被遗忘的临床心理学之父——韦特默
1891年，卡特尔被 哥伦比亚大学“挖 走”。同年，韦特 默前往莱比锡大学 在冯特门下读博。
“特别”求学路——博士篇
尽管生活中，韦特默和冯特关系相处很 好，在学术上两人却争论不断。 一个典型的例子就是韦特默欲继续进行 先前的个体差异研究，而冯特却让其做 有关“不同视觉形式的美学价值”的研 究。韦明的做冯要求的毕业论文，暗地 里也在进行自己的个体差异研究。为此 韦特默差点没拿到博士毕业证。
一次“立场不坚定”，转学了心理学专业， 成为了卡特尔的四位实验心理学硕士生之 一。韦特默在卡尔特团队中，主要负责收 集个体在反应时上的差异。经过一段时间 的学习，韦特默在实验心理学课程上表现 的很出色，对心理学实验操作理解十分到 位，自己还出了本有关心理学实验操作的 书。
“特别”求学路——博士篇
“特别”求学路——硕士篇
1889年秋，韦特默终于做了一个艰难的决 定——读研。最初他读的是哲学专业，但不 久他便又换了专业——政治科学专业。在韦 特默不断探索自己专业方向时，卡特尔加入 到了宾大，并在那里开设了第一间实验心理 学实验室，主攻个体差异。
“特别”求学路——硕士 篇 那时的韦特默迫于教授的压力，不得已又
被遗忘的临床心理学之父—韦特默
苏州大学心理咨询与辅导组
1
“韦氏”五大家
2
“特别”求学路
3
“默默”五贡献
4
“默默”被人忘
韦 氏 五 大 家
David Witmer
Katherine Huchel
Lightner Witmer
Albert Ferree
Lilly Evelyn
Paul Delancey
“默默”五贡献
一、
创立了“临床心理学”这一心理 学分支学科
二、
1896年，在宾大建立了世界上第 一个“心理诊所”。
三、
创建并刊发临床心理学领域的第 一本期刊“The Psychological Clinic ”
“默默”五贡献
四、
实施了一系列临床心理学的培训项目，培 养了一大批临床心理学的学生，为后来临 床心理学的辉煌发展奠定了基础。
老二 宾大心理学博士， 1897年加入韦特 默团队成为一名 生理心理学教师， 6年后离开宾大， 在纽约一医院做 神经科学研究。
老三
宾大生物学学士 宾夕法尼亚女子 医学院医学硕士、 博士 后在德国进修细 菌学
老四
宾大 制药专业博 士，唯一一个继 承父业的孩子。
“特别”求学路——学士篇
高中就读于费城主教学院，17岁（1884 年）进入宾州大学，学习艺术专业，2年 后转入金融与经济专业。21岁毕业后， 并没有立即读研，而在一个男子学校教 英语和历史教了2年。
五、
促进了特殊教育、学校心理学和应用心理 学的发展。
“默默”被人忘
作为“临床心理学”之父，韦特默为临 床心理学的发展做出了巨大贡献。但后 人知之甚少，远不如精分创始人弗洛伊 德、行为主义创始人华生出名。 作为APA创会成员，韦特默是最后一个 去世的，但是APA网站上竟然没有韦特 默的去上，韦特默攻击 APA，认为APA应该接受他的三条建议： （1）APA只应接受心理学论文 （2）哲学心理学独立出一个美国哲学学会 （3）APA成员需谨慎选择 APA因韦特默攻击而对其不满，韦特默因 APA未采纳其意见也不满。
为何被人忘？
2、给当时的APA主席Hall写信，批评当 时流行的非实验心理学研究取向。 3、1904铁钦纳采纳韦特默的建议，建立 一个实验心理学的组织。但韦特默认为 女人容易情绪化从而不能去讨论有意义 的合适的科学论题，因此在这个组织中 排斥女性。因此，韦特默受到历代女同 胞的厌恶。
大韦特默
David Vitmer: 1862年毕业于 宾夕法尼亚大 学制药专业， 后成为宾州德 国城十分有名 的药剂师。
韦家老大——Lightner witmer
出生日期 1867.6.28 出生地 宾夕法尼亚州费城 1884——1888 宾大 学士 学习 1889——1891 宾大 硕士 经历 1891——1893 莱比锡大学 博士 家庭情况 已婚 妻（Repplier） 美国哲学学会成员
为何被人忘？
4、抨击同事：批判了两个他最亲密的工 作伙伴康奈尔大学的铁钦纳和哈佛大学 的闵斯特伯格（Munsterberg）。他强调 心理学要帮助别人尤其是要帮助问题孩 子克服他们的缺陷。 5、批评整个哲学中的唯灵性，并大胆建 议尝试从APA中排除哲学家。
为何被人忘？
7、性格不好：十分好争辩，且倔
强固执己见。动不动就炮轰身边的 人。
8、他的大部分观点都是有缺陷的，无法 被证伪的。 9、他的观点大多超前，明显不会受到同 时代人的欣赏因此同时代的心理史学家 便用带有偏见的观点忽略了韦特默。
临床心理学
