实验心理学笔记(朱滢、焦书兰版)第六章：心理语言学
Chapter 6 语言学Language Processing in Mind-T
Chapter VI Language Processing in MindIntroductionWhy study language? LANGUAGE is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. (Chomsky, Reflections on Language, 1975)Psycholinguistics is the study of “language and mind” , or to be more exact, can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). PSYCHOLINGUISTICS is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. Less modestly, it sometimes also produces findings, which make their own mark on linguistic research, leading to the modification of theoretical ideas.PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAG语言心理学deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought,PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION 交际心理学includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.A possible divide within psycholinguistics is of those who style themselves COGNITIVE PSYCHOLINGUISTS are concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mindEXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLINGUISTS are somewhat more concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word.In practice the two schools of thought often overlap, but extreme supporters of each way of thinking sometimes perceive the gap as being a large one.Major strands of psycholinguistic research:and acquisition language.Section one: Language ComprehensionQ1: What is language comprehension?Q2: What is mind? brain/thinking processQ3: How do you understand language?Language comprehension: How do people use their knowledge of language and how do they understand what they hear or read?(includes both text comprehension and speech comprehension, either of which involves several processes. It is important for the reader or listener to take account of the grammatical structure and the meaning of what is being presented. Meaning is extracted from text or speech by reliant what is presented to information stored in long-term memory. )1. Word recognition is the first step in understanding any message, which includes not only the recognition of meanings of the words, but also the information that determines the syntactic structure of the rest of the sentence.How do we recognize words?Cohort theory集群理论: hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.Factors affect word recognition:Frequency effect频率效应:Recency effect 近期效应：Context 语境: semantic association network: which represents the relationships between various semantically related words.2. Lexical ambiguityTwo theories used to distinguish ambiguous words:a)All the meanings associated with the word are accessedAll meanings of ambiguous words are accessed and time has to be taken to decide among them.b)Only one meaning is accessed initiallyFrequency and context effects are important here.3. Syntactic processingPsycholinguists generally assume that the syntactic structure is built as soon as possible rather than waiting to see what the whole string of word is before deciding what structure it has.Sentence ambiguity may occur due toa)The ambifuity of individual words and the different possible ways that words canbe fit into phrasesb)The ambiguous catefory of some of the words in the sentenceGarden path花园小径：a phenomenon concerning certain ambiguous sentences. Garden path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have.How do people decide which structure an ambiguous sentence has in sentence processing?Minimal attachment theory最小接触理论: an idea that people initially construct the simplest (or least complex) syntactic structure when interpreting the structure of sentences.Other analysis: such as the one based on pragmatic plausibility.4. Semantic and sentence memoryMemory representations are