigms,participants’ responses in these studies were obtained before the presentation of the causally effective stimuli. We openly admit that the reported findings conflict with our own beliefs about causality因果性and that we find them extremely puzzling费解. Yet, as editors we were guided by the conviction坚信that this paper—asstrange as the findings may be—should be evaluated just as any other manuscript on the basis of rigorous peer review. Our obligation as journal editors is not to endorse particularhypotheses but to advance and stimulate science through a rigorous review process. It is our hope and expectation that the current two papers will stimulate further discussion, attempts at replication, and critical further thoughts about appropriatemethods in research on social cognition and attitudes.(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rightsreserved)3. Feeling the future: Experimental evidence foranomalous retroactive influences on cognition and affect.Pages 407-425 实验证明人能预知未来Bem, Daryl J.英文全称中文解释超心理学，心灵心理学The term psi parapsychology denotes anomalous反常的processes of information or energy transfer that are currently unexplained in terms of known physical or biologicalmechanisms. Two variants of psi are precognition 先知(conscious cognitive awareness) and premonition 预感(affective apprehension) of a future event that could not otherwise be anticipated through any known inferential 可推论的process. Precognition and premonition are themselves special cases of a more general phenomenon: the anomalous retroactive回溯influence of some future event on an individual's current responses, whether those responses are conscious or nonconscious, cognitive or affective. This article reports 9 experiments, involving more than 1,000 participants, that test for retroactive influence by ―time-reversing‖ 时间反转well-established psychological effects so that the individual's responses are obtained before the putatively推定地causal stimulus events occur. Data are presented for 4 time-reversed effects: precognitive approach to erotic stimuli and precognitive avoidance of negative stimuli; retroactive priming 回溯启动; retroactive habituation回溯习惯化; and retroactive facilitation of recall. The mean effect size效应量(d) in psi performance across all 9 experiments was 0.22, and all but one of the experiments yielded statistically significant results. The individual-difference variable of stimulus seeking, a component of extraversion, was significantly correlated with psi performance in 5 of the experiments, with participants whoscored above the midpoint on a scale of stimulus seekingachieving a mean effect size of 0.43. Skepticism about psi, issues of replication, and theories of psi are also discussed.(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rightsreserved)4. Why psychologists must change the way theyanalyze their data: The case of psi: Comment on Bem(2011).为什么心理学家们必须改变分析实验数据的方法：对Bem的超心理学的评论Pages 426-432Wagenmakers, Eric–Jan; Wetzels, Ruud; Borsboom, Denny;van der Maas, Han L. J.Does psi exist? D. J. Bem (2011) conducted 9 studies with over 1,000 participants in an attempt to demonstrate that future events retroactively affect people's responses. Here wediscuss several limitations of Bem's experiments on psi; inparticular, we show that the data analysis was partlyexploratory and that one-sided p values may overstate thestatistical evidence against the null hypothesis. We reanalyze Bem's data with a default Bayesian t test 贝叶斯t检验and show that the evidence for psi is weak to nonexistent. Weargue that in order to convince a skeptical audience of acontroversial claim, one needs to conduct strictly confirmatory studies and analyze the results with statistical tests that are conservative rather than liberal. We conclude that Bem's pvalues do not indicate evidence in favor of precognition;instead, they indicate that experimental psychologists need to change the way they conduct their experiments and analyze their data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, allrights reserved)5. Bodies obliged and unbound: Differentiatedresponse tendencies for injunctive and descriptive social norms.对于指令性社会规范和描述性社会规范的不同反应倾向Pages 433-448Jacobson, Ryan P.; Mortensen, Chad R.; Cialdini, Robert B.The authors suggest that injunctive and descriptive social norms engage different psychological response tendencies when made selectively salient. On the basis of suggestions derived from the focus theory of normative conduct and from consideration of the norms' functions in social life, the authors hypothesized that the 2 norms would be cognitively associatedwith different goals, would lead individuals to focus on different aspects of self, and would stimulate different levels of conflict over conformity遵从decisions. Additionally, a unique role for effortful self-regulation was hypothesized for each type of norm—used as a means to resist conformity to descriptive norms but as a means to facilitate conformity for injunctive norms. Four experiments supported these hypotheses. Experiment 1 demonstrated differences in the norms' associations to the goals of making accurate/efficient decisions and gaining/maintaining social approval. Experiment 2 provided evidence that injunctive norms lead to a more interpersonally oriented form of self-awareness and to a greater feeling of conflict about conformity decisions than descriptive norms. In the final 2 experiments, conducted in the lab (Experiment 3) and in a naturalistic environment (Experiment 4), self-regulatory depletion decreased conformity to an injunctive norm (Experiments 3 and 4) and increased conformity to a descriptive norm (Experiment 4)—even though the norms advocated identical behaviors. By illustrating differentiated response tendencies for each type of social norm, this research provides new and converging support for thefocus theory of normative conduct. (PsycINFO DatabaseRecord (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)6. Affective influences on self-disclosure: Mood effectson the intimacy and reciprocity of disclosing personalinformation.