托福阅读tpo54-2WORD打印 - The Commercialization of Lumber
The Commercialization of LumberIn nineteenth-century America, practically everything that was built involved wood. Pine was especially attractive for building purposes. It is durable and strong, yet soft enough to be easily worked with even the simplest of hand tools. It also floats nicely on water, which allowed it to be transported to distant markets across the nation. The central and northern reaches of the Great Lakes states-Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota-all contained extensive pine forests as well as many large rivers for floating logs into the Great Lakes, from where they were transported nationwide. The word “durable ” in the passage is closest in meaning to•readily available•long lasting•dense•flexibleAccording to paragraph 1, all of the following characteristics of pine made it a desirable material for building in nineteenth-century America EXCEPT:•It was long lasting.•It was relatively easy to transport.•Its softness made it easy to work with.•It produced buildings that were especially attractive.By 1860, the settlement of the American West along with timber shortages in the East converged with ever-widening impact on the pine forests of the Great Lakes states. Over the next 30 years, lumbering became a full-fledged enterprise in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Newly formed lumbering corporations bought up huge tracts of pineland and set about systematically cutting the trees. Both the colonists and the later industrialists saw timber as a commodity , but the latter group adopted a far more thorough and calculating approach to removing trees. In this sense, what happened between 1860 and 1890 represented a significant break with the past. No longer were farmers in search of extra income the main source for shingles, firewood, and other wood products. By the 1870s, farmers and city dwellers alike purchased forest products from large manufacturing companies located in the Great Lakes states rather than chopping wood themselves or buying it locally.The word “commodity ” in the passage is closest in meaning to•product•problem•opportunity•advantageWhat can be inferred from paragraph 2 about timber in America before the year 1860 ?•Farmers of the American West earned most of their income by selling timber to newly arrived settlers.•Timber came primarily from farmers who wished to supplement their income.•Timber was much more expensive before the year 1860 because it was less readily available.•Timber came primarily from large manufacturing companies in the EastThe commercialization of lumbering was in part the product of technological change. The early, thick saw blades tended to waste a large quantity of wood, with perhaps as much as a third of the log left behind on the floor as sawdust or scrap. In the 1870s, however, the British-invented band saw , with its thinner blade, became standard issue in the Great Lakes states` lumber factories. Meanwhile, the rise ofsteam-powered mills streamlined production by allowing for the more efficient, centralized, and continuous cutting of lumber. Steam helped to automate a variety of tasks, from cutting to the carrying away of waste. Mills also employed steam to heat log ponds, preventing them from freezing and making possible year-round lumber production.Why does the author discuss the “British-invented band saw ”?•To give an example of how steam power led to technological advancements•To help explain how the thickness of a saw blade determines how much wood is wasted •To explain how competition with other countries benefited the American lumber industry •To illustrate the impact of new technology on the lumber industryThe phrase “allowing for ” in the passage is closest in meaning to•encouraging•introducing•making possible•emphasizingAll of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as resulting from the use of steam in the lumber industry EXCEPT:•Work became centralized, and many tasks were automated.•Lumber could be produced more efficiently and on a larger scale.•Waste materials could be re-used as fuel to power the lumber mills.•Lumber production could continue throughout the cold winter monthsFor industrial lumbering to succeed, a way had to be found to neutralize the effects of the seasons on production. Traditionally, cutting took place in the winter, when snow and ice made it easier to drag logs on sleds or sleighs to the banks of streams. Once the streams and lakes thawed, workers rafted the logs to mills, where they were cut into lumber in the summer. If nature did not cooperate-if the winter proved dry and warm, if the spring thaw was delayed-production would suffer. To counter the effects of climate on lumber production, loggers experimented with a variety of techniques for transporting trees out of the woods. In the 1870s, loggers in the Great Lakes states began sprinkling water on sleigh roads, giving them an artificial ice coating to facilitate travel. The ice reduced the friction and allowed workers to move larger and heavier loads.The word “facilitate ” in the passage is clo sest in meaning to•expand•ease•transform•permitAccording to paragraph 4, how could a warm, dry winter interfere with lumber production?•Certain trees would become dry and yield low-quality lumber.•There would not be enough water in streams and lakes to raft the logs to mills.•It would be more difficult to transport logs to streams and lakes.•Rivers would not be full enough in the spring to power millsBut all the sprinkling in the world would not save a logger from the threat of a warm winter. Without snow the sleigh roads turned to mud. In the 1870s, a set of snowless winters left lumber companies to ponder ways of liberating themselves from the seasons. Railroads were one possibility. At first, the remoteness of the pine forests discouraged common carriers from laying track. But increasing lumber prices in the late 1870s combined with periodic warm, dry winters compelled loggers to turn to iron rails. By 1887, 89 logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan, transforming logging from a winter activity into a year-round one.The word “remoteness ” in the passage is closest in meaning to•decline•density•size•isolationOnce the logs arrived at a river, the trip downstream to a mill could be a long and tortuous one. Logjams (buildups of logs that prevent logs from moving downstream) were common-at times stretching for 10 miles-and became even more frequent as pressure on the northern Midwest pinelands increased in the 1860s. To help keep the logs moving efficiently, barriers called booms (essentially a chain of floating logs) were constructed to control the direction of the timber. By the 1870s, lumber companies existed in all the major logging areas of the northern Midwest.。
托福阅读tpo45R-2原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
tpo45阅读-2Wind Pollination原文 (1)译文 (2)题目 (4)答案 (8)背景知识 (9)原文Wind Pollination①Pollen,a powdery substance,which is produced by flowering plants and contains male reproductive cells,is usually carried from plant to plant by insects or birds,but some plants rely on the wind to carry their pollen.Wind pollination is often seen as being primitive and wasteful in costly pollen and yet it is surprisingly common,especially in higher latitudes.Wind is very good at moving pollen a long way;pollen can be blown for hundreds of kilometers,and only birds can get pollen anywhere near as far.The drawback is that wind is obviously unspecific as to where it takes the pollen.It is like trying to get a letter to a friend at the other end of the village by climbing onto the roof and throwing an armful of letters into the air and hoping that one will end up in the friend's garden.For the relatively few dominant tree species that make up temperate forests,where there are many individuals of the same species within pollen range,this is quite a safe gamble.If a number of people in the village were throwing letters off roofs,your friend would be bound to get one.By contrast,in the tropics,where each tree species has few,widely scattered individuals,the chance of wind blowing pollen to another individual is sufficiently slim that animals are a safer bet as transporters of pollen.Even tall trees in the tropics are usually not wind pollinated despite being in windy conditions.In a similar way,trees in temperate forests that are insect pollinated tend to grow as solitary,widely spread individuals.②Since wind-pollinated flowers have no need to attract insects or other animals, they have dispensed with bright petals,nectar,and scent.These are at best a waste and at worst an impediment to the transfer of pollen in the air.The result is insignificant-looking flowers and catkins(dense cylindrical clusters of small, petalless flowers).③Wind pollination does,of course,require a lot of pollen.Birch and hazel trees can produce5.5and4million grains per catkin,respectively.There are various adaptations to help as much of the pollen go as far as possible.Most deciduous wind-pollinated trees(which shed their leaves every fall)produce their pollen in the spring while the branches are bare of leaves to reduce the surroundingsurfaces that“compete"with the stigmas(the part of the flower that receives the pollen)for pollen.Evergreen conifers,which do not shed their leaves,have less to gain from spring flowering,and,indeed,some flower in the autumn or winter.④Pollen produced higher in the top branches is likely to go farther:it is windier (and gustier)and the pollen can be blown farther before hitting the ground. Moreover,dangling catkins like hazel hold the pollen in until the wind is strong enough to bend them,ensuring that pollen is only shed into the air when the wind is blowing hard.Weather is also important.Pollen is shed primarily when the air is dry to prevent too much sticking to wet surfaces or being knocked out of the air by rain.Despite these adaptations,much of the pollen fails to leave the top branches, and only between0.5percent and40percent gets more than100meters away from the parent.But once this far,significant quantities can go a kilometer or more. Indeed,pollen can travel many thousands of kilometers at high altitudes.Since all this pollen is floating around in the air,it is no wonder that wind-pollinated trees are a major source of allergies.⑤Once the pollen has been snatched by the wind,the fate of the pollen is obviously up to the vagaries of the wind,but not everything is left to chance. Windborne pollen is dry,rounded,smooth,and generally smaller than that of insect-pollinated plants.But size is a two-edged sword.Small grains may be blown farther but they are also more prone to be whisked past the waiting stigma because smaller particles tend to stay trapped in the fast-moving air that flows around the stigma.But stigmas create turbulence,which slows the air speed around them and may help pollen stick to them.译文风媒传粉①花粉是由开花植物产出的、含有雄蕊生殖细胞的、外观呈粉末状的物质。
托福TPO54听力原文+题目及答案解析+PDF下载