not syntactic under certain conditions (see the experiment P202, which indicate that the syntactic details of linguistic material are not usually stored for very long and that it is a representation of a sentence’s meaning which a subject has available in his memory under normal circumstances.) Assimilation theory: emphasis on the importance of background knowledge in “normal”situations where we might memorize linguistic material.5. Basic process in readinga)Eye movement: information is obtained from the text only during fixationsand not at all during saccades.(P204)b)The perceptual span感知时距：the range of letters from which usefulinformation is extracted.c)The immediacy assumption即时假定：A reader is supposed to carry out theprocesses required to understand each word and its relationship to previouswords in the sentence as soon as that word is encountered.Section Two Discourse话语/text语篇InterpretationQ1. What is schemata and reference drawing?Q2. What is text interpretation?Introduction:Discourse serves as a context, affecting sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certain direction.a)General context effects: occur all the time when our generalknowledge about the world influences language comprehension.b)Specific context effects: involve information obtained from earlierparts of a discourse.1.Schemata 图式and inference drawing推论Schemata: packets of stored knowledge, whicha)can vary considerably in the information they contain. from the verysimple to the very complexb)are frequently organized hierarchically; for example, in addition toa rather general restaurant schema or script, we probably also havemore specific restaurant schemata for different kinds ofrestaurant(e.g. fat-food places, up-market French restaurants, andson on).c)operate in a top-down or conceptually driven way to facilitateinterpretation of environmental stimuli.Inference drawing: Language comprehension frequently requires us to go far beyond the literal meanings of the sentences we read or her. Essential information is often only implied. So that it is necessary to draw inferences in order to understand fully what is intended.The inferences which people draw are stored in long-term memory along with information about the sentences actually presented (Bransford, Barclay. And Franks,1972)2.Story structure:Our comprehension of and memory for stories are highly “ selective”, inthe sense that we focus on the central theme of the story rather than onthe relatively unimportant details. According to Van Dijik and Kintsch(1983), a story is first of all processed so that the individual propositionsare extracted (theory of story processing). The propositions of a storyenter into a short-term working buffer of limited capacity. When thebuffer contains a number propositions, the reader or listener tries torelate them to each other in a coherent fashion . In general terms,subsequent ability to remember the propositions depends on the length oftime they spend in the working buffer. Those propositions which arehighly relevant to the main theme of a story tend to be stored for arelatively long time in the working buffer. Therefore, thematicinformation should be better remembered than non-thematic information.Section Three Language ProductionQ1. What is Language production?Q2. What are the means of Language production?Language production: is very definitely a goal-driven activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information, and so on, which include two forms of production, namely, speech production and writing.1.speech productionAccording to Garrett (1976; 1984), there are altogether 5 different levels ofrepresentation involved in speaking a sentence, and they occur in the following sequence:1)The