情绪对揭露个人信息的详细程度和相互性的影响Pages 449-461Forgas, Joseph P.How does mood influence people's willingness to disclose intimate information详细信息about themselves? Based on recent affect–cognition theories and research on interpersonal behavior, 3 experiments predicted and found that people in a positive mood disclosed more intimate, more varied形形色色, and more abstract information about themselves. In contrast, people in a negative mood were more attentive to the behavior of others and reciprocated self-disclosure from their partners more accurately. This effect was obtained in hypotheticalsituations (Experiments 1 and 2) and in realisticcomputer-mediated interactions as well (Experiment 3).Experiments 2 and 3 confirmed that mood effects onself-disclosure were mediated by information processing style.The role of affect in information processing and relationship behaviors in particular is discussed, and the implications of these findings for everyday interaction strategies and forcontemporary affect–cognition theorizing are considered.(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rightsreserved)7. What is m oral about guilt? Acting “prosocially” at thedisadvantage of others.当他人处于不利时，假装亲社会Pages 462-473de Hooge, Ilona E.; Nelissen, Rob M. A.; Breugelmans, Seger M.; Zeelenberg, MarcelFor centuries economists and psychologists have argued that the morality of moral emotions 道德感的道德性lies in the fact that they stimulate prosocial behavior and benefit others ina person's social environment. Many studies have shown thatguilt, arguably the most exemplary moral emotion, indeedmotivates prosocial behavior in dyadic social dilemma 困境situations. When multiple persons are involved, however, the moral and prosocial nature of this emotion can be questioned.The present article shows how guilt can have beneficial effects for the victim of one's actions but also disadvantageous effectsfor other people in the social environment. A series ofexperiments, with various emotion inductions and dependent measures, all reveal that guilt motivates prosocial behavior toward the victim at the expense of others around—but not at the expense of oneself. These findings illustrate that athorough understanding of the functioning of emotions isnecessary to understand their moral nature. (PsycINFODatabase Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)8. A social relations model of observed familynegativity and positivity using a genetically informative sample.Pages 474-491Rasbash, Jon; Jenkins, Jennifer; O'Connor, Thomas G.;Tackett, Jennifer; Reiss, DavidThe goal of this study was to investigate individual and relationship influences on expressions of negativity andpositivity in families. Parents and adolescents were observed in a round-robin design循环设计in a sample of 687 families.Data were analyzed using a multilevel social relations model.In addition, genetic contributions were estimated for actoreffects. Children showed higher mean levels of negativity andlower mean levels of positivity as actors than did parents.Mothers were found to express and elicit higher mean levels of positivity and negativity than fathers. Actor effects were much stronger than partner effects, accounting for between18%–39% of the variance depending on the actor and theoutcome. Genetic (35%) and shared environmental (19%)influences explained a substantial proportion of the actor effect variance for negativity. Dyadic reciprocities were lowest indyads with a high power differential (i.e., parent–child dyads) and highest for dyads with equal power (sibling and marital dyads). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)9. Evidence for hypodescent and racial hierarchy in thecategorization and perception of biracial individuals.Pages 492-506Ho, Arnold K.; Sidanius, Jim; Levin, Daniel T.; Banaji,Mahzarin R.Individuals who qualify equally for membership in two racial groups provide a rare window into social categorization and perception. In 5 experiments, we tested the extent to which a rule of hypodescent, whereby biracial individuals are assignedthe status of their socially subordinate parent group, would govern perceptions of Asian–White and Black–White targets. In Experiment 1, in spite of posing explicit questions concerning Asian–White and Black–White targets, hypodescent was observed in both cases and more strongly in Black–White social categorization. Experiments 2A and 2B used a speeded response task and again revealed evidence of hypodescent in both cases, as well as a stronger effect in the Black–White target condition. In Experiments 3A and 3B, social perception was studied with a face-morphing task. Participants required a face to be lower in proportion minority to be perceived as minority than in proportion White to be perceived as White. Again, the threshold for being perceived as White was higher for Black–White than for Asian–White targets. An independent categorization task in Experiment 3B further confirmed the rule of hypodescent and variation in it that reflected the current racial hierarchy in the United States. These results documenting biases in the social categorization and perception of biracials have implications for resistance to change in the American racial hierarchy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)10. Within- and between-culture variation: Individualdifferences and the cultural logics of honor, face, anddignity cultures.Pages 507-526Leung, Angela K.