托福考试前很多考生通过TPO练习来提高自己的托福解答能力，目前TPO也已经更新到54了，今天上海学校托福小编给为大家分享TPO54听力原文及题目答案解析，方便大家做考前练习!托福暑期班已上线，报暑期优惠多多!托福TPO听力54原文及题目:STORY THEATER_故事剧院Listen to a conversation between a student and a professor of her theaterclass.Student:So, Professor Baker, about our next assignment you talked about inclass.Professor:Yes, this time you'll be in groups of three, each of you willhave a chance to direct the other two in a short scene from a play you've chosenyourself.Student:Right, and, well, I've been reading about story theater, and…Professor:Ah, story theater, tell me about what you've read.Student:Well, it's a form of theater where folk or fairy tales are actedout.It was…eh, introduced, by the director Paul Sills in the 1960s.In Sills'sapproach, an actor both narrates, and acts out a tale.So, like someone willappear on stage, and then will start narrating a tale, about…say a king, andthen the same person will immediately switch to and start acting out the role ofthe king, with no props or scenery.Professor:Sills, you know I actually saw his first story theater productionin 1968, he did the fairy tale ‘the blue light'.Student:Really, so whatever gave him the idea to produce that?Professor:Well, as you know, back in the late 1960s, lots of people in theUnited States were disillusioned with the government.Sills was grappling withhow to produce theater that was relevant in such times.Then he happened to read‘the blue light', and he realized that it had just the message he wanted. See, in the story, a man has lost all hope as a result of the unfortunate events in his life, completely turns his life around, with the help of a magical blue light. So,the blue light in the story symbolizes a way out of seemingly unsolvable human problems.And for Sills, that light symbolized an answer to the political turmoil in the US.Student:But weren't you…um, audiences bother that the actors wereperforming on a bare stage?Professor:Well, story theater is a departure from traditionaldramatictheater with its realistic elaborate props and scenery, but Sills could make us see, say a big tall mountain through the facial expressions and body movements of the actors, and they're telling of the story.We were all swept up, energized by such an innovative approach to theater, even if one or two of the critics weren't as enthusiastic.Student:Cool, so, anyway.What I really wanted to ask, I'd love to try doing story theater for my project instead of just a scene from a traditionalplay.Professor:Um, that's possible.A short tale can be about the same length asa single thing.Which fairy tale would you do?Student:Actually, I was reading about another director of story theater,Rack Stevenson.You know, he produces plays based on folk tales as well.Maybe I could direct one of those.Professor:Okay, yes, Rack Stevenson.Now, Stevenson's style's story theateris a little different from Sills's.He'll use simple props, a chair will represent a mountain, but the significant difference is with the narrator.The narrator will play only that role.Let's talk about why.题目：1.Why does the student go to see the professor?A. To learn about the background of a director who was discussed inclassB. To ask permission to use a specific type of theater for her class assignmentC. To discuss the symbolism in a play she wants to use for herassignmentD. To find out what scenery she is allowed to use in presenting her assignment2.Why does the professor discuss the political environment in the United States in the 1960s?A. To compare events at that time to events that occurred in one of Stephenson’s playsB. To suggest that the woman do additional research on that period ofUnited States historyC. To point out why political themes are common in folk and fairy talesD. To explain Sills's inspiration for his first story theatreproduction3.According to the professor, what does the blue light in the fairy tale called "The Blue Light" represent?A. A plan that is impossible to followB. A conflict between two opposing forcesC. A solution to complex problemsD. A question that has no clear answer4.What is the professor's opinion about Sills's production of The BlueLight?A. He thinks that it was an inventive and powerful performance.B. He believes that the use of some props would have enhanced theperformance.C. He thinks that the theme is even more relevant today than it was in the1960s.D. He believes that it was less effective stylistically than some ofStephenson's plays.5.According to the professor, what is the most important difference betweenStephenson's and Sills's style of story theatre?A. The actor who plays the role of the narrator plays only that role inStephenson's productions.B. The actors wear elaborate costumes in Stephenson's productions.C. The stage settings are realistic in Stephenson's productions.D. Political themes are avoided in Stephenson's productions.(由于篇幅太长，答案和解析我们将以pdf提供给大家下载)索取“托福TPO听力54原文+题目+答案解析”PDF电子版，请加COCO老师微信(shnc_2018)，发送暗号“优化+TPO54”托福TPO听力54原文+题目:Migration of Zooplankton浮游动物的迁移Listen to part of the lecture in the marine biology class.And the sea is teaming with tiny organisms, but they don't get as muchpopular attention as say, whales.Microscopic algae just aren't as exciting I suppose.And yet those organisms are the foundation of the bulk of the marine food chain.Without plankton which is the global term for these tiny organisms, there will be no whales.Plankton is found both in fresh water and marine environments.Again it's a term we use for any small organisms that float along with the current, either because they are too small or weak to swim against it, or because they don't have any capacity at all to move by themselves.Plants and plant-like plankton are called phytoplankton while animals and animal-like plankton are called zooplankton.For over a century now, researchers have been trying to solve the mystery about zooplankton.You see some species of zooplankton migrate are……um…… not the way birds do when the seasons change.But daily, in the phenomenon we call Diel Vertical Migration or DVM, in the Diel Vertical Migration, sole plankton swim up near the surface of the water during the night and swim down to deeper water during the day.Depending on the species and region, this can be a round trip of between 100 and 400 meters.For a tiny microscopic organism, that's a huge distance. Remember now, zooplankton can't swim very well and DVM requires a lot of energy.So there must be an important benefit to these daily up-and-down commuting.We're not exactly sure what this benefit is.Though there are several compelling theories.I'll talk about them in a moment, but first I want to talk about what we do know or rather what we are pretty sure we know.So researchers generally agree that the stimulus for zooplankton DVM islight.Zooplankton tend to swim away from sunlight into deeper water where the sun's rays barely penetrate.At night, when the sun no longer illuminates shallower water, zooplankton head back toward the surface.Now why would light cause zooplankton to expend all that energy inmigrate?One popular theory is that zooplankton are hiding during the day fromvisual predators, eh……those animals that hunt by sight, the darkness provides safety during the day.Then at night after migrating upward, they have an opportunity to feed on phytoplankton that float at the surface.Make sense, doesn't it?But what do we do with the data showing that many kinds of zooplanktondon't dive deep enough during the day to become invisible to predators or that others dive deeper than it's necessary to escape hunters' eyes.And some zooplankton are bioluminescent, which means they have special organs that ligh up and make them visible even at great depth.Well, despite all these, we believe predator avoidance is a possible explanation because of studies done in fresh water lakes.It turns out there is a correlation between the presence or absence of vertical migration, and the presence or absence of fish that find their prey by sight.But what are some other possible explanations?Some researchers suggest that zooplankton migrate to avoid the sun'sultra-violet light.That would explain why some zooplankton are found at such great depth.Visible light may not penetrate very far down, but ultra-violet light can.And we know that some zooplankton have special pigments that protect them from the damage ultra-violet light can cause.That could be why some zooplankton are able to stay closer to the surface during daylight hours.And there is a third theory.Although it takes a lot of energy for the zooplankton to migrate, they conserve energy while floating in deeper colder water.So while they're not feeding, they are quietly digesting in cooler water.But remember, zooplankton consist of any number of different organisms.From microscopic worms to crab larvae to tiny fish, and they are found in a large range of marine habitats, cold water, warm water, shallow water, deep water. So there may be different reasons for different species.题目：1.What does the professor mainly discuss?A. The importance of zooplankton in the marine food chainB. The interdependence of two types of tiny marine organismsC. A physical feature of zooplankton that makes them well adapted for swimmingD. A phenomenon observed in some species of zooplankton2.Why does the professor conclude that zooplankton must derive an important benefit from diel vertical migration?A. Diel vertical migration uses up a lot of energy.B. Diel vertical migration exposes zooplankton to predators.C. Diel vertical migration prevents zooplankton from being able to digest phytoplankton.D. Diel vertical migration forces zooplankton populations to livepermanently in cold water.3.What does the professor imply about bioluminescent zooplankton?A. Their food source is different from that of other zooplankton.B. They probably do not rely on diel vertical migration to avoidpredation.C. They migrate deeper than other zooplankton species do.D. Most species are found in very cold water.4.Why does the professor mention fish that live in freshwater lakes?A. To point out that many aquatic species exhibit diel verticalmigrationB. To give an example of a species of fish that feeds on bioluminescent zooplanktonC. To make a comparison between fish and zooplanktonD. To support one of the theories explaining why zooplankton migrate5.Avoiding predators is one possible explanation for why zooplankton diveso deeply in the ocean. What two other explanations for this phenomenon does the professor offer?Click on 2 answersA. To avoid ultraviolet lightB. To avoid strong ocean currentsC. To digest in colder watersD. To find abundant food sources6.What does the professor imply about the reasons for diel verticalmigration in zooplankton?A. No single explanation for all species can account for thisphenomenon.B. Researchers have not been able to propose plausible theories to explain this phenomenon.C. All individual organisms have several reasons for migrating.D. Researchers were able to agree on an explanation for this phenomenonafter many years of investigation.