1、临床心理学定义：①临床心理学是心理学的一个分支学科②临床心理学注重对人类个体的能力和特点的测量和评估，并根据所收集到的资料对个体进行分析，以支持其所得的有关结论。
③临床心理学工作者会去帮助那些存在心理困扰的人们2、依特指出：临床心理学家所从事的个体评估、治疗或其他活动都不是临床心理学所独有的，只是他们的临床态度，即不仅对行为（特别是问题行为）进行研究，而且还要对行为进行干预才是临床心理学的独特性所在。
即临床心理学是一种应用心理学的原理和程序，对智力、情绪、心理及行为问题进行理解，预测和干预的————————3、临床心理学工作：评估、治疗、研究、教学、咨询、管理。
4、临床心理学出现因素：①心理学中科学研究方法的使用②对人类个体差异的兴趣的发展③对行为异常的看法及治疗方式5、临床心理学之父——赖特纳韦特默。
1896年，他创建了第一个心理诊所，是世界上第一个儿童指导诊所，并成为临床心理学产生的标志6、临床心理学家的思维方式：描述、解释、预测、改变7、掌握理论模型的价值以及一个完善的理论模型，应该具有的条件①简约②实证研究的支持③适用于不同的问题和人④变化和发展的能力⑤可验证性⑥逻辑的内部一致性8、临床心理学两大部分：评估和干预9、最好的理论模型的特点是：其假设性和实用性应能在广泛的范围内得到清楚的验证。
10、兼容并包态度的集中表现就是“方法任选”途径①即把来自不同理论体系中的有关成分整合在一起，这样去治疗某一病人时会增加治疗的效果②在对一个或几个病人进行干预的不同时刻，都可以根据病人的具体问题选择一种与之相匹配的理论模型。
11、对从现存的技术语言中求得共同指标的想法持怀疑态度12、62%~65%倾向于“有系统的方法任选”4%~11%倾向于“非理论的方法任选”27%31%倾向于“技术的方法任选”13、APA的临床心理学分会提议临床心理学家需有心理学博士学位和四年的实践经验，而且要实施统一监督。
这一建议也即目前一直很流行的“科学家——实践者”培训模型14、1947年9月刊发，名为《受欢迎的临床心理学毕业培训课程》，即沙科渥报告15、沙科渥报告建议：①临床新心理学家应首先作为心理学家（科学家）接受培训，其次才是作为实践者进行培训②临床心理学家应像其他学科一样接受四年的博士水平培训，其中一年是在专家指导下的临床实习③临床培训的要点包括评估，研究和治疗三个方面，因此其课程包括普通心理学、心理动力学、评估技术、研究方法以及心理治疗16、沙科渥科学家—实践者模型，也称布尔达模式17、“科学家—实践者”模型，主要内容①课程②实习课程③研究④实习⑤合格考试18、过度疲劳：个体心身资源的枯竭，造成这种状况是由于临床心理学家对自己的不切实际的期望长期得不到满足的结果。
美国心理学家,赖特纳,韦特默
美国心理学家，赖特纳，韦特默赖特纳·韦特默到19世纪后期，心理科学的地位已经稳定，心理学家已经在用科学的方法去研究个体差异，而且弗洛伊德（S.Freud）的精神分析理论也为理解心理异常提供了一种系统的理论和方法。
在这种背景下，美国心理学家赖特纳·韦特默（LightnerWitmer，1867—1956）作为第一个临床心理学家出现了。
韦特默1867年6月28日出生于美国宾夕法尼亚州的费城。
1888年从费城大学本科毕业，1891～1892年到德国莱比锡大学向冯特学习心理学。
从1892年起他又回到费城大学攻读法律，后转读哲学，并兼做心理学实验室的研究助理。
1896年起，他在拜因穆尔学院（BrynMayrCollege）建立了实验心理学实验室，并积极参与了宾州低能儿童培训学校的工作。
就在这一年里，韦特默创建了第一个心理诊所（PsychologicClinic），这是世界上第一个儿童指导诊所，并成为临床心理学产生的标志。
韦特默是美国心理学会的最早的成员之一。
他1896年在费城大学介绍他的诊所时引起了同行的注意，并刺激了心理学家对“临床方法”的兴趣。
值得指出的是，当时的科学心理学已有了17年的历史，并把它定义为研究意识的科学，因此韦特默引起当时很多批评。
认为心理学的临床应用既不成熟，也不是心理学家的任务，心理学家只是作为科学家和教育者。
尽管韦特默在美国心理学界受到冷遇，但在费城大学及其他地方却有很多人支持他。
1897年夏天，韦特默开设了一个4周的课程，主题是临床儿童心理学，内容包括个案演示、诊断技术和心理测验的实施，以及在教育治疗方面的训练等。
这一课程连续举办了几个夏天，到1900年，他平均每天会见三个孩子，并请来了一些著名专家进行咨询。
到1916年，韦特默的工作取得了明显的进展。
这一年他创办了系统培训发展学校（OrthogenicSchool）作为诊所的附属，主要着重于心理诊断和对智力落后学生的训练。
韦特默—一个被心理学界遗忘的英雄
4.