message-level representation2)The functional-level representation3)The positional-level representation4)The phonetic-level representation5)The articulatory-level representationErrors which may support that notion that speakers engage in reasonableelaborate planning before beginning to speak:Spoonererism首音互换/slip of the tongue舌头打滑): the initial letter orletters of two words are transposedAnticipation error预期错误: occur when a word is spoken earlier in thesentence than it should be: (the school is at school)Exchange error交换错误：two items within a sentence are swapped. (this isthe happiest life of my day).The following error prove the sequence of 2nd and 3rd proposed byGarrett:(speakers decide on the grammatical structure of a proposedutterance in the functional-level representation, and then select theappropriate words to fit into that structure in the subsequent position-levelrepresentation)Morpheme-exchange errors: in which roots or basic forms of two words areswitched leaving the grammatical structure unchanged. (He has alreadytrunked two packs)2.Written languageAccording to Hayes and Flower (1986), writing essentially consists of threeinter-related processes:1)The planning process2)The sentence generation process3)The revision processQ: What are the factors that influence or determine the quality of the writingplan? (relevant knowledge about the topic to be written about, strategicknowledge: knowledge of the methods used in construction a writing plan inorder to make it coherent and well-organized)Q: Who use the following writing strategies respectively, knowledge-tellingstrategy and knowledge-transforming strategy?knowledge-telling strategy: simply write down everything children can thinkof tht is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way(Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1987)knowledge-transforming strategy: involves focusing on potential problemswithin the planning process ( Are the main points arranged in the mostlogical order”)Here are some more examples of garden path sentences. Can you figure out what the structure of these sentences is?1.The boat floated downstream sank.2.While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap.3.The daughter of the King’s son admires himself.。
朱滢《实验心理学》（第3版）课后习题及详解（眼动实验法）【圣才出品】
朱滢《实验⼼理学》（第3版）课后习题及详解（眼动实验法）【圣才出品】第13章眼动实验法1．⼈眼的视觉范围包括哪三个区域?各⾃的视觉特点是什么？答：在阅读的过程，读者的视觉范围可分为三个部分：外周区域、副中央凹区、中央凹区。
（1）中央凹区即视觉中央的2°视野范围，是⼈类视敏度最⾼的区域，能够辨认所注视对象的细节。
（2）副中央凹区即视觉中央2°～5°左右的区域，是⼈类视敏度⽐较低的区域，能够获得注视对象的⼀些信息。
（3）外周区域即副中央凹以外的所有区域，是⼈类视敏度⾮常差的区域。
2．记录眼动的⽅法有哪⼏种?答：⼈类眼球的运动，简称眼动，通过眼动可使物像在视⽹膜上处于最佳位置。
记录眼动的⽅法有：（1）电流记录法（EOG）眼球运动可以产⽣⽣物电现象。
电位的变化由置于⽪肤相应位置的电极导⼊放⼤器，并通过⽰波器或记录器显⽰出来。
眼动与电位变化之间存在着对应关系，通过分析记录结果，可以了解读者的眼动情况。
（2）光学记录法①⾓膜反光法在眼球运动过中，⾓膜对来⾃固定光源的光的反射⾓度也是变化的，通过记录⾓膜反光来分析读者的眼动。
②虹膜——巩膜反射法巩膜⽐虹膜能够反射更多的外界⼊射光，被反射的光线通过红外探测器来监测，探测器可以检测到读者垂直⽅向的眼动和⽔平⽅向眼动。
③普⾦野图像法普⾦野图像是由眼睛的若⼲光学界⾯反射所形成的图像。
通过分析这些图像运动的距离可以精确地测量眼球的运动。
3．什么是兴趣区?兴趣的类型有⼏种?答：兴趣区（AOIs）是眼动研究过程中相关刺激的界定，与研究者的假设有关。
按照⼤⼩不同，兴趣区可分为以下⼏种类型：（1）以词的某⼀部分界定的兴趣区在语⾔阅读的研究中，假设研究者只对汉语词或字的某⼀部分感兴趣，这时，可将兴趣区定界得更⼩，如汉语词或字的⼀部分（如偏旁或部⾸）。
（2）以词来界定的兴趣区在语⾔阅读的研究中，研究者可将兴趣区界定为⼀个词（或字）。
（3）以句⼦来界定的兴趣区在语⾔阅读的研究中，研究者可将兴趣区界定为⼀个句⼦。
朱滢《实验心理学》（第3版）课后习题及详解（反应时间）【圣才出品】
朱滢《实验⼼理学》（第3版）课后习题及详解（反应时间）【圣才出品】第4章反应时间1．如何正确理解反应时间的概念?答：正确理解反应时的概念需把握以下⼏点：（1）定义反应时，亦称“动作反应时”、“反应潜伏期”，是指从刺激呈现到有机体做出反应之间所需的最短时间，是认知⼼理学研究有机体内部⼼理操作过程复杂性的重要指标。
根据“刺激—反应”之间的复杂程度，可将其分为简单反应时和复杂反应时。
（2）组成成分反应时包括三个阶段的时间：①刺激使感受器产⽣了兴奋，其神经冲动传递到感觉神经元的时间；②神经冲动经感觉神经传⾄⼤脑⽪质的感觉中枢和运动中枢，从那⾥经运动神经到效应器官的时间；③效应器官接受冲动后开始效应活动的时间。
（3）影响因素反应时的影响因素包括：刺激特点和反应者特点。
前者如刺激的强度、⼤⼩、时间长短、数量、差异等；后者如反应者的准备状态、练习的次数，反应者的感觉器官、神经类型、动机乃⾄⼈格特征等。
2．如何运⽤相减法、相加因素法、“开窗”实验来测量反应时间?答：（1）相减法测量反应时间的原理反应时的相减法在具体应⽤中假定，两种作业中的⼀种作业包含另⼀种作业所没有的某个特定⼼理过程，⽽在其它⽅⾯均相同，这样就可判定这两个作业的反应时间之差就是完成那个特定⼼理过程所需的时间。
（2）相加法测量反应时间的原理Sternberg发展了反应时间的相加因素法。