托福TPO听力54原文:Benefits of Muon Detectors介子探测器的好处Listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class.Professor: A popular misconception about archaeology, some people imaginewe just go out into the field with a shovel and start digging, hoping to find something significant.Well, while there is an element of luck involved, we have an array ofhigh-tech tools to help us figure out where to concentrate our efforts.One of the newer tools actually relies on particle physics, talk aboutinter-disciplinary.Here is a machine that brings together two very different sciences.This machine is called a muon detector.Muons are subatomic particles that result from cosmic rays.OK, let me start over.Cosmic rays aren't actually rays.They are basically protons zipping through outer space at close to light speed.And, when they collide with the atoms in earth's atmosphere, they break up into smaller particles -- muons.Now these muons are still highly energized, so they can easily pass on downto the earth's surface.In fact, they can pass through solid matter, so they can also penetrate deep into the surface.And it's this property of muons that archaeologists are taking advantage of.Let me explain, with the right kind of equipment, scientists can use muonsto create a kind of picture of the structures they are studying.Let's say we are studying a Mayan pyramid in central America.And we are interested in finding out if there are burial chambers or other roomsinside.Well, a muon detector will show a greater number of muons passing through the less dense areas inside the pyramid.Yes, Andrew?Andrew: Um…I'm not sure I get how this muon detector works exactly. Professor: Well, muons lose energy as they pass through dense material,like the stone walls of the Mayan pyramid.So more muons and more energetic muons will be passing through empty spaces.The muon detector can differentiate the areas where more muons are passing through -- the empty spaces, as well as where there are fewer muons, the walls and dense areas.These empty spaces will show up as darker, so we wind up with a kind ofpicture of the pyramid, and its internal structure.Andrew: A picture?Professor: Sort of like an X-ray image.Andrew: Ok, so if we see darker areas inside the pyramid, we assume it's an empty space with more muons.Professor: Exactly, with this technology, we can see what's inside the structure before we dig, so we know exactly where to explore and we can minimize the damage excavation can cause.Even a little damage could result in us losing vital informationforever.Now, muon detectors have been around for some time, but they have been improved upon since archaeologists started using them.In 1967 a physicist placed a muon detector beneath the base of one of the Egyptian pyramids of Giza.And he was looking for burial chambers.Now it happened that the muon detector found none.But he did demonstrate that the technique worked.Unfortunately the machine he used was so big that many archaeologistsdoubted muon detection could be practical.How could they get a massive piece of equipment into, say, the jungle of Belize?Then there was the issue of range.The machine used in 1967 could only scan for muons directly above it, notfrom the sides.So it actually had to be put underneath the pyramid, so it could look up.That meant if you wanted to find out what was inside an ancient structure, you first had to bury the detector beneath it.There's been a lot of work on these machines since then.And these problemshave been solved by and large.That's not to say the technology is perfect, it would be nice for example, to have a system that didn't take 6 months to produce an image.I suppose that's better than the year it took for the 1967 study to get results.But still...well, there is good reason to believe that with better equipment, we're going to see muon detectors used much more frequently.They are already being used in other areas of science, for example Japanese scientists studying the interior of volcanoes, and there are plenty of archaeologists who would love to use this technology.托福TPO听力54题目：1.What is the lecture mainly about?A. Misconceptions about muon detectorsB. An investigation of an Egyptian pyramid using a muon detectorC. The collaboration between physicists and archaeologists in thedevelopment of the muon detectorD. Benefits that muon detectors can provide to archaeologists2.What aspect of muons is most useful to archaeologists?A. Their ability to carry information from outer spaceB. Their ability to break down cosmic rays into smaller particlesC. Their ability to pass through solid matterD. Their ability to change the color of some surfaces3.According to the professor, what information can a muon detector provide about an ancient structure?A. The internal temperature of the structureB. The location of rooms within the structureC. The age of the structureD. The materials used to build the structure4.Why does the professor discuss damage to archaeological sites?A. To indicate a benefit of using muon detectors in archaeologicalresearchB. To describe an accident with a muon detector during a pyramidexcavationC. To explain how muon detectors are useful in reconstructing damagedsitesD. To explain why muon detectors were not often used in the past5.In what ways are modern muon detectors different from muon detectors used in 1967?Click on 3 answersA. Modern detectors are less expensive.B. Modern detectors use less energy.C. Modern detectors are not as large.D. Modern detectors take less time to produce an image.E. Modern detectors can scan in more than one direction.6.What is the professor's opinion about the newer muon detectors?A. She appreciates the help they provide despite the time they take to produce images.B. She fears that many archaeologists will be unwilling to learn to use them.C. She feels that they have greater potential in areas of science otherthan archaeology.D. They provide more accurate information about the age of objects thanolder detectors did.(由于篇幅太长，答案和解析我们将以pdf格式提供给大家下载)索取“托福TPO听力54原文+题目+答案解析”PDF电子版，请加COCO老师微信(shnc_2018)，发送暗号“优化+TPO54”托福TPO听力54原文+题目:Finding Historical Material寻找历史材料Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee in theuniversity's historical library.Employee: Morning, what can I help you find?Student: Well, I saw the internet that the university library has menus andthings from local restaurants, like the Springfield Eatery?Employee: Right, a lot of local businesses have donated materials to ourcollection, including that restaurant.I'm pretty sure we have ten or fifteenboxes of materials from there.Student: Good, I thought you were located in the main library, so I wentthere first and they sent me here.I haven't realized the university has aseparate historical library.I think what you're doing is great，collecting localdocuments and photos, keeping a record of the region.Employee: I'm glad you see the value of it.We've been collecting materialsfor going on seventy years st year we had an exhibition that showcase howthe town square has changed over the past fifty years.So, that got the word out a little, but you're right.A lot of studentsdon't know we exist.Well, unless the major of new history.So, you're looking forsomething for class?Student: Not exactly.My grandmother went to this university, and while shewas here, she worked as a waitress.Employee: At the Springfield Eatery?Student: Yes, and that's where she met my grandfather.So, they'recelebrating their fiftieth anniversary this year.And I noticed online that you have old menus from some of the restaurants.I was thinking I could find one from the year they met and print a copy for them.Employee: What a unique idea!What year you are looking for?Student: Um, 1954.Employee: I know we have a few menus from the 1950s, but you'll have to check.There are some gaps, some years we didn't receive any new materials, and sometimes restaurants go a while without changing their menus.Student: Oh no, I really want to give them something special.Employee: Well, how about this? We also have a lot of photos, so maybe you could find one of your grandmother, or maybe even one with both your grandparents.Student: That would be awesome.Employee: The only thing is most of our materials are still in boxes.Noone's ever taken the time to organize them.So, it …it might require a fair amount of sifting.Student: Um, I have a couple of tests coming up, but I can take a quicklook, if that's okay.I know some libraries have special rules for handling delicate or old materials.Employee: Well, these aren't particularly old.Just the usual rules apply, no food or drinks.Student: Okay, thanks for your help.托福TPO听力54题目：1.Why does the man go to see the woman?A. To ask the woman if she has photographs of local businessesB. To conduct research for a history classC. To try to find a gift for his grandparentsD. To find out how long a local restaurant has been in business2.What does the woman say about an exhibition the library held lastyearA. It was in honor of the town's seventieth anniversary.B. It helped increase awareness of the collection.C. It was arranged by students who study history.D. It mostly included photographs from the 1950s.3.What does the woman imply about the menus?A. Most of the menus in the collection are from the Springfield Eatery.B. All of the menus in the collection are carefully organized in boxes.C. The menu the man is looking for is probably in the main library.D. The man might not find the menu he is looking for.4.What does the woman suggest that the man consider doing?A. Look for a photo of his grandparentsB. Frame a photograph of a menu from a different yearC. Call the restaurant to ask whether they have what he is looking forD. Take a picture of the restaurant5.Why does the man say this:A. To inform the woman that he has handled old materials in the pastB. To inquire whether the library has regulations for handling historicaldocumentsC. To imply that the library should do a better job protecting historicaldocumentsD. To argue that special precautions are not necessary in this case托福TPO听力54原文+题目:William Wheatley and Broadway Theaters威廉?