Psychology as a discipline：
尽管韦特默没有受到APA的认同，但他在 宾夕法尼亚大学及其它地方却得到了很多人 的支持 ，在1907年他创办了系统培训发展 学校 ，主要着重于心理诊断和对智力落后学 生的训练。同时还创办了《心理学临床》杂 志，发表个案报告、研究、书评以及与临床 心理学有关的新闻。在此后的30年里这一直 是唯一的一份临床心理学杂志。在杂志的第 一期里，韦特默宣称心理学的一个新的领域 已经建立起来，他并建议称之为‘临床心理 学”。在此后的30年里，韦特默一直是该杂 志的唯一编辑。
3.Women：
1904年铁钦纳重新采纳了韦特默的建议两人达成共 识建立一个实验心理学的组织，但韦指出这个组织应该 是只有男人组成的，他认为女人太情绪化从而不能去讨 论一些有意义的合适的科学论题。It is a common belief that Titchener was the first experimentalist to oppose women. 而实际上，韦特默才是提议排挤女性的发起者， 铁钦纳对此时持怀疑态度的。就是因为这个因素使得韦 在女性心理学家中很不受欢迎。在1904年，韦和Emma Repplier 结婚后带了很多女研究生，他的一些优秀的 女学生做了很多很出色的工作，这使得他对女性的态度 有了公开的转变，从这些转变中我们可以看出他是一个 能正视自己的错误并不断改正的人。
一个被心理学界遗忘的英雄
A Forgotten Hero of Psychology
—— Lightner Witmer
Abstract
Lightner Witmer is considered to be the father of clinicalpsychology founded the first clinical psychologylaboratory, and assisted in the development of specialeducation, school psychology, and applied psychology. However, Witmer has been somewhat erased frompsychology textbooks.(韦特默被认为是“临
心理咨询的历史与发展
一、心理咨询及其相关概念（一）咨询咨询（counsel）古已有之。
我国古代，许多诸侯都聘请一些谋士为自己出谋划策；古罗马教会亦曾选择一些有专门知识的人帮助主教并提供意见。
人们的身体出了毛病时会去咨询医生；个人的权利被人侵犯时会去咨询律师；学生有学习困惑时会向老师请教……。
事实上，由于个人能力的局限性，从人类出现开始，人们就没有停止过咨询。
在我国，“咨询”一词最早载于《书·舜典》中：“咨十有二牧，询于四岳”。
《说文》解释为“访问于善为咨”，即向真诚可信的人询问或求教。
《现代汉语词典》（2005）对“咨询”一词的解释是：询问；征求意见。
在英语中，counsel (动词)源于拉丁语cinsuitato，有商讨、劝告、征求意见、寻求信息等意思。
counsel的动名词counseling有咨询之义。
国外有学者认为：咨询是指受过训练的咨询者（counselor）和来访者（client）之间的一种职业关系，这种关系通常是一对一的关系，尽管有的时候这种关系超过两个人。
咨询的目的是：通过一些有意义的过程解决情绪、人际关系等问题，帮助来访者理解和澄清其生活观点，学会达到自己确定的生活目标。
雷伯(Reber)认为，咨询是一个试图用谈话、测验、指导、建议等过程帮助一个人解决问题、计划未来的一般术语。
对照中外文献对咨询的理解，可以发现其共同点：咨询是指一方向另一方征求意见，寻求帮助。
（二）心理咨询自从1938年威廉森（E．G．Williamson）首次提出counseling（咨询）一词后，心理咨询这一朝阳行业一直都在蓬勃发展，然而到底心理咨询是什么，似乎至今仍无公认的定义。
美国著名心理学家罗杰斯（Rogers,1942）认为：心理咨询是一个过程，在这个过程中，咨询者和来访者的关系能给予来访者一种安全感，使他可以开放自己，正视自己过去曾否定的经验，然后把那些经验融入已经转变了的自己，作出统合。
罗杰斯将心理咨询看成是一种帮助人的过程，强调人际关系在咨询中的重要性，相信人可以通过对自己的重新认识达到自我改变。
临床心理学之父-韦特默
临床心理学之父-韦特默到19世纪后期，心理科学的地位已经稳定，心理学家已经在用科学的方法去研究个体差异，而且弗洛伊德（S.Freud）的精神分析理论也为理解心理异常提供了一种系统的理论和方法。
在这种背景下，美国心理学家赖特纳·韦特默（LightnerWitmer，1867—1956）作为第一个临床心理学家出现了。
韦特默1867年6月28日出生于美国宾西法尼亚州的费城。
1888年从费城大学本科毕业，1891～1892年到德国莱比锡大学向冯特学习心理学。
从1892年起他又回到费城大学攻读法律，后转读哲学，并兼做心理学实验室的研究助理。
1896年起，他在拜因穆尔学院（BrynMayrCollege）建立了实验心理学实验室，并积极参与了宾州低能儿童培训学校的工作。
就在这一年里，韦特默创建了第一个心理诊所（PsychologicClinic），这是世界上第一个儿童指导诊所，并成为临床心理学产生的标志。
韦特默是美国心理学会的最早的成员之一。
他1896年在费城大学介绍他的诊所时引起了同行的注意，并刺激了心理学家对“临床方法”的兴趣。
值得指出的是，当时的科学心理学已有了17年的历史，并把它定义为研究意识的科学，因此韦特默引起当时很多批评。
认为心理学的临床应用既不成熟，也不是心理学家的任务，心理学家只是作为科学家和教育者。
尽管韦特默在美国心理学界受到冷遇，但在费城大学及其他地方却有很多人支持他。
1897年夏天，韦特默开设了一个4周的课程，主题是临床儿童心理学，内容包括个案演示、诊断技术和心理测验的实施，以及在教育治疗方面的训练等。
这一课程连续举办了几个夏天，到1900年，他平均每天会见三个孩子，并请来了一些著名专家进行咨询。
到1916年，韦特默的工作取得了明显的进展。
这一年他创办了系统培训发展学校（OrthogenicSchool）作为诊所的附属，主要着重于心理诊断和对智力落后学生的训练。
同时还创办了《心理学临床》杂志，发表个案报告、研究、书评以及与临床心理学有关的新闻。
JC06心理咨询概论单科作业题
JC06心理咨询概论单科作业题( 单选题 )1. 精神分析理论之所以被称为深层心理学，其原因是（）。
A. 不承认潜意识层面心理活动的存在B. 十分强调意识活动对人类心理的深刻作用C. 十分强调潜意识对人类心理的作用D. 否认意识层面心理活动的存在正确答案C答案解析由于弗洛伊德十分强调深层的潜意识对人类心理的作用，所以，人们又把它的理论称作“深层心理学”。
《基础理论》（绿皮，培训资料）-咨询心理学-历史上的几种观点-精神分析理论观点-第434页《理论知识》（黄皮，中国劳动社会保障出版社)-心理咨询概论-历史上的几种观点-精神分析理论观点-第347页( 单选题 )2. 弗洛伊德学说在咨询心理学历史上属于（）。
A. 行为学派B. 认知学派C. 动力学派D. 人本主义学派正确答案C答案解析我们一提到心理动力学一般都是指的是弗洛伊德的精神分析。
《补充教材》（绿皮，培训资料）-心理咨询概论-常用的咨询取向和方法-心理动力学取向-第41页《理论知识》（黄皮，中国劳动社会保障出版社)-心理咨询概论-常用的咨询取向和方法-心理动力学取向-第366页( 单选题 )3. 钟友彬认识领悟疗法属于（）。
A. 认知疗法B. 精神分析疗法C. 行为疗法D. 人本主义疗法正确答案B答案解析钟友彬先生提出的“中国精神分析”和“认知-领悟疗法”很有见地，也很有理论和应用价值。
它的理论基石是铁定在精神分析上，他认为目前的症状是早年创伤造成“心理发育停滞”的结果，而不是“错误认知结构”造成的结果。
所以，实际它是中国的“精神分析疗法”，又称“钟氏疗法”。
《基础理论》（绿皮，培训资料）-咨询心理学-历史上的几种观点-精神分析理论观点-第438页《理论知识》（黄皮，中国劳动社会保障出版社)-心理咨询概论-历史上的几种观点-精神分析理论观点-第350页( 单选题 )4. 斯金纳的条件反射是（）。
A. 工具条件反射B. 经典条件反射C. 强化条件反射D. 动作条件反射正确答案A答案解析在斯金纳的动物实验中，展示了动物主动地按压杠杆，从而取得食物，并因得到强化而被巩固的整个过程。
心理学界被遗忘的英雄——韦特默
AbstractLightner Witmer is considered to be the father of clinical psychology founded the first clinical psychology laboratory, and assisted in the development of special education, school psychology, and applied psychology. However, Witmer has been somewhat erased from psychology textbooks. The author examines the life and work of Lightner Witmer so as to find a reason for his erasure. Whether it be his argumentative means of communication, his comparison of chimpanzees to children, or the lack of appreciation for his ideas and theories, it seems clear that Lightner Witmer is a forgotten hero of psychology.The goals for this paper are to discover Lightner Witmer as a person and a psychologist and to uncover why he has been forgotten by many. This may be a difficult task for Witmer was a very private person who did not leave an abundance of letters, autobiographical notes, or other memorabilia to help see him clearly (McReynolds, 1997). Witmer has been known for his great contributions to the field of clinical psychology and applying the knowledge of psychology to helping other people— especially children. He founded the first clinical psychology laboratory in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania and was the first professional to use the term “clinical psychology”. He assisted many children in overcoming what he referred to as “defects” in his laboratory. Although Witmer was originally on the more hereditarian side of the heredity-environment controversy, later in life he came to be one of the first to swim against the hereditarian tide (McReynolds, 1997a). Using this latter approach, Witmer defined defects as “not a disease, nor is it necessarily the result of a defect in the brain. Rather it is a mental status, a stage of mental development” (McReynolds, 1997a, p. 158). Especially in the latter of Witmer’s career, there was a strong emphasis on the environmental and socioeconomic role in relation to the development of a child’s capacity. In addition to clinical psychology, he made great advancements in