这种⽅法假定，完成⼀个作业所需的时间是⼀系列信息加⼯阶段分别所需时间的总和，如果两个因素的效应是相互制约的，那么这两个因素只作⽤于同⼀个信息加⼯阶段；如果两个因素的效应是分别独⽴的，那么这两个因素各⾃作⽤于某⼀特定的加⼯阶段。
（3）开窗实验法测量反应时间的原理Hamilton、Hockey等发展了“开窗”实验。
“开窗”实验能直接地测量每个加⼯阶段的时间，从⽽能明显地看出这些加⼯阶段。
3．什么是反应时间研究中的速度与准确率权衡现象，如何分解?答：（1）速度与准确率权衡被试有时会以牺牲准确率为代价去换取反应速度，有时则会以牺牲反应速度为代价去换取反应准确率，亦即被试能根据不同的实验要求或在不同的实验条件下，建⽴⼀个权衡反应速度与反应准确率的标准来指导他的反应。
朱滢《实验心理学》(第3版)章节题库(知觉)【圣才出品】
第6章知觉一、单项选择题1．知觉的刺激物说的思想最早来源于（）。
A．行为主义B．格式塔C．精神分析D．人本主义【答案】B【解析】知觉的刺激物说即直接知觉理论，最早来源于格式塔心理学。
2．服装设计中经常应用（）错觉。
A．月亮B．缪勒—莱耶尔C．运动D．似动【答案】B【解析】服装设计中应用缪勒—莱耶尔错觉原理，产生身高变化的视觉效果。
3．D.B.不能________他左视觉场的刺激，但是他能________它们。
（）A．意识到并定位；辨认/确认B．觉察/定位；看见C．辨认/确认；觉察/定位D．觉察/定位；辨认/确认【答案】C4．（）是自下而上的加工，（）是自上而下的加工。
（）A．记忆；注意B．觉察；无意识C．数据驱动加工；概念驱动加工D．知觉；感觉【答案】C5．（）是不准确的知觉。
A．幻觉B．感觉C．错觉D．妄想【答案】C6．正常情况下，人们产生深度知觉的最重要来源是（）。
A．单眼线索B．视轴辐合C．双眼视差D．晶体调节【答案】C【解析】深度知觉即空间知觉的来源包括：肌肉线索、物理线索和双眼线索，其中最重要的深度知觉线索是双眼线索。
二、多项选择题1．似动的主要形式有（）。
A．动景运动B．自主运动C．诱发运动D．网像后效【答案】ABC2．间接知觉可通过（）来研究。
A．不可能图形B．三维图形的知觉测验C．知觉恒常性D．两可图形【答案】ABCD3．用一只眼睛就能看到深度的视觉线索有（）。
A．纹理梯度B．遮挡C．运动视差D．线条透视【答案】ABCD4．环境刺激为人类知觉提供的物理线索有（）。
A．遮挡B．几何透视C．阴影D．运动视差【答案】ABCD5．正常情况下，人们产生深度知觉的最重要来源是（）。
A．单眼线索B．视轴辐合C．双眼视差D．晶体调节【答案】BC6．当判断远近不同的山时，能够很容易根据颜色浓淡来进行区分，这是（）。
A．单眼线索B．辐合C．空气透视D．结构透视【答案】AC7．知觉中图形组织的原则包括（）。
朱滢《实验心理学》（第3版）（课后习题详解社会认知）【圣才出品】
朱滢《实验心理学》（第3版）（课后习题详解社会认知）【圣才出品】11.2课后习题详解1．举例说明移情的研究是怎样进行的?答：移情或同情是指一个人具有确认他人情绪的能力，或具有他人情绪引起的共鸣体验。
以对疼痛的移情实验为例：（1）研究对象被试是16对恋爱对象，研究者假定他们更容易彼此产生移情。
（2）实验过程①疼痛刺激是施加给女被试或她的对象的电刺激，给予电刺激时扫描女被试的脑活动。
②屏幕上随机呈现指示图标，指明是女被试（自我）还是她的对象（他人）将受到低强度的电刺激（无痛条件）或高强度的电刺激（疼痛条件）。
③研究者在“自我”与“他人”的情况下比较了疼痛条件与无痛条件的fMRI结果。
扫描之后通过对移情量表上项目的评定，对女被试移情的个体差异进行了测量。
（3）实验结果①自己受到疼痛刺激和感受他人疼痛时均激活的主要脑区有：前扣带回与前脑岛；而自己受到疼痛刺激时还特异地激活了感觉相关的脑区。
②对疼痛的移情涉及其情感成分而不是感觉成分。
③移情的个别差异与脑区的激活差异有很好的相关，移情量表得分高的被试在感受他人疼痛时相应的脑区也有很强烈的激活。
2．主观报告与脑区激活的程度相关有什么意义?答：主观报告是实验研究中经常使用的因变量指标，通常是实验结果的一部分，要求处于一定实验条件下的被试对自己的感受和体验做出恰当的口头表达。
当外界刺激变动时，大多数人的报告在经验上有相似的波动。
相应的会引起被试心理上程序的变化，如果通过仪器如ERP，fMRI等则能探测到相应的脑活动的状态，不同的心理过程或者是被试不同的主观感受，可能导致所引起的脑区激活的程度不同。
主观报告在一定程度上，可以用来检验所记录的脑活动是否和当时的心理状态一致，被试主观报告出在完成任务过程时，自己的亲身体会。
因此，主观报告为用仪器记录心理活动所激活的脑区程度提供了辅助资料。
3．怎样应用morphing技术进行自我面孔识别研究?答：参见本章复习笔记。
4．文化对自我参照效应的影响是怎样的?答：语词材料与自我相联系时的记忆成绩比其它编码条件好，人们把这种现象称为自我参照效应。
心理学第六版笔记
心理学第六版笔记
《心理学》第六版笔记可能包含很多内容，因为它取决于您学习的具体课程和教材。
但我可以为您提供一个心理学第六版笔记的大纲，供您参考：
1. 心理学简介
心理学的定义
心理学的历史和发展
心理学的分支和应用领域
2. 心理学的生物学基础
神经元和突触
大脑的结构和功能
遗传和环境对行为的影响
3. 感觉和知觉
感觉的基本原理
视觉、听觉、触觉、味觉和嗅觉
知觉的组织和解释
4. 意识和注意
意识的本质和特点
注意的机制和影响因素
催眠和冥想等意识状态
5. 学习和记忆
学习的基本概念和类型
经典条件反射和操作性条件反射记忆的阶段和系统
6. 思维、语言和智力
思维的本质和过程
语言的产生、接收和理解
智力的评估和影响因素
7. 情感和动机
情感的产生和表达
动机的理论和驱动因素
需要层次理论等
8. 人格和发展心理学
人格的定义和理论
心理发展的阶段和理论
性别的角色和社会化过程
9. 人际关系和社会心理学
人际关系的形成和发展
从众、服从和群体行为
社会认知和态度形成与改变10. 心理障碍与治疗
心理障碍的定义和分类
常见的心理障碍（如焦虑症、抑郁症等）
治疗方法和心理治疗理论（如精神分析、行为疗法等）
11. 应用心理学与未来展望
心理学在教育、工业、商业等领域的应用
未来心理学的挑战和发展方向
以上大纲仅作为参考，您可以根据自己的学习需要添加或删减内容。
朱滢《实验心理学》章节题库(心理学语言)【圣才出品】
第9章心理语言学一、单项选择题1．（）研究为直接探讨两半球的一侧优势与语言功能的关系提供了可能性。
A．双耳分听实验B．割裂脑C．失听症病人D．失语症病人【答案】B【解析】割裂脑技术是研究大脑两半球功能不对称性的一种有效手段。
通过对割裂脑病人的研究发现，对于极大多数习惯于用右手以及大部分习惯于用左手的人来说，左半球与言语、推理、理智的和分析的思维相联系，而右半球则与感知、空间主体知觉、直觉的思维相联系。
每一侧大脑半球都有其独立的功能，但在正常情况下，由于胼胝体等的连接，其两侧的功能得到了整合。
2．人们通过听觉或视觉，接受输入的词形或语言信息，并在人脑中揭示词义的过程是（）。
A．词汇知觉B．词汇理解C．词汇加工D．词汇表征【答案】B【解析】词汇理解，又称词汇识别，是指通过对词形的感知通达词汇意义的过程。
在词汇理解的研究中，人们提出了一个重要的概念——心理词典。
心理词典是指保存在人脑中的一部词典。
它存储了大量的词条，每个词条又包括词的写法、语音以及词义等各种知识。
心理词典中的词语并不是杂乱无章的，而是按照一定的方式组织起来的。
3．语言理解的最高水平是（）。
A．语音知觉B．词汇理解C．句子理解D．文本理解【答案】D【解析】篇章理解（文本理解）是语言理解的最高水平。
它是指在理解字词、句子的基础上，运用推理、整合等方式揭示篇章意义的过程。
二、多项选择题1．对语言的理解可包括以下几种？（）A．语音知觉B．词汇理解C．句子理解D．文本理解【答案】BCD【解析】对语言的理解是在视觉输入的文字材料的基础上建构意义的过程。
根据加工的水平，其可以分为词汇理解、句子理解和篇章理解。
词汇理解，又称词汇识别，是指通过对词形的感知通达词汇意义的过程。
句子理解是指在字词理解的基础上，通过对组成句子的各成分的句法分析和语义分析，获得句子语义的过程。
篇章理解（文本理解）是语言理解的最高水平。
它是在理解字词、句子的基础上，运用推理、整合等方式揭示篇章意义的过程。
语言学第六章笔记和习题1