惠特利和百老汇Listen to part of a lecture in a theater history class.One of the things New York city is known for is its Broadway theaters，theproductions of elaborate musicals.A lot of money goes into producing a musicalwith the actors, costumes, scenery and so on.The shows are designed to appeal tolarge audiences, to make the production financially viable.But theater didn’talways appeal to the masses.In the middle of the 19th century, with mostlywealthy residents who were going to Broadway, they would see an opera that wasprobably written and produced in Europe before making its way all over to NewYork.It was a scene for, well, the socially prominent, the upper class, whoattended these functions, perhaps, because they felt obligated rather thanbecause of a genuine interesting theater.But, in the 1860s, something else started to occur.The middle-classpopulation began to grow, and they were looking for a source ofentertainment.Keep that in mind while I talk about the theater owner named William Wigley.In 1866, Willian Wigley had this show, um, and it was different from most shows on Broadway at the time because it wasn’t an opera.And, it was developed right here in the United States, in English, unlike the operas which were typically Italian or French.Wigley also decided to incorporate some fancy production techniques, stage effects.The show also included music to make it more entertaining.And, through a stroke of luck, a world-renown ballet troop became available just as weekly show was about to open.So, he didn’t hesitate to include the ballet dancers in his production.Along the lines of those special affects I mentioned, Wigley redesign the entire stage for the show.Every floor board on the stage could be lifted up or pushed down.They were all moveable.This allowed for trap doors to be placed anywhere on the stage.So, pieces of the set, of the scenery, could easily be stored beneath the stage.And these trap doors also gave performers another less traditional way to enter in exit of the stage.Well, today, we might not think much of it, things like this are standard nowadays，the concept was quite novel at the time of Wigley show.And was one of the things that made the show a hit with audiences.Another innovative element in the show was a scene called the‘transformation scene’, during this scene, the audience watched in amazement that a setting on stage changed from a moonlit cave to a throne room in a palace.Normally to have this type of major scene change, the curtains were closed, the stage crew would remove the previous set and replaced it with the new one, and then, the curtains would open again.In this instance though, the transformation to place in front of the audience using simple machinery.And thisaffect would have the lasting impression on everyone who saw Wigley’sproduction.In fact, those people were probably disappointed when they saw another show that didn’t contain something is, well, as elaborate or exciting.So, look, when it premiered, Wigley show took audiences by surprise, it appealed to largecrowds including the growing middle-class, the show ran for almost two years straight in New York city, and achievement unheard of at the time whenproductions typically lasted weeks or months, not years.It also went on tour visiting different cities across the United States for over 25 years.So, the show was quite a success.And with all that in mind, some people call Wigley show the first musicalon Broadway.Now our current definition of a musical is that it tells a storythrough dialogue and song.In Wigley show the musical sections, well, they didn’tnecessarily integrate well with the story.Giving an overall impression ofsomething more like a variety show, yes, everything was loosely focused aroundthe central scene, so maybe it’s fair to say then that the show gave audiences ahint of a new form of musical theater， that would ultimately appear on Broadway in the decades to follow.题目：1.What is the main purpose of the lecture?A. To describe the influence of opera on Broadway productionsB. To explain how new technology allowed for enhancements to BroadwayproductionsC. To evaluate financial decisions made by theater owner WilliamWheatleyD. To examine elements that set a particular theatrical production apart from earlier ones2.What was typical of theatrical productions in the United States before the 1860s?Click on 2 answersA. The productions originated outside of the United States.B. Only a limited segment of society attended the productions.C. People attended the productions because they were interested in the plots.D. The themes of the productions were typically related to the upperclass3.According to the professor, what was a reason for a change in theatrical productions in the United States during the 1860s?A. A growing middle class was in need of entertainment.B. Wealthy theater advocates provided additional funding for new productions.C. The interest of theatergoers shifted from opera to ballet.D. A new artistic movement was founded by a group of actors4.Why does the professor mention moveable floorboards on the stage in Wheatley's production?A. To explain the reason for an unexpected technical problemB. To highlight one of the production’s innovative features。
2018年4月15日托福阅读考试真题解析
2018年4月15日托福阅读考试真题解析2018年4月15日的托福考试也快到了，大家对于考试的真题是不是很好奇呢，下面和先来看看2018年4月15日托福阅读考试真题解析吧。
1. 第一篇讲的是一种在太平洋小岛的lizard 这种lizard 只有一种性别，不需要求偶和竞争。
讲了这种lizard可能是如何来到这些小岛的。
2. 讲的是宋朝的商业社会。
纸币的发明促进了商业的发展，还有就是促进了农业的发展还有那个皇帝限制那个将军的权力，给那些做生意的人就收很多税抑商什么的。
3. 物种灭绝。
以前很多的物种已经灭绝了，我们不知道有什么物种存在过，由于没有任何记录。
以前的人类主要依靠狩猎以及采集生活，也许可以捕猎到一些现在已经不存在的大型动物。
行星的撞击以及人类活动导致了物种的灭绝。
（图片转自百度）4. 威尼斯的船。
以前是round ship，capacity比较小。
后来发明了galley，一个三角的东西，比较好控制方向。
后面出现了cog。
5. 罗马人对欧洲经济生活的影响。
罗马的科技对于当时的欧洲来说比较的先进。
文章具体提到了British在哪些方面落后。
后来罗马把tribe变成了一个unity，但是还是比较自治。
Tribe之前会有战争，但是也会有货币的交易，鼓励人们使用coin，因此出现了bank，和loan。
这些发展促进了罗马的税收，通过让欧洲居民穿罗马的衣服让人们意识到城市的重要性。
6. 科技预测地震。
主要由两种方法预测地震，long-term和short-term，但预测不是很精确。
通过地下水和裂缝，gas上升预测地震。
还有其他方法但比较复杂。
7. 18世纪左右农业的发展和人类人口的爆炸式增长。
8. 鸟类的无法飞行的原因。
9. 金星的温室效应，和地球的对比。
托福听力tpo54 section2 对话讲座原文+题目+答案+译文
托福听力tpo54section2对话讲座原文+题目+答案+译文Conversation2 (1)原文 (1)题目 (3)答案 (5)译文 (5)Lecture3 (7)原文 (7)题目 (9)答案 (11)译文 (11)Lecture4 (12)原文 (12)题目 (15)答案 (17)译文 (17)Conversation2原文NARRATOR:Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee in the university's historical library.FEMALE EMPLOYEE:Morning!What can I help you find?MALE STUDENT:Well,I saw on the Internet that the university library has menus and things from local restaurants—like The Springfield Eatery?FEMALE EMPLOYEE:Right.A lot of local businesses have donated materials to our collection,including that restaurant.I'm pretty sure we have,uh,ten or fifteen boxes of materials from there.MALE STUDENT:Good.I thought you were located in the main library,so I went there first and they sent me here.I hadn't realized the university had a separate historical library.I think what you're doing is great—collecting local documents and photos—keeping a record of the region.FEMALE EMPLOYEE:I'm glad you see the value in it.We've been collecting materials for going on seventy years st year we had an exhibition that showcased how the town square has changed over the past50years.So that got the word out a little...but you're right—a lot of students don't know we exist.Well,unless they're majoring in history.So,you're looking for something for a class?MALE STUDENT:Not exactly.My grandmother went to this university,and while she was here,she worked as a waitress.FEMALE EMPLOYEE:At The Springfield Eatery.MALE STUDENT:Yes,and that's where she met my grandfather!So,they're celebrating their fiftieth anniversary this year,and I noticed online that you have old menus from some of the restaurants.I was thinking I could find one from the year they met and frame a copy for them.FEMALE EMPLOYEE:What a unique idea!What year are you looking for?MALE STUDENT:Uh,1954.FEMALE EMPLOYEE:I know we have a few menus from the1950s,but you'll have tocheck...there are some gaps…some years we didn't receive any new materials,and sometimes restaurants go a while without changing their menus....MALE STUDENT:Oh no!I really wanted to give them something special.FEMALE EMPLOYEE:Well…how about this:We also have a lot of photos,so maybe you could find one of your grandmother—or maybe even one with both of your grandparents.MALE STUDENT:That’d be awesome!FEMALE EMPLOYEE:The only thing is,most of our materials are still in boxes—no one's ever taken the time to organize them,so it-it might require a fair amount of sifting.MALE STUDENT:Hmm…I have a couple a tests coming up,but I can take a quick look, if that's OK.I know some libraries have special rules for handling delicate or old materials.FEMALE EMPLOYEE:Well,these aren't particularly old.Just the usual rules apply…no food or drinks.MALE STUDENT:OK.Thanks for your help!题目1.Why does the man go to see the woman?A.To ask the woman if she has photographs of local businessesB.To conduct research for a history classC.To try to find a gift for his grandparentsD.To find out how long a local restaurant has been in business2.What does the woman say about an exhibition the library held last year?A.It was in honor of the town's seventieth anniversary.B.It helped increase awareness of the collection.C.It was arranged by students who study history.D.It mostly included photographs from the1950s.3.What does the woman imply about the menus?A.Most of the menus in the collection are from the Springfield Eatery.B.All of the menus in the collection are carefully organized in boxes.C.The menu the man is looking for is probably in the main library.D.The man might not find the menu he is looking for.4.What does the woman suggest that the man consider doing?A.Look for a photo of his grandparentsB.Frame a photograph of a menu from a different yearC.Call the restaurant to ask whether they have what he is looking forD.Take a picture of the restaurant5.Why does the man say this：MALE STUDENT:I know some libraries have special rules for handling delicate or old materials.Employee:Well,these aren’t particularly old.Just the usual rules apply,no food ordrinks.A.To inform the woman that he has handled old materials in the pastB.To inquire whether the library has regulations for handling historical documentsC.To imply that the library should do a better job protecting historical documentsD.To argue that special precautions are not necessary in this case答案C BD A B译文旁白：请听一段学生和大学历史图书馆雇员之间的对话。
tpo54口语
Task 3The proposal is that the university should make community service, such as working with the local children in town, a mandatory activity for all students before they graduate. There are two reasons.First, it would strengthen the relationship between the university and the town.Second, during that process, many students would discover a love of service that would inspire them to a lifetime of volunteer work in their future communities.The man disagrees with the proposal for two reasons.First, it will hurt the relationship between students and the town. Forcing students to volunteer will make them see it as a chore or a nuisance. So, they are not going to put their hearts into it and this will make the university look bad.second, many students are likely to come away from the experience with negative feelings about it. A lot of students already complain about not having enough time. So, this extra work will be a bad experience for them. It will not inspire them to pursue more volunteer work after they graduate.Task 4Systems thinking is an approach used by company to solve problem via considering how the interaction of many different parts of a large system may contribute to a problem. Even though it may produce complex solutions that take a long time to implement, it is an effective way to solve problems and has a greater long-term benefit to the company.The professor gives us an example about himself.He used to work for a corporation. Workers of that corporation were absent a lot. To address this problem, they hired a consultant who began by interviewing a lot of the workers, and getting to know more about them. She also researched other aspects of the company, such as the types of eating facilities and health services. And what the consultant discovered was that many of the employees were missing work because of health problems. Health problems caused by a combination of factors such as poor eating