the field of school psychology and special education. He guided psychologists, and other professionals, in the necessary steps to aid children in overcoming learning disabilities.While Witmer made many great contributions to the fields of psychology and education he has been somewhat historically erased. The American Psychological Association (APA) website does not have his obituary posted among the many other great psychologists. The fact that he contributed so much to a variety of fields yet has been nearly erased from psychology textbooks and history is intriguing. What was it about Lightner Witmer or his work that has caused him to be shunned in the realm of psychology? Could his work have been ahead of his time? Was there some political agenda that conflicted with the goals of his research? Throughout my research of Lightner Witmer and his work, I theorize that his research and ideas were ahead of his time. He was a pioneer in the field of clinical psychology and helping others. Though others may have felt that psychology was not meant as an instrument to guide people in overcoming their defects, Witmer pressed through the criticism and would not let his dream die. Witmer may not have realized the consequences of his actions at the time, but they are very obvious today— no recognition.ChildhoodLightner Witmer was born June 28, 1867 (McReynolds, 1997a), which is historically just a few years after the American Civil War. As a young boy, Witmer grew up as part of the post-war generation. This generation was living in a plethora of emotion from the war— there was an atmosphere of relief, worry, and hope. Witmer was born in Philadelphia which was surrounded by what are now historical events, such as the battle of Gettysburg and the famous address made by Lincoln. Philadelphians are a proud group that comes from a long history which still remains today (McReynolds, 1997a). Witmer most likely had such pride instilled; not only as a Philadelphian, but later in his career as a psychologist. This may have been what led to Witmer’s demise. His pride of his work may have overpowered the social etiquette that had been expected of psychologists in his day. In addition, the great amount of hope that he was raised with may have contributed to his later theory of applying psychology to helping others. Since Witmer was a young boy he had hoped of a better world. In the years after the war there was a strong feeling of justice and Correspondence regarding this manuscript may be directed to Hannah Thomass, Department of Psychology, University of Central Oklahoma 100 N. University Dr. Edmond, Oklahoma 73034. E-mail h.hthomas@ucoeduDiscovering Lightner Witmer: A Forgotten Hero of PsychologyHannah ThomasUniversity of Central Oklahomaidealism throughout the country and the town in which he was raised. The pride, optimism of a better world, and idealistic hope that surrounded Witmer characterized his later adult life. We see this in Witmer’s work as he hopes for a better world for children— one in which they can overcome their defects and continue their education.Education and FamilyEducation was highly valued among the Witmer family. Lighter Witmer’s father, David Witmer, was a pharmacist; education was not a novel idea within the Witmer household. However, few historical facts are known about his mother, Katherine (McReynolds, 1997a). This is unfortunate since at this time period the mother had the most influence on children’s values and everyday lifestyle. Since the mother was the parent to stay at home, I speculate that the Witmer children received their educational aspirations from their father. The father was a graduate of college, while their mother instilled other aspects such as manners, honesty, and respect of authority. For instance, as a young boy, Witmer’s parents sent him to a dance school in order to learn the proper social graces (McReynolds, 1997a). I further speculate Mrs. Witmer was also influential and supportive in her children’s educational aspirations considering she most likely spent the majority of her day looking after the children and assuring that homework was completed.David and Katherine Witmer had a total of four children. The eldest, Lightner Witmer, was originally recorded as David L. Witmer Jr. Since childhood, he had always been referred to as Lightner. Witmer changed his name legally to Lightner, but not until the age of 50. The second child was named Albert Ferree, the third child was named Lilly Evelyn, and the last of the Witmer family to be born was Paul DeLancey. All of the Witmer children earned higher education degrees and professional careers (McReynolds, 1997a). From this, it is obvious that the Witmer family highly valued education. The parents persisted on having their children earn an education.All of the Witmer children attended the top schools in Philadelphia. Albert Ferree attended the University of Pennsylvania where he earned his doctorate in physiology (McReynolds, 1997a). Later, in 1897, Ferree joined Witmer on the University of Pennsylvania staff as the teacher of physiological psychology (McReynolds, 1997a). Six years passed, and Feree left University of Pennsylvania for the neurologist position at the Hospital for Ruptured and Crippled in New York City (McReynolds, 1997a). Lilly Evelyn also attended the University of Pennsylvania within the biology department where she obtained her BS. She furthered her education by attending the Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania (McReynolds, 1997a). Upon completing her medical training and advanced study, Lilly took an opportunity to study bacteriology in Berlin (McReynolds, 1997a). Paul, the youngest, was