Chapter 6 Pragmatics---- the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.---- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.What are the differences between the two linguistic studies of meaning – semantics and pragmatics Semantics studies literal, structural or lexical meaning, while pragmatics studies non-literal, implicit, intended meaning, or speaker’s meaning.Semantics is context independent, decontextualized, while pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized.Semantics deals with what is said, while pragmatics deals with what is implicated or inferred.What essentially distinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is consideredIf it is not, it is semantics.If it is, it is pragmatics.Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader.Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context.Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.Some basic notions in PragmaticsContextPragmatics vs. semanticsSentence meaning vs. utterance meaningContextContext---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics---- is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration). Pragmatics---- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), .“Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning---- Sentence meaning:Abstract and context-independent meaning;literal meaning of a sentence;having a dyadic relation as in: What does X mean----utterance meaning:concrete and context-dependent meaning;intended meaning of a speaker;having a triadic relation as in: What did you mean by XFor example, “The bag is heavy” can meana bag being heavy (sentence meaning);an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag;the speaker is declining someone’s request for help.The dog is barking.If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Note: The meaning of an utterance is based on the sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context; utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning; it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentence.Speech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. I t aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language”In linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information. They actually do something through talking or writing in various circumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.Two types of utterancesConstatives (叙述句) ---- statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable;Performatives (施为句) ---- sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.Note: Sometimes they are easy to get confused, .“It is raining outside”can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.Some Examples of Performatives“I do”“I name this ship Elizabeth.”“I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.”“I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”“I declare the meeting open.”Austin’s new model of speech acts----According to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be perfo rming three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.The locutionary act----an act of saying something,uttering words, phrases,clauses, . an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.For example,“It is cold here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod here;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window;Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.----Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:----(the telephone rings)----H: That’ the phone. (1)----W: I’m in the bathroom. (2)----H: Okay. (3)This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:(1) Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.(2) A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead.(3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I’ll answer it.”Linguists are more concerned about or interested in illocutionary act.The classification of illocutionary act made by American philosopher-linguist John Searle.Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)Assertives/representatives(陈述)Directives(指令)Commissives(承诺)Expressives(表达)Declarations(宣布)Assertives/representatives---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, .I think the film is moving.I’m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.…Directives---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, .I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life!…Commissives---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, .I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.…Expressives----Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something, .I’m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.…Declarations----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, .I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.…Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, .I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.Note: (2) In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below: Could you open the door, please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the doorOpen the door!The door please!Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CPThe maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.Significance: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said.CP is nearly always observed, while these maxims are not, which gives rise to “Conversational implicatures”, . the language becomes indirect.Conversational implicatureIn real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, . both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.Violation of Maxim of quality----A: Would you like to go movie with me tonight----B: The final exam is approaching. I’m afraid I have to prepare for it.----A: would you like to come to our party tonight----B:I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well tonight.----A: Who was that lady I saw you with last night----B: That was no lady, that was my wife.Violation of maxim of quantityAt a party a young man introduces himself by saying “I’m Robert Sampson from Leeds, 28, unmarried…”“War is war.”“Girls are girls.”----A:When is Susan’s farewell party----B:Sometime next month.Violation of maxim of relation----A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie----B: We had a basketball match with class 2 and we beat them.----A: The hostess is an awful bore.----B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they----A: What time is it----B: The postman has just arrived.Violation of maxim of manner----A: Shall we get something for the kids----B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.本章重点难点：Types of speech actsLocutionary speech act – the action of making the sentenceIllocutionary speech act – the intentionsPerlocutionary speech act – the effectsOf these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.In linguistic communication people respond to an illocutionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning intended by the speaker.If a teacher says, “I have run out of chalk” in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about – one of the students will go and get some chalk – is perlocutionary.In English, illocutionary acts are also given specific labels, such as request, warning, promise, invitation, compliment, complaint, apology, offer, refusal, etc. these specific labels name various speech functions.Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.5. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.6. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.7. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.8. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences9. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.10. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.11. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.12. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s inten tion.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.14. What essentially distinguishes s_______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.15. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.16. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an u___________.17. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.18. C________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.19. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.20. A l_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.21. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speak er’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.22. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.23. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.24. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept26. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. intrinsicD. logical27. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context28. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual29. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive30. Which of the following is trueA. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.31. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century.32. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act33. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.34. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary acts.B. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about35. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle36. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l. F 2. FII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. Pragmatics 14. semantics 15. context 16. utterance 17. abstract19. Performatives 20. locutionary 21. illocutionary22. commissive 23. expressive 24. quantityIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A35. AIV. Define the terms below:37. pragmatics 38. context 39. utterance meaning40. sentence meaning 41. constative 42. performative43. locutionary act 44. illocutionary act 45. perlocutionary act 46.. Cooperative PrincipleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other48. How does a sentence differ from an utterance49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicaturesSuggested answers to supplementary exercises:IV. Define the terms below:37. pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39. utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.40. sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.41. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;42. Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each otherTraditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, . a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.48. How does a sentence differ from an utteranceA sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance depends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an utterance. Most utterances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaningA sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. For example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully performed .51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.1) representatives: representatives are used to state, to describe, to report, etc.. The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. For example:(I swear) I have never seen the man before.