habits and lack of exercise. The consultant concluded that lack of exercise opportunities or healthy meals indirectly contributed to the workers’ poor health. So she proposed building a gym within the company office building for employees to use and exercise, and also offering more nutritious menu in the cafeteria, which the company did, but it took a while. After a year or so, after the company had time to construct a gym and revise its cafeteria menu, attendance began to improve and continued to improve until it was no longer a problem.Task 6The 24-hour activity cycle of animal will be determined by the internal clock and external cues together. Animals do have an internal clock, but external cues are also important.Take flying squirrels for example. Flying squirrels are nocturnal. They are active during the night and sleep during the day. But in the experiment, some of these squirrels were kept in constant darkness. They were not exposed to any daylight for about a month, but they still continue to follow regular cycles of activity and have regular patterns of sleeping and waking. This indicates that animals do having an internal clock which regulates their activity cycles. But the internal clock is not precisely 24 hours long. Instead of following 24-hour cycles, the squirrels followed cycles that were about half an hour shorter. So, every day they woke up a little bit earlier.Without external cues, without sunlight to fine-tune their internal clocks, the squirrels’ biological cycles drifted.What happened when the squirrels were exposed to daylight again is that their schedules did not match up with the normal day. They were not active during the nighttime as flying squirrels usually are. Instead, they were waking up in the middle of the day. But after a while, the squirrel cycles began to change. Gradually, external cues, the cycle of light and darkness adjusted their internal clocks. Eventually, they were brought back into a normal 24-hour schedule.。
托福阅读tpo49R-2原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
TPO49阅读-2 Movable Type原文 (1)译文 (2)题目 (4)答案 (8)背景知识 (8)原文Movable Type①Nothing divided the medieval world in Europe more decisively from the Early Modern period than printing with movable type. It was a German invention and the culmination of a complex process. The world of antiquity had recorded its writings mainly on papyrus. Between 200 B.C and A.D 300, this was supplemented by vellum, calf skin treated and then smoothed by pumice stone. To this in late Roman times was added parchment, similarly made from the smoothed skin of sheep or goats. In the early Middle Ages, Europe imported an industrial process from China, which turned almost any kind of fibrous material into pulp that was then spread in sheets. This was known as cloth parchment. By about 1150, the Spanish had developed the first mill for making cheap paper (a word contracted from "papyrus", which became the standard term). One of the most important phenomena of the later Middle Ages was the growing availability of cheap paper. Even in England, where technology lagged far behind, a sheet of paper, or eight octavo pages, cost only a penny by the fifteenth century.②In the years 1446-1448, two German goldsmiths, Johannes Gutenberg and Johann Fust, made use of cheap paper to introduce a critical improvement in the way written pages were reproduced. Printing from wooden blocks was the old method; what the Germans did was to invent movable type for the letterpress. It had three merits: it could be used repeatedly until worn out; it was cast in metal from a mold and so could be renewed without difficulty; and it made lettering uniform. In 1450, Gutenberg began work on his Bible, the first printed book, known as the Gutenberg. It was completed in 1455 and is a marvel. As Gutenberg, apart from getting the key idea, had to solve a lot of practical problems, including imposing paper and ink into the process and the actual printing itself, for which he adapted the screw press used by winemakers, it is amazing that his first product does not look at all rudimentary. Those who handle it are struck by its clarity and quality.③Printing was one of those technical revolutions that developed its own momentum at extraordinary speed. Europe in the fifteenth century was a place where intermediate technology - that is, workshops with skilled craftspeople - waswell established and spreading fast, especially in Germany and Italy. Such workshops were able to take on printing easily, and it thus became Europe's first true industry. The process was aided by two factors: the new demand for cheap classical texts and the translation of the Latin Bible into "modern" languages. Works of reference were also in demand. Presses sprang up in several German cities, and by 1470, Nuremberg, Germany had established itself as the center of the international publishing trade, printing books from 24 presses and distributing them at trade fairs all over western and central Europe. The old monastic scriptoria-monastery workshops where monks copied texts by hand-worked closely alongside the new presses, continuing to produce the luxury goods that movable-type printing could not yet supply. Printing, however, was primarily aimed at a cheap mass sale.④Although there was no competition between the technologies, there was rivalry between nations. The Italians made energetic and successful efforts to catch up with Germany. Their most successful scriptorium quickly imported two leading German printers to set up presses in their book-producing shop. German printers had the disadvantage of working with the complex typeface that the Italians sneeringly referred to as "Gothic" and that later became known as black letter. Outside Germany, readers found this typeface disagreeable. The Italians, on the other hand, had a clear typeface known as roman that became the type of the future.⑤Hence, although the Germans made use of the paper revolution to introduce movable type, the Italians went far to regain the initiative by their artistry. By 1500 there were printing firms in 60 German cities, but there were 150 presses in Venice alone. However, since many nations and governments wanted their own presses, the trade quickly became international. The cumulative impact of this industrial spread was spectacular. Before printing, only the very largest libraries, of which there were a dozen in Europe, had as many as 600 books. The total number of books on the entire Continent was well under 100,000. But by 1500, after only 45 years of the printed book, there were 9 million in circulation.译文活字印刷①没有什么比活字印刷更能够将欧洲的中世纪和近代早期区分开来。
托福TPO54独立写作题目文本+满分范文
为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO54独立写作题目文本+满分范文，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
托福TPO54独立写作题目原文： Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Governments should spend more money in support of the arts than in support of athletics such as state-sponsored Olympic e specific reasons and examples to support your answer. 托福TPO54独立写作满分范文： With the accelerating development of our society, arts and athletics have been playing two important roles in our daily life. It's hard to judge which has more significance. While some people are advocators for that governments should spend more fund in support of the arts, there're also many people believe athletics worth more attention and investment. From my perspective, I disagree that the governments spend more money on supporting arts. First, supporting the athletics can provide more chances and better environments for the athletes. Government has influence to the public. When government indicate that they would like to put more money on supporting athletics, that also means they support that citizens pay more energy and income on sports. Sports means more than arts to some degree, and the activities can involve almost all kinds of people even handicaps. For instance，if the government would like to cultivate athletics such as sportsmen from Olympic teams, the influence of a gold medalist is huge. Children would arouse their interest in sports for the athletes have set a good example. Sportsmanship could be a good teacher for teenagers, they need somebody to tell them when facing the difficulties and sufferings, they should overcome them with their diligence, perseverance and strong belief. Only if the sports are paid attention by nation and citizens，the country would develop better with their strong and healthy people. Let's talk about why we don't spend more fund on the arts. As I have mentioned, sports are highly educational, while arts are not so appropriate to education. It's known that arts are somehow obscure and pluralistic. An art work may contain different and several meanings，and some reflect the dark side in the society, which is too early for the children to know, and teenagers without right directions would imitate some of the actions. Also, there's a saying that‘Artists are inspired by the suffering.' Vincent van Gogh was a best example. He lived cleanly and poorly，with no money, no women ,or applause. While Auguste Rodin was hiring beautiful naked models dancing in the studio, Vincent has no money to hire models, so he can only paint towards the mirror again and again, lone and bitter artists can figure their spirit on the paper, in theirwork，we read more than beauty，but a thought，an attitude , an era. Roman Rolland has said ‘Poverty is not only a mentor of the mind, but also a tutor of style. It makes spirit and mental to be indifferent towards fame and fortune.' To maximize the profit, government will tend to invest the money on a more profitable project. If we invest the same money on an art exhibition and a sports competition, that would be very easy to tell that the sports competition will appeal more audience and attract more attention. Sports will become a culture if we treated it seriously, like Olympics, which symbols freedom and equality. And if a country, unfortunately was involved in a war, the museum and artworks are very likely to be destroyed, these masterpieces almost are the entire worth of the arts, but sports don't. Like Olympics, it was suspended during World War，but a year after that, Olympics returned. Finally, the relation between artists and athletes are interactive. Athletes represent the national physical strength, artists represent the national mental strength. Neither of them are unimportant. But as for a country, we need our people physically strong first, we hope to let the athletes be our good examples, when we see our athletes fight against the rivals, we feel uniform, a kind of national cohesion. In conclusion, governments should spend more money in support of the athletics, such as state-sponsored Olympic teams and so on. And athletics field can perform better than now if we pay more attention to it. 以上是给大家整理的托福TPO54独立写作题目文本+满分范文，希望对你有所帮助!。
托福阅读tpo54打印