the only one not to attend the University of Pennsylvania but later earned a doctoral degree in pharmacy with the intention of continuing his father’s line of work (McReynolds, 1997a). In 1905, all four Witmer children held doctorate degrees (McReynolds, 1997a). Even today it would be difficult for a family to produce such an education. In 1905, this feat must have been incredible. The fact that all four children continued their education until completion of a doctoral degree is evidence of the importance and emphasis on education that must have been stressed by the Witmer parents.Witmer’s EducationWitmer attended the Episcopal Academy of Philadelphia for his college preparatory work. The Episcopal Academy of Philadelphia was one of the most prestigious schools both socially and academically. The fact that Witmer attended such a school speaks volumes to the emphasis that was placed on education by his parents. The Witmer family was neither of nobility nor money, which lends support to the hard work that both Lightner Witmer and his parents must have done in order to ensure his acceptance into the Episcopal Academy of Philadelphia. At the age of 17, Witmer finished his work at the Academy and in the fall of 1884 Lightner enrolled at the Univrsity of Pennsylvania (McReynolds, 1997a). College years.Witmer originally had no knowledge in regards to the field of psychology; the University of Pennsylvania had no such department as of yet. At this time, psychology was a new field and unknown. Upon entering the University of Pennsylvania Witmer was an Art major; however, after just two years he transferred to Finance and Economy. After four years, Witmer graduated at the age of twenty-one with his BA degree (McReynolds, 1997a). After graduating it seems as if Witmer was not sure exactly what to do with his degree and where his life was headed. Although the Witmer family valued education so highly, Witmer chose not to immediately attend graduate school. Rather, he took a position teaching English and History at the Rugby Academy for boys (McReynolds, 1997a). There may have been many reasons why Witmer chose to teach rather than to further his education. He may have felt that he had finished his education, but that seems unlikely since his family valued education so dearly. It is possible that Witmer decided he should gain teaching experience as a means to determine his future career. Most likely, however, he needed to work for financial reasons. Witmer worked at the Rugby Academy for boys for a total of two years. During his last year teaching, Witmer made the decision to enter into graduate school at University of Pennsylvania (McReynolds, 1997a). The fact that Witmer continued to teach while attending graduate school, which it is verytiring and difficult to work while completing coursework, implies that Witmer was working solely out of financial need.Graduate school.Witmer began his graduate coursework in the fall of 1889 in the department of philosophy. However, shortly after it began he changed departments to political science (McReynolds, 1997a). Witmer changed his course of study in both his undergraduate and graduate levels of study. Perhaps this is due to the fact that Witmer was unable to find a field that suited him best. He seemed to have many interests in life, but was not able to find a major that fit his unspoken goals in life. Little did Witmer know that the field he was searching for was just beginning at the University of Pennsylvania.As a student of philosophy, and then political science, Witmer paid little attention to the new faculty member that the University had hired his first semester— James McKeen Cattell. Cattell immediately began work to open a laboratory on the University campus. This was a laboratory of experimental psychology which focused on individual differences among persons (McReynolds, 1997a). Through some coercion from the professors in June of 1980, Witmer took an assistantship under Cattell and changed his major, yet again, to experimental psychology. Witmer was one of four graduate students in the experimental psychology program and was assigned to collect data on individual differences in reaction time using all classes of persons as subjects (McReynolds, 1997a).Witmer thrived in this new and upcoming field of experimental psychology. He excelled in his courses, and his in-depth understanding of the process to conducting experiments can be seen in his first book. Witmer’s (1902) book outlined and modeled experiments to their minute detail. He explained the processes necessary to conduct valid and reliable experiments, the necessary information in an experimental write up, and how to conduct such experiments among students in an academic setting. Witmer’s (1902) book can be viewed, not as a book, but rather as a manual to students and professors on the appropriate manner in which experimental psychology should be conducted.A trip to Germany.While Witmer was flourishing in the new field of psychology under the direction of Cattell, in June of 1891— just a year after Witmer began his assistantship— Cattell left the University of Pennsylvania for a teaching position at Columbia University (McReynolds, 1997a). Cattell, who was the sole professor of psychology, left his graduate students and his laboratory in its infancy. Rather than change majors, which he had been known to do, Witmer surprisingly decided to stay with the program and finish it through. Since Witmer had been so fickle with his major in the past, it stands to reason that he actually enjoyed and found a passion for psychology. However, a new problem arose for Witmer, as there was no professor of psychology. Cattell, most