(I state) the earth is a globe.2) directives: Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class.For example:Open the window!3) commissives: Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. When the speaker is speaking, he puts himself under obligation. For example:I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4) expressives: The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs, . apologizing, thanking, congratulating. For example:I'm sorry for the mess I have made.5) declarations: Declarations have the characteristic that the successful performance of such an act brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. For example:I now declare the meeting open.52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principleThe maxim of quantity1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of quality1. Do not say what you believe to be false.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relationBe relevant.The maxim of manner1. Avoid obscurity of expression.2. Avoid ambiguity.3. Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .4. Be orderly.53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicaturesA: Do you know where Mr. Smith livesB: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.This is said when both A and B know that B does know Mr. Smith' s address. Thus B does not give enough information that is required, and he has flouted the maxim of quantity. Therefore, such conversational implicature as "I do not wish to tell you where Mr. Smith lives" is produced.A: Would you like to come to our party tonightB: I'm afraid I' m not feeling so well today.This is said when both A and B know that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and he is violating the maxim of quality. The conversational implicature " I do not want to go to your party tonight" is then produced.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you thinkB: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't theyThis is said when both A and B know that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and he has flouted the maxim of relation. The conver-sational implicature "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner" is produced.A: Shall we get something for the kidsB: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.This is said when both A and B know that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word "ice-cream." Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The conversati onal implicature "I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream" is then produced.。
实验心理学
《实验心理学》前言实验心理学估计是大家最头疼的一门课程了，并不是大家对实验的重视程度不够，而是内容晦涩难懂，难以理解，其中又贯穿了普心，统计的相关知识。
也就是说，如果普心，统计没掌握透彻，学起实验来还是会觉得有些累的。
所谓勤能补拙，相信只要下苦功，这门课照样也能得高分。
总的来说这么课，其实指包含两个方面的内容，第一是教你如何做心理学实验，第二是介绍一些经典的心理学实验（实际上很多都是普心就介绍过的，只不过实验的更加详细）在考试方面，实验心理学占60分，结构一般是（12个单选+2个多选+1个综合）这部分参考书目如下：《心理学专业基础综合考试大纲》（2011年版）教育部考试中心《心理学专业基础综合考试大纲解析》（2011年版）高教《实验心理学》郭秀艳（2004年版）人民教育出版社《实验心理学》朱滢（2009年第二版）北京大学出版社《实验心理学》张学民（2007年第二版）北京师范大学出版社《实验心理学》杨治良（1998年版）浙江教育出版社《心理与教育研究中的多因素实验设计》舒华（1994年版）北京师范大学出版社《心理学统考重难点手册》2011第三版《MJ心理大纲详解》（小白修订版）白云子开始一、实验心理学概述（一般一道单选）（一）实验心理学的产生与发展实验心理学的产生近代哲学思潮唯理论：笛卡尔“天赋论”经验主义：洛克“白板说”联想注意：培因“联想是一切心理活动的原则”近代自然科学的发展（九大事件）（1）贝尔—马戎第对于感觉神经和运动神经的发现（2）神经特殊能学说（缪勒的神经特殊能说，托马斯·杨及赫尔姆霍茨的三色说，）（3）感觉的研究（欧姆的听觉法则，韦伯定律）（4）颅相学（加尔）（5）脑机能学说（弗洛伦斯的整体说，布洛卡的定位说，弗里奇发现运动中枢）（6）反射动作的实现（罗伯特·惠特刺激脑脊分离的青蛙，仍会有反射）（7）神经冲动的电性质（伽伐尼采用神经肌肉装置，用点刺激蛙腿实验阐述了动物电的存在）（8）神经冲动速度的测定（赫尔姆霍茨策略了神经冲动传导的速度是50—100英尺每秒）（9）人差方差的提出（来源于天文学的研究，贝塞尔认为这种差异是由观察者的个体差异导致的）实验心理学产生的三大人物费希纳1860年出版了第一部系统的心理物理学专著《心理物理学纲要》1、提出来测量人的感受性的三种心理物理学方法：最小变化法，恒定刺激法，平均差误法2、提出了感觉“阈限”的感念，并对心理量和物理量之间的关系进行了分析和讨论3、提出了“负感觉”概念，并用负的数量来表示无意识现象赫尔姆霍茨1863年，赫尔姆霍茨出版的《听觉与音乐学的生理研究》提出了共鸣理论1867年，又出版了《生理的光学》提出了三色论冯特1862年出版了《对于感知觉的贡献》论述了对感知觉的研究，并在此书正式提出了“实验心理学”也是冯特的第一部实验心理学著作。
第六章-反应时与注意
如，驾驶员开车。
反
又如，一个视觉选择反应时实验包括两个刺