Elements of LifeThe creation of life requires a set of chemical elements for making the components of cells. Life on Earth uses about 25 of the 92 naturally occurring chemical elements, although just 4 of these elements-oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen-make up about 96 percent of the mass of living organisms. Thus, a first requirement for life might be the presence of most or all of the elements used by life.The word “components” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙parts∙bodies∙combinations∙characteristicsInterestingly, this requirement can probably be met by almost any world. Scientists have determined that all chemical elements in the universe besides hydrogen and helium (and a trace amount of lithium) were produced by stars. These are known as heavy elements because they are heavier than hydrogen and helium. Although all of these heavy elements are quite rare compared to hydrogen and helium, they are found just about everywhere.According to paragraphs 1 and 2, living cells contain which of the following?∙All chemical elements in the universe except lithium∙About 25 different elements∙About 96 percent of all known elements∙Ninety-two naturally occurring elementsHeavy elements are continually being manufactured by stars and released into space by stellar deaths , so their amount compared to hydrogen and helium gradually rises with time. Heavy elements make up about 2 percent of the chemical content (by mass) of our solar system; the other 98 percent is hydrogen and helium. In some very old star systems, which formed before many heavy elements were produced, the heavy-element share may be less than 0.1 percent. Nevertheless , every star system studied has at least some amount of all the elements used by life. Moreover, when planetesimals-small, solid objects formed in the early solar system that may accumulate to become planets-condense within a forming star system, they are inevitably made from heavy elements because the more common hydrogen andhelium remain gaseous. Thus, planetesimals everywhere should contain the elements needed for life, which means that objects built from planetesimals-planets, moons, asteroids, and comets-also contain these elements. The nature of solar-system formation explains why Earth contains all the elements needed for life, and it is why we expect these elements to be present on other worlds throughout our solar system, galaxy, and universe.Why does the author provide the information that _ Heavy elements...stellar deaths _?∙To explain how it is that the elements required for life can be found everywhere∙To provide evidence that our solar system is relatively young∙To argue that some solar systems are more likely to support life than others∙To explain why heavy elements have greater mass than hydrogen and helium∙Paragraph 3 suggests that which of the following may be a difference between very old star systems and newer star systems?∙Older star systems are likely to have fewer planets, moons, asteroids, and comets than newer star systems.∙Newer star systems probably contain more hydrogen and helium than older star systems.∙Newer star systems probably contain more heavy elements than older star systems.∙The process of solar-system formation may have been fundamentally different in older star systems than in newer star systems.∙The word “Nevertheless” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙additionally∙however∙in particular∙on the contrary∙The word “inevitably” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙typically∙unsurprisingly∙necessarily∙naturallyWhich of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.∙Planetesimals may remain in star systems when hydrogen and helium combine with less common heavier elements.∙Planetesimals are composed of heavy elements because hydrogen and helium stay in the form of gases.∙Planetesimals are small, solid objects that condense within a forming star system and may become planets.∙When planetesimals accumulate to form planets, they inevitably contain gaseous as well as heavy elements.Note that this argument does not change, even if we allow for life very different from life on Earth. Life on Earth is carbon based, and most biologists believe that life elsewhere is likely to be carbon based as well. However, we cannot absolutely rule out the possibility of life with another chemical basis, such as silicon or nitrogen. The set of elements (or their relative proportions) used by life based on some other element might be somewhat different from that used by carbon-based life on Earth. But the elements are still products of stars and would still be present in planetesimals everywhere. No matter what kinds of life we are looking for, we are likely to find the necessary elements on almost every planet, moon, asteroid, and comet in the universe. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about possible life on other planets?∙It cannot be based on silicon or nitrogen.∙It could not survive on Earth.∙It probably would not be made of elements produced by stars.∙It is likely to have carbon as its chemical basis.A somewhat stricter requirement is the presence of these elements in molecules that can be used as ready-made building blocks for life, just as early Earth probably had an organic soup of amino acids and other complex molecules. Earth`s organic molecules likely came from some combination of three sources: chemical reactions in the atmosphere, chemical reactions near deep-sea vents in the oceans, and molecules carried to Earth by asteroids and comets. The first two sources can occur only on worlds with atmospheres or oceans, respectively. But the third source should have brought similar molecules to nearly all worlds in our solar system.According to paragraph 5, all of the following are true of the organic molecules on early Earth EXCEPT:∙Some of them were probably brought to Earth by asteroids or comets.∙Some of them probably formed in the atmosphere and oceans.∙They were probably significantly different from the organic molecules present on other planets in the solar system.∙They included complex moleculesStudies of meteorites and comets suggest that organic molecules are widespread among both asteroids and comets. Because each body in the solar system was repeatedly struck by asteroids and comets during the period known as the heavy bombardment (about 4 billion years ago), each body should have received at least some organic molecules. However, these molecules tend to be destroyed by solar radiation on surfaces unprotected by atmospheres. Moreover, while these molecules might stay intact beneath the surface (as they evidently do on asteroids and comets), they probably cannot react with each other unless some kind of liquid or gas is available to move them about. Thus, if we limit our search to worlds on which organic molecules are likely to be involved in chemical reactions, we can probably rule out any world that lacks both an atmosphere and a surface or subsurface liquid medium, such as water.The phrase “widespread among” is closest in meaning to∙frequently present in∙widely separated in∙ a significant part of∙found throughout the bodies ofThe Commercialization of LumberIn nineteenth-century America, practically everything that was built involved wood. Pine was especially attractive for building purposes. It is durable and strong, yet soft enough to be easily worked with even the simplest of hand tools. It also floats nicely on water, which allowed it to be transported to distant markets across the nation. The central and northern reaches of the Great Lakes states-Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota-all contained extensive pine forests as well as many large rivers for floating logs into the Great Lakes, from where they were transported nationwide. The word “durable ” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙readily available∙long lasting∙dense∙flexibleAccording to paragraph 1, all of the following characteristics of pine made it a desirable material for building in nineteenth-century America EXCEPT:∙It was long lasting.∙It was relatively easy to transport.∙Its softness made it easy to work with.∙It produced buildings that were especially attractive.By 1860, the settlement of the American West along with timber shortages in the East converged with ever-widening impact on the pine forests of the Great Lakes states. Over the next 30 years, lumbering became a full-fledged enterprise in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Newly formed lumbering corporations bought up huge tracts of pineland and set about systematically cutting the trees. Both the colonists and the later industrialists saw timber as a commodity , but the latter group adopted a far more thorough and calculating approach to removing trees. In this sense, what happened between 1860 and 1890 represented a significant break with the past. No longer were farmers in search of extra income the main source for shingles, firewood, and other wood products. By the 1870s, farmers and city dwellers alike purchased forest products from large manufacturing companies located in the Great Lakes states rather than chopping wood themselves or buying it locally.The word “commodity ” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙product∙problem∙opportunity∙advantageWhat can be inferred from paragraph 2 about timber in America before the year 1860 ?∙Farmers of the American West earned most of their income by selling timber to newly arrived settlers.∙Timber came primarily from farmers who wished to supplement their income.∙Timber was much more expensive before the year 1860 because it was less readily available.∙Timber came primarily from large manufacturing companies in the EastThe commercialization of lumbering was in part the product of technological change. The early, thick saw blades tended to waste a large quantity of wood, with perhaps as much as a third of the log left behind on the floor as sawdust or scrap. In the 1870s, however, the British-invented band saw , with its thinner blade, became standard issue in the Great Lakes states` lumber factories. Meanwhile, the rise ofsteam-powered mills streamlined production by allowing for the more efficient, centralized, and continuous cutting of lumber. Steam helped to automate a variety of tasks, from cutting to the carrying away of waste. Mills also employed steam to heat log ponds, preventing them from freezing and making possible year-round lumber production.Why doe s the author discuss the “British-invented band saw ”?∙To give an example of how steam power led to technological advancements∙To help explain how the thickness of a saw blade determines how much wood is wasted ∙To explain how competition with other countries benefited the American lumber industry ∙To illustrate the impact of new technology on the lumber industryTh e phrase “allowing for ” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙encouraging∙introducing∙making possible∙emphasizingAll of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as resulting from the use of steam in the lumber industry EXCEPT:∙Work became centralized, and many tasks were automated.∙Lumber could be produced more efficiently and on a larger scale.∙Waste materials could be re-used as fuel to power the lumber mills.