likely through guilt of abandoning his former students, aided Witmer in obtaining a graduate assistant position with Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, Germany. Cattell had previously worked with Wundt, so his recommendation may have been instrumental to Witmer being awarded such an honor as to study with Wundt (McReynolds, 1997a). Witmer showed no previous interest in leaving Pennsylvania before this graduate assistant position was offered. He saw it as an excellent, and probably once in a lifetime, opportunity to further his education and work with such an influential person in psychology. Again, we see the emphasis of education that was placed on Witmer as a young boy being fulfilled and flourishing.Witmer left for Germany in February of 1891 to study under Wilhelm Wundt. Unfortunately, records of his stay there are scarce (McReynolds, 1997a). There seems to have been no personal letters or correspondence between Witmer and any colleagues for the entire duration of his stay in Leipzig. Although Witmer and Wundt received each other well, they had their share of disputes. For instance, there was a great disagreement between Witmer and Wundt in regards to Witmer’s dissertation. Witmer wanted to continue the work that he had begun with Cattell on individual differences. However, Wundt did not see the importance of this. Rather, he urged Witmer to study the aesthetic value of different visual forms (McReynolds, 1997a). Witmer obeyed his mentor’s instructions and completed his dissertation on the aesthetic volume of visual forms. Although Witmer completed his graduate coursework and left Germany after one year, he did not receive his formal doctoral diploma until the 29th of March in 1893. At the end of 1892, Witmer became concerned that his dissertation had not been published, as had been planned, and that he had not received his doctoral diploma. Only after desperate personal correspondence with Wundt about this matter did he finally receive his diploma (McReynolds, 1997a). Perhaps Wundt held back the release of Witmer’s diploma due to their disagreement, or perhaps, this was a new side of Witmer revealed— self conscious, self-doubting, and unsure of himself. Witmer as a ProfessorAt the age of twenty-five, in April of 1892, Witmer returned to the University of Pennsylvania and oversaw the work in psychology. Since Cattell had left there was no one to hold the position of psychology professor (University of Pennsylvania, 1892). Although there is little information on Witmer’s research for a few years after his return, in 1894 Witmer began teaching his first courses on the study of child psychology. By today’s standards Witmer was by no means an expert in such subjects. However, the University must have consideredhim fit to teach courses of this nature due to the developmental, educational, and psychology courses taken in Germany. In addition to his regular teaching schedule, Witmer became active in the University’s special program to provide continued education for local public school teachers. There, he developed a close relationship with George Twitmeyer, the principle of the Honesdale, PA school system (McReynolds, 1997a). Witmer’s participation in these extra courses appears to be the catalyst for the origins of his psychological clinic that would soon develop.In general, Witmer was remembered as a complex person. As a teacher, he was quite formal in his classes but informal in the clinic (McReynolds, 1997b). Frances Holsopple (later Parsons), a graduate student of Witmer’s recalled his disposition while in the clinic. “He was always careful never to talk over the head of a subject, and he conducted very good interviews with parents” (McReynolds, 1996, p. 67). However, some days were quite different. Genevieve Murphy, a teacher-therapist at the clinic, recalled that Witmer was “typically genial and pleasant, but was sometimes moody, and could be scathing in his criticism when things were not done right” (McReynolds, 1996, p. 69). From recollections of former students and employees, and evidence to come, the fact that things were to be done Witmer’s way is evident. For instance, he placed specific students in charge of the temperature in his classroom. Witmer insisted that his classroom be kept precisely at 68 degrees (McReynolds, 1997a; McReynolds, 1997b).Applying psychology.Witmer, ever since childhood, had been an individual who knew what he believed in. At this time, tremendous psychological interest was in hypnosis, hysteria, dissociation, notions of the subconscious, the unconscious and automatic processes. These themes did not appeal to Witmer (McReynolds, 1997a). Witmer addressed the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1896 with an article that some consider pivotal to Witmer’s future work, which was published in 1897 in The Psychological Review.