-Y.; Cohen, DovThe CuPS (Culture × Person × Situation) approach attempts to jointly consider culture and individual differences, without treating either as noise and without reducing one to the other. Culture is important because it helps definepsychological situations and create meaningful clusters ofbehavior according to particular logics. Individual differences are important because individuals vary in the extent to which they endorse or reject a culture's ideals. Further, becausedifferent cultures are organized by different logics, individual differences mean something different in each. Central to these studies are concepts of honor-related violence and individual worth as being inalienable versus socially conferred. Weillustrate our argument with 2 experiments involvingparticipants from honor, face, and dignity cultures. The studies showed that th e same ―type‖ of perso n who was most helpful, honest, and likely to behave with integrity in one culture wasthe ―type‖ of person least likely to do so in another culture. We discuss how CuPS can provide a rudimentary but integrated approach to understanding both within- and between-culture variation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)11. Motivational determinants of integrating positive andnegative past identities.动机决定了是否整合自己积极和消极的过去Pages 527-544Weinstein, Netta; Deci, Edward L.; Ryan, Richard M.Five studies examined whether quality of motivation (as individual differences and primed) facilitates or thwartsintegration of positive and negative past identities. Specifically, more autonomously motivated participants felt closer to, and were more accepting of, both negative and positive pastcharacteristics and central life events, whereas morecontrol-motivated participants were closer to and moreaccepting of positive, but not negative, past characteristics and events. Notably, controlled motivation hindered participants' acceptance of their own negative identities but not of others' negative identities, suggesting that control-motivatedindividuals' rejection of negative past identities was an attempt to distance from undesirable parts of themselves. Defensive processes, reflected in nonpersonal pronouns and escapemotives, mediated interaction effects, indicating that lowerdefense allowed fuller integration. Integration of both positive and negative past identities predicted indicators of well-being, namely, vitality, meaning, and relatedness satisfaction.(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rightsreserved)12. Genetic and environmental influences on personalitytrait stability and growth during the transition toadulthood: A three-wave longitudinal study.Pages 545-556 基因和环境对人格特质稳定性的影响，以及在成年过渡期中对人格成长的影响Hopwood, Christopher J.; Donnellan, M. Brent; Blonigen,Daniel M.; Krueger, Robert F.; McGue, Matt; Iacono, WilliamG.; Burt, S. AlexandraDuring the transition to adulthood individuals typically settle into adult roles in love and work. This transition also involves significant changes in personality traits that are generally in the direction of greater maturity and increased stability. Competinghypotheses have been offered to account for these personality changes: The intrinsic maturation hypothesis自我成熟理论suggests that change trajectories are endogenous, whereas the life-course hypothesis suggests that these changes occur because of transactions with the social environment. This study investigated the patterns and origins of personality trait changes from ages 17 to 29 using 3 waves of Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire data provided by twins. Results suggest that (a) trait changes were more profound in the first relative to the second half of the transition to adulthood; (b) traits tend to become more stable during the second half of this transition, with all the traits yielding retest correlations between .74 and .78; (c) Negative Affectivity declined over time, and Constraint increased over time; minimal change was observed on agentic or communal aspects of Positive Emotionality; and (d) both genetic and nonshared environmental factors accounted for personality changes. Overall, these genetically informed results support alife-course perspective on personality development during the transition to adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)13. Dual temperamental risk factors for psychopathicpersonality: Evidence from self-report and skinconductance.变态人格中的双重人格风险因素：证据来自自我报告和皮肤电Pages 557-566Dindo, Lilian; Fowles, DonPsychopathy is a personality disorder consisting of dysfunctional affective interpersonal features (Factor 1) and impulsive-antisocial behavior (Factor 2) that exhibit differential associations with palmar skin conductance (SC) reactivity. T he goal of this study was to determine whether the distinct SCreactivity observed in incarcerated psychopaths generalizes to university students who score high on personality dimensions hypothesized to be the risk factors for these psychopathyfactor s. Lilienfeld's Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI;Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996) was used to compute scores on 2 factor-analytically derived dimensions that have been the focus of recent research in psychopathy. PPI-1 is hypothesized to relate to the low-fear temperamental risk factor, whereas PPI-2 is hypothesized to relate to regulatory dysfunction. SCreactivity was measured during tasks previously used instudies of diagnosed psychopaths. Results indicated thatPPI-1 was associated with reduced SC during anticipation of an aversive noise and PPI-2 was associated with enhanced SC reactivity during presentation of a speech about one's faults. Additional analyses explored an 8-factor solution of the PPI and 3 temperament dimensions derived from factor analysis of several personality measures. Together, the SC results suggest that the Factor 1 pathway, best captured with refined assessments of behavioral fearlessness, related to reduced SC reactivity to an aversive noise—consistent with a weak defense system. The Factor 2 pathway, best captured by higher order dimensions reflecting externalizing, disinhibited forms of negative temperament, related to enhanced SC reactivity to a speech stressor—consistent with high stress reactivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)。