∙Lumber production could continue throughout the cold winter monthsFor industrial lumbering to succeed, a way had to be found to neutralize the effects of the seasons on production. Traditionally, cutting took place in the winter, when snow and ice made it easier to drag logs on sleds or sleighs to the banks of streams. Once the streams and lakes thawed, workers rafted the logs to mills, where they were cut into lumber in the summer. If nature did not cooperate-if the winter proved dry and warm, if the spring thaw was delayed-production would suffer. To counter the effects of climate on lumber production, loggers experimented with a variety of techniques for transporting trees out of the woods. In the 1870s, loggers in the Great Lakes states began sprinkling water on sleigh roads, giving them an artificial ice coating to facilitate travel. The ice reduced the friction and allowed workers to move larger and heavier loads.The word “facilitate ” in the passage is closest i n meaning to∙expand∙ease∙transform∙permitAccording to paragraph 4, how could a warm, dry winter interfere with lumber production?∙Certain trees would become dry and yield low-quality lumber.∙There would not be enough water in streams and lakes to raft the logs to mills.∙It would be more difficult to transport logs to streams and lakes.∙Rivers would not be full enough in the spring to power millsBut all the sprinkling in the world would not save a logger from the threat of a warm winter. Without snow the sleigh roads turned to mud. In the 1870s, a set of snowless winters left lumber companies to ponder ways of liberating themselves from the seasons. Railroads were one possibility. At first, the remoteness of the pine forests discouraged common carriers from laying track. But increasing lumber prices in the late 1870s combined with periodic warm, dry winters compelled loggers to turn to iron rails. By 1887, 89 logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan, transforming logging from a winter activity into a year-round one.The word “remoteness ” in the pa ssage is closest in meaning to∙decline∙density∙size∙isolationOnce the logs arrived at a river, the trip downstream to a mill could be a long and tortuous one. Logjams (buildups of logs that prevent logs from moving downstream) were common-at times stretching for 10 miles-and became even more frequent as pressure on the northern Midwest pinelands increased in the 1860s. To help keep the logs moving efficiently, barriers called booms (essentially a chain of floating logs) were constructed to control the direction of the timber. By the 1870s, lumber companies existed in all the major logging areas of the northern Midwest.Overkill of the North American Megafauna Thousands of years ago, in North America`s past, all of its megafauna-large mammals such as mammoths and giant bears-disappeared. One proposed explanation for this event is that when the first Americans migrated over from Asia, they hunted the megafauna to extinction. These people, known as the Clovis society after a site where their distinctive spear points were first found, would have been able to use this food source to expand their population and fill the continent rapidly. Yet many scientists argue against this "Pleistocene (the period between about 2.5 million and 11,700 years ago during which humans first appeared on Earth) overkill" hypothesis. Modern humans have certainly been capable of such drastic effects on animals, but could ancient people with little more than stone spears similarly have caused the extinction of numerous species of animals? Thirty-five genera or groups of species (and many individual species) suffered extinction in North America around 11,000 B.C., soon after the appearance and expansion of Paleo-Indiansa group of hunters active in America during the late Pleistocene throughout the Americas (27 genera disappeared completely, and another 8 became locally extinct, surviving only outside North America).The word “proposed” in t he passage is closest in meaning to∙accepted∙obvious∙debatable∙suggestedThe word “distinctive ” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙hidden∙characteristic∙scattered∙rareWhy does the author compare “Modern humans” with “ancient people”?∙To argue that modern people have continued to have drastic effects on animal species ∙To illustrate how people from different historical times treated animals differently∙To question the idea that ancient people could have hunted the megafauna to extinction ∙To emphasize that modern people are more successful hunters than ancient people wereAlthough the climate changed at the end of the Pleistocene, warming trends had happened before. A period of massive extinction of large mammals like that seen about 11,000 years ago had not occurred during the previous 400,000 years, despite these changes. The only apparently significant difference in the Americas 11,000 years ago was the presence of human hunters of these large mammals. Was this coincidence or cause-and-effect?We do not know. Ecologist Paul S. Martin has championed the model that associates the extinction of large mammals at the end of the Pleistocene with human predation. With researcher J. E. Mosimann, he hasco-authored a work in which a computer model showed that in around 300 years, given the right conditions, a small influx of hunters into eastern Beringia 12,000 years ago could have spread across North America in a wave and wiped out game animals to feed their burgeoning population.In using the word “coincidence ” in the passage, the author refers to events that occurred∙after a period of many years∙subsequent to a prediction∙from time to time∙at the same time and by chanceAccording to paragraph 2, what suggests that human activity played a role in the extinction of mammals about 11,000 years ago?∙Climate changes that would have favored human population expansion occurred at the time of the extinctions.∙The presence of human hunters had caused animal extinctions in other time periods.∙There was a pattern of climate change earlier than 11,000 years ago that had not caused animal extinctions.∙Harmful climate changes 11,000 years ago would have required humans to hunt larger numbers of animals for food.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.∙ A computer model was designed to determine how long it would have taken for a small group of hunters to spread across North America.∙ A computer model showed that it was possible for a small group of hunters to spread across North America and kill off game animals in just 300 years.∙According to a computer model, people coming into North America 12,000 years ago had to kill game animals in order to feed their population.∙According to a computer model, about 12,000 years ago conditions enabled a small group of hunters to enter and cross North America in about 300 years.The researchers ran the model several ways, always beginning with a population of 100 humans in Edmonton, in Alberta, Canada, at 11,500 years ago. Assuming different initial North American big-game-animal populations (75–150 million animals) and different population growth rates for the human settlers (0.65%–3.5%), and varying kill rates, Mosimann and Martin derived figures of between 279 and1,157 years from initial contact to big-game extinction.Which of the following best describes the results of the research discussed in paragraph 4 ?∙Scientists used mathematical models to show that most of the extinctions occurred in areas where humans had recently arrived.∙Scientists established that the main population of North Americans who hunted lived in Canada during the time of the megafauna extinctions.∙Scientists used numerical models to confirm that a small population of humans could have caused big-game extinctions in a relatively short period of time.∙Scientists used statistics to prove beyond doubt the currently accepted view that human hunters were the main cause of the megafauna extinctionsMany scholars continue to support this scenario. For example, geologist Larry Agenbroad has mapped the locations of dated Clovis sites alongside the distributionof dated sites where the remains of wooly mammoths have been found in both archaeological and purely paleontological contexts. These distributions show remarkable synchronicity (occurrence at the same time).There are, however, many problems with this model. Significantly, though a few sites are quite impressive, there really is very little archaeological evidence to support it. Writing in 1982, Martin himself admitted the paucity of evidence; for example, at that point, the remains of only 38 individual mammoths had been found at Clovis sites. In the years since, few additional mammoths have been added to the list; there are still fewer than 20 Clovis sites where the remains of one or more mammoths have beenrecovered, a minuscule proportion of the millions that necessarily would have had to have been slaughtered within the overkill scenario.Which of the following statements about Larry Agenbroad’s work is implied in the discussion in paragraph 5 ?∙Agenbroad showed that Mosimann and Martin’s estimates of the amount of time needed to drive big-game to extinction were correct.∙Agenbroad’s maps were the first to indicate the ages of the Clo vis sites.∙Agenbroad reinforced the idea that humans could have caused the extinctions.∙Agenbroad’s studies of wooly mammoths l ed to his discovery of Clovis sitesThe word "admitted" in the passage is closest in meaning to∙accepted the truth of∙was unaware of∙was troubled by∙called attention toAccording to paragraph 6, which of the following statements challenges the view that hunting by humans caused the extinctions of North American megafauna?∙The Clovis sites that contain the remains of mammoths were settled by humans long after the extinctions occurred.∙Only a few of the Clovis sites are located near known mammoth habitats.∙Only a few of the Clovis sites are located near known mammoth habitats.∙The number of mammoth remains found at Clovis sites is smaller than would be expected if hunting by humans had caused the extinctions.Though Martin claims the lack of evidence actually supports his model-the evidence is sparse because the spread of humans and the extinction of animals occurred so quickly-this argument seems weak. And how could we ever disprove it? As archaeologist Donald Grayson points out, in other cases where extinction resulted from the quick spread of human hunters-for example, the extinction of the moa, the large flightless bird of New Zealand-archaeological evidence in the form of remains is abundant. Grayson has also shown that the evidence is not so clear that all or even most of the large herbivores in late Pleistocene America became extinct after the appearance of Clovis. Of the 35 extinct genera, only 8 can be confidently assigned an extinction date of between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago. Many of the older genera, Grayson argues, may have succumbed before 12,000 B.C., at least half a century before the Clovis showed up in the American West.。
托福阅读tpo54R-2原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
TPO54 阅读-2 Overkill of the North American Megafauna原文 (1)译文 (2)题目 (4)答案 (9)背景知识 (10)原文Overkill of the North American Megafauna①Thousands of years ago, in North America's past, all of its megafauna—large mammals such as mammoths and giant bears—disappeared. One proposed explanation for this event is that when the first Americans migrated over from Asia, they hunted the megafauna to extinction.These people, known as the Clovis society after a site where their distinctive spear points were first found, would have been able to use this food source to expand their population and fill the continent rapidly.Yet many scientists argue against this "Pleistocene overkill" hypothesis. Modern humans have certainly been capable of such drastic effects on animals, but could ancient people with little more than stone spears similarly have caused the extinction of numerous species of animals?Thirty-five genera or groups of species (and many individual species) suffered extinction in North America around 11,000 B.C., soon after the appearance and expansion of Paleo-lndians throughout the Americas (27 genera disappeared completely, and another 8 became locally extinct, surviving only outside North America).②Although the climate changed at the end of the Pleistocene, warming trends had happened before. A period of massive extinction of large mammals like that seen about 11,000 years ago had not occurred during the previous 400,000 years, despite these changes. The only apparently significant difference in the Americas 11,000 years ago was the presence of human hunters of these large mammals. Was this coincidence or cause-and-effect?③We do not know.Ecologist Paul S. Martin has championed the model that associates the extinction of large mammals at the end of the Pleistocene with human predation.With researcher J. E. Mosimann, he has co-authored a work in which a computer model showed that in around 300 years, given the right conditions, a small influx of hunters into eastern Beringia 12,000 years ago could have spread across North America in a wave and wiped out game animals to feedtheir burgeoning population.④The researchers ran the model several ways, always beginning with a population of 100 humans in Edmonton, in Alberta, Canada, at 11,500 years ago.Assuming different initial North American big-game-animal populations (75-150 million animals) and different population growth rates for the human settlers (0.65%-3.5%), and varying kill rates, Mosimann and Martin derived figures of between 279 and 1,157 years from initial contact to big-game extinction.⑤Many scholars continue to support this scenario.For example, geologist Larry Agenbroad has mapped the locations of dated Clovis sites alongside the distribution of dated sites where the remains of wooly mammoths have been found in both archaeological and purely paleontological contexts.These distributions show remarkable synchronicity (occurrence at the same time).⑥There are, however, many problems with this model.Significantly, though a few sites are quite impressive, there really is very little archaeological evidence to support it.Writing in 1982, Martin himself admitted the paucity of evidence;for example, at that point, the remains of only 38 individual mammoths had been found at Clovis sites. In the years since, few additional mammoths have been added to the list;there are still fewer than 20 Clovis sites where the remains of one or more mammoths have been recovered, a minuscule proportion of the millions that necessarily would have had to have been slaughtered within the overkill scenario.⑦Though Martin claims the lack of evidence actually supports his model—the evidence is sparse because the spread of humans and the extinction of animals occurred so quickly—this argument seems weak. And how could we ever disprove it?As archaeologist Donald Grayson points out, in other cases where extinction resulted from the quick spread of human hunters—for example, the extinction of the moa, the large flightless bird of New Zealand—archaeological evidence in the form of remains is abundant. Grayson has also shown that the evidence is not so clear that all or even most of the large herbivores in late Pleistocene America became extinct after the appearance of Clovis. Of the 35 extinct genera, only 8 can be confidently assigned an extinction date of between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago.Many of the older genera, Grayson argues, may have succumbed before 12,000 B.C., at least half a century before the Clovis showed up in the American West.译文北美大型动物的过度捕杀①数千年前的北美，它所有的大型动物，如猛犸象和巨熊，都消失了。
托福阅读 TPO 52-2 WORD 打印 Natufian Culture
Natufian CultureIn the archaeological record of the Natufian period, from about 12,500 to 10,200 years ago, in the part of the Middle East known as the Levant―roughly east of the Mediterranean and north of the Arabian Peninsula―we see clear evidence of agricultural origins. The stone tools of the Natufians included many sickle-shaped cutting blades that show a pattern of wear characteristic of cereal harvesting. Also, querns (hand mills) and other stone tools used for processing grain occur in abundance at Natufian sites, and many such tools show signs of long, intensive use . Along with the sickle blades are many grinding stones, primarily mortars and pestles of limestone or basalt. There is also evidence that these heavy grinding stones were transported over long distances, more than 30 kilometers in some cases, and this is not something known to have been done by people of preceding periods. Fishhooks and weights for sinking fishing nets attest to the growing importance of fish in the diet in some areas. Stone vessels indicate an increased need for containers, but there is no evidence of Natufian clay working or pottery. Studies of the teeth of Natufians also strongly suggest that these people specialized in collecting cereals and may have been cultivating them and in the process of domesticating them, but they were also still hunter-foragers who intensively hunted gazelle and deer in more lush areas and wild goats and equids in more arid zones.All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 1 as evidence that the Natufians may have engaged in the growing and processing of cereals and grains EXCEPT∙tools with a specific pattern of wear∙the widespread presence of grinding stones∙the presence of clay containers∙results from the analysis of Natufian teethWhy doe s the author say that “many such...intensive use” in connection with Natufian agriculture?∙To argue that the Natufian people consumed grains long before they included fish in their diet∙To suggest that Natufian people could not replace their tools frequently because they had to travel very long distances to find grinding stones∙To illustrate the sophistication of the Natufians in the design of stone tools∙To support the claim that the archaeological record of the Natufian period shows clear evidence of agricultural originsThe phrase attest to in the passage is closest in meaning to∙symbolize∙provide evidence of∙are predictive of∙coincide withWhich of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.∙Studies of the teeth of Natufians suggest the importance of cereals in their culture although they still hunted and foraged.∙The Natufians specialized in collecting cereals and may have been in the process of domesticating certain animals.∙Studies of the teeth of Natufians suggest that these people became hunter-foragers after they began domesticating cereals.∙The Natufians’ diet consisted mostly of cereals and lacked sufficient meat.The Natufians had a different settlement pattern from that of their predecessors. Some of their base camps were far larger (over 1,000 square meters) than any of those belonging to earlier periods, and they may have lived in some of these camps for half the year or even more. In some of the camps, people made foundations and other architectural elements out of limestone blocks. Trade in shell, obsidian, and other commodities seems to have been on the rise, and anthropologists suspect that the exchange of perishables (such as skins, foodstuffs) and salt was also on the increase. With the growing importance of wild cereals in the diet, salt probably became for the first time a near necessity: people who eat a lot of meat get many essential salts from this diet, but diets based on cereals can be deficient in salts. Salt was probably also important as a food preservative in early villages.Paragraph 2 suggests that compared with their predecessors, the Natufians∙had smaller camps∙had more permanent settlements∙engaged in trade less often∙had more meat in their dietsThe phrase “be deficient in” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙consist mainly of∙be balanced by∙not have enough∙have adequateThe word “preservative” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙something that adds flavor to food∙something that adds nutritional value to food∙something that keeps food fresh∙something that increases the trade value of foodAccording to paragraph 2, the abundance of wild cereals in the Natufian diet probably meant that the Natufians∙had to move their settlements more often∙needed to supplement their diets with salt∙found it easy to store their food supplies∙no longer needed meat to provide essential mineralsAs always, there is more to a major cultural change than simply a shift in economics. The Natufians made (and presumably wore) beads and pendants in many materials, including gemstones and marine shells that had to be imported, and it is possible that this ornamentation actually reflects a growing sense of ethnic identity and perhaps some differences in personal and group status. Cleverly carved figurines of animals, women, and other subjects occur in many sites, and Natufian period cave paintings have been found in Anatolia, Syria, and Iran.More than 400 Natufian burials have been found, most of them simple graves set in house floors. As archaeologistBelfer-Cohen notes, these burials may reflect an ancestor cult and a growing sense of community emotional ties and attachment to a particular place, and toward the end of the Natufian period, people in this area were making a strict separation between living quarters and burial grounds. In contrast with the Pleistocene cultures of the Levant, Natufian culture appears to have experienced considerable social change.The word “reflects” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙indicates∙causes∙hides∙preventsThe word “ties” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙values∙experiences∙influences∙connectionsThe question of why the Natufians differed from their predecessors in these and other ways and why they made these first steps toward farming as a way of life remains unclear. There were climate changes, of course, and growing aridity and rising population densities may have forced them to intensify the exploitation of cereals, which in turn might have stimulated the development of sickles and other tools and the permanent communities that make agriculture efficient. But precisely how these factors interacted with others at play is poorly understood.。