“The Organization of Practical work in Psychology” was a crucial statement made by Witmer that informed his colleagues of his views and hopes of psychology. Witmer made clear his intention of applying psychology to humans especially to better children in their academia (Witmer, 1897). Although this may seem an obvious application to many today, it was a novel idea to professionals in the late eighteen-hundreds.Witmer’s (1897) intentions were quite simple. He had devised a structured plan for applying psychology to helping others and making psychology useful. He stated that departments should have close involvement with classes and grades of children in order to conduct physical and mental tests. In addition, a department of psychology needed to be equipped with specimens and apparatus’ used, outside facilities for defective children needed to be in agreement with the psychology department, and instruction in psychology should be given to teachers as well as psychologists. There is some controversy over how well his 1897 address was received. According to widely accepted lore, his address was poorly received, with the only reaction to his presentation being a few raised eyebrows. This recollection came from Dr. Joseph Collins, a well-known neurologist of the time. However, Collins was not in attendance at the 1896 meeting (McReynolds, 1997a). Perhaps Collins recounted the statements made by others. Regardless, the overall response to Witmer’s career makes this alleged response seem plausible. Here again, we witness psychologists who are not ready for the ideas of Witmer. They are not ready for organization, application, and improving performance of others. Rather, it appears as though they are satisfied with the methods of introspection.Witmer AttacksAmerican Psychological Association.In addition to this innovative proposal made by Witmer, another pivotal motion was made at the 1896 APA meeting by certain colleagues, who will later be known as the experimentalists. They motioned that the APA should not include philosophical psychology. Witmer specifically offered three motions: the first being that APA should only accept psychological papers; the second that there should be a separate American Philosophical Association for philosophical psychology. Witmer’s third and final motion was that election membership be more selective (McReynolds, 1997a). These motions proposed by Witmer, and those later to be known as the experimentalists, were the beginning to a division in the psychology community. Such proposals appear to be an attempt at defining and separating psychology as its own profession. The fact that Witmer was the one to speak out and make such proposals to his colleagues speaks volumes to his character. Such an event shows that he was a headstrong individual who stood for what he believed. We will see this courage to speak out against his colleagues for what he believed to be true throughout his career. Although Witmer made specific points and a course of action in which the APA should make psychology separate from philosophy, no formal action was taken. However, at the next convention more stringent membership requirements were adopted but not to the satisfaction of Witmer (McReynolds, 1997a).Non-experimentalists.In response to his own dissatisfaction with the APA’s response to his proposal, Witmer wrote to G. Stanley Hall to propose the formation of a new society exclusively for experimental psychologists. Hall, at this time, was the president of the American Psychological Association. Unfortunately, Witmer’s letter did not survive. Rather, a letter from Hall to Edward B. Titchener dated, March1898, recounted Witmer’s original letter to Hall. Hall wrote to Titchener, “A line from Witmer says that he wants to join you, me, and others in forming a new psychological organization which shall put the lab on a proper basis and exclude half-breeds and extremists. Do you want to consider it?” (McReynolds, 1997a, p. 88). At this time, the group that Witmer proposed did not materialize due to Titchener’s opposition for fear of dividing psychology in its new state. Although Witmer’s new organization did not materialize at this time, this letter speaks volumes to his character. Since the original letter did not survive, it cannot be determined if Hall was quoting Witmer, or if he actually considered non-experimental psychologists to be half-breeds. Yet even if it was not a direct quote, the implication that Witmer devalued non-experimental psychologists is clearly visible. Contradictorily, Witmer still highly valued experimental psychology even though his goal for psychology was application. There appears to be somewhat of a dueling-Witmer: Witmer the experimental psychologist and Witmer the clinical psychologist. While Witmer was attempting to gain ground in the area of clinical psychology he was still an experimentalist at heart. Witmer may have been toying with the idea of making psychology practical, as well as scientific and applied.Women.As previously mentioned, Witmer’s proposition to Hall for the formation of a society for experimental psychologists was turned down by Titchener. However, in 1904 Witmer’s proposal was reconsidered. Titchener decided to drop out of the American Psychological Association due to their refusal to censure or expel E.W. Scripture for plagiarism (McReynolds, 1997a). After the APA refused to expel Scripture, Titchener decided to leave the APA, and reconsidered Witmer’s original proposal of an experimental society. Titchener corresponded with Witmer and informed him that it was essential they have a separate experimental society. At first, Witmer was hesitant— probably due to Titchener’s opposition to his idea earlier. After some thought, Witmer accepted Titchener’s proposal. In a letter to Titchener, Witmer expressed his enthusiasm for the formation of such a society. At the same time, we get a glimpse into the personal attitude of Witmer towards women. “I think that the presence of women in the organization adds greatly to this danger, owing to the personal attitude which they usually take even in scientific discussions” (McReynolds, 1997a, p. 110). The rest of the letter showed that Witmer hoped that this new society will be only for men. Witmer’s words implied that women are too emotional even during discussions of scientific topics, and that women will hinder the chance to have appropriate and meaningful scientific discussions.It is a common belief that Titchener was the first experimentalist to oppose women. However, Witmer’s letters imply that he may have been the originator of the proposal to exclude women. In his letter to Titchener, Witmer wrote “I am quite positive in my objection to inviting women” (McReynolds, 1997a, p. 110). Witmer’s words implied that Titchener was actually questioning his proposal of excluding women. Contrary to popular belief, Witmer may have persuaded Titchener toward the exclusion of women rather than it being solely Titchener’s idea. This fact alone would make Witmer unpopular among the female psychologists, and so we find another reason to strike Witmer from psychology’s history. Regardless of the popularity of Witmer’s opposition to women joining the experimentalists may have been, the cultural context must be considered. In the early 1900’s, women were still not publicly recognized at scientists. In addition, during informal gatherings men and women tended to congregate amongst their own gender. Witmer’s mindset, along with other experimentalists of the time, may have been compartmentalized in regards to gender based on cultural norms.To have been so adamantly against the inclusion of women seems out of character for Witmer. In 1904, he married Emma Repplier and had numerous female graduate students working for him (McReynolds, 1997a). It was not until 1920, that there was a public change in Witmer’s attitude toward women. In his later years, he was apparently “on the lookout for good women candidates for training” (McReynolds, 1997a, p. 222). In addition, he employed numerous females at his clinic (both students and public school teachers) and appointed Elizabeth O’Conner as the manager of hic clinic. She held this position until Witmer’s death. Upon his passing, he left in his will to her the name of the school, the right to operate the school, and all of the equipment at the school (McReynolds, 1997a). It is clear from these later gestures in life that he was a flexible man that was able to see his errors at times. He took note of the excellent work that female students were producing, and thus changed his attitude towards women.Psychology as a discipline.Despite supposed negative feedback from the APA meeting in 1896, Witmer opened his laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania with the intention of helping children with mental defects. In 1907, Witmer published his second most pivotal article in relation to his clinical psychology laboratory. “Clinical Psychology” provided a personal account of the events leading up to his desire to open such a laboratory and the specific procedures of his laboratory (Witmer, 1907). In addition, he provided an accurate definition of the terminology “clinical psychology” which was first introduced in this publication.While the term ‘clinical’ has been borrowedfrom medicine, clinical psychology is not amedical psychology. I have borrowed the word‘clinical’ from medicine, because it is the bestterm I can find to indicate the character of the。
临床心理学
4、临床心理学所涉及的病种包括临床上 常见的心理障碍、心理疾病和与心理因素 有关的躯体疾病，而并不局限于狭义的精 神疾病或心身性疾病。
5、临床心理学是一门实用性、实践性、 综合性很强的应用学科，因此，它兼收并 蓄古今中外的各种相关的行之有效的心理 学理论和技术。
“认知”这一概念对临床心理学家来说是既 熟悉又陌生的。
熟悉：Kelly（1955）最早以认知的观点研 究人格和心理治疗问题。认知评价，认知 疗法等概念在六、七十年代就由Beck， Ellis等人提出，并已经广泛的应用于临床 评估、心理治疗等各领域。
陌生：认知好像就是被研究者的一些陈述性 观念的代名词，或是其一系列心理加工的 名称，而认知心理学中涉及的具体操作过 程则被忽略不提。
另外，贝克把罗夏墨迹测验介绍到美 国，致使北美的应用心理学家———临床 的、教育的、咨询的、商业的和工业的— ——对美国心理学会过度注重学术研究感 到不满。他们退出美国心理学会（APA） 开始建立自己的组织———美国应用心理 学会(AAAP)。
第二阶段(1940~1946)：功能主义的成功 阶段。
2、不同年龄病人的心理特点及其心理疾病的表
现。 3、不同性别的病人的心理特点及其心理疾病的
表现。 4、不同职业群体的心理特点与心理疾病的表
现。
5、影响药效的心理因素及其对药物心理效 应、药物依赖和成瘾现象的研究。
6、病人对各种诊疗工具和操作的心理反应。 7、病人之间的群体心理现象。 8、病人与外部环境（医院、社会）关系中的
所以，临床心理学要研究医护人员心理活 动的特点，医护工作中的心理变化，医护角色 与病人角色互动的心理活动，医院环境心理， 医护人员的心理素质要求及其培养问题。
临床心理学完整ppt课件
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强调的相关概念是强化和惩罚
如果要使某种行为增多，则在该行为出现的时 候，给予奖励；如果要使某种行为减少，则在 该行为出现的时候，给予惩罚
由此产生的治疗方法有正强化法、行为塑造法、 代币制法和厌恶疗法
精选ppt课件2021
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人本主义关于心理动力的看法
人本主义把人看成是活生生的、独立存在的 生物体，所以它力求去挖掘所谓“人性”， 提倡在“人性”中去寻找人的行为动力。
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行为主义关于行为动力的观点
行为主义者认为，人类行为的原因就是 外界刺激。
以巴甫洛夫为代表的经典的条件学习 以斯金纳为代表的操作性条件学习 以班杜拉为代表的社会观察学习
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Skinner.B F(1904-1990)和他的“斯金纳”箱
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诊断与治疗并重
临床心理学不是以测定和诊断为最后目的，他的最终目的是 通过各种治疗手段，使心理学的理论在某个体身上发挥实效。
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第三节 临床心理学的工作范围
儿童问题（各年龄段的心理问题） 心身问题 在社会生活的各个领域
凡是涉及到人的精神健康问题的领域，都有临床心 理学家在工作。
但主要包括以下三个方面，即在心理学中科学研究方法的使用，对人类个体差
异的兴趣的发展，以及对行为异常的看法及治疗方式等。
临床心理学之父——赖特纳·韦特默
美国心理学家赖特纳·韦特默（1867-1956）是第一位临床心理学家，在
1896年创建了第一个心理诊所，这是世界上第一个儿童指导诊所，并成为临床
心理学产生的标志。
代表人物马斯洛提出了“需要层次论”、 “潜能”、“自我实现”、“高峰体验”等 观点。并认为“潜能”是一个人达到“自我 实现”这一目标的基本动力。
韦特海默
•
1923
Investigations in Gestalt Theory: II. Laws of organization in
perceptual forms. Psychologische Forschung, • • 1938 The general theoretical situation. In W. D. Ellis (Ed.),
• •
高校学习 1898年高中毕业后他进入布拉格的查尔斯大学读法律。哲学家和心理学家厄棱费尔的教学给威特海默留 下了深刻的影响。在这里他还学习了其他课程，如哲学、音乐、生理学和心理学。1902年，他转学到柏 林大学学习哲学和心理学。在他几位声名显赫的老师里就有著名哲学家和心理学家卡尔〃斯图姆夫。 1904年他又转学到符兹堡大学，并于同年在著名哲学家和心理学家屈尔佩的指导下获得哲学博士学位， 毕业论文是关于用词汇联想进行犯罪测定。
用它就会把整体分割成截然不同的、独立的部分然后重组成一个不同于原来的整体的
拼合物。‛韦特海默对语言的看法是他的完形观在语言方面的具体体现。他不仅用完 形观分析语言，还认为其他领域的研究也都习惯于犯类似的错误。
人物评价
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哈佛大学教授、心理学家埃德温〃纽曼说：‚韦特海默 是个勤奋的研究者……在他研究的领域，他写的都文章很 有创意。读了的人总是不禁会说，‘为什么以前就没人这 么想呢？’他的作品不多，总让人读后有欲罢不能之感。 韦特海默从来没写过——我认为他也从来不屑于写——一 个系统的专著。他只是偶尔写文章为格式塔心理学作辩护。 他对自己感兴趣的领域从来没有做过系统的总结。‛ • 对于韦特海默很少写作这件事，纽曼这么说：‚真理就像 一部伟大的乐章，一幅宏伟的幕布，而人只能偶尔听到只 言片语或者看到一个小小的角落。但是全部的真理总是在 那里，等着有勇气有远见的人走过去看。一旦看到、听到， 他要把他写下来，尽管写得不那么完美。韦特海默不善于 写作，就像作曲家不能把听到的全部创作出来一样。语 言——尤其是写下来的语言——在表达真理时总是过于笨 拙；对他而言，没有什么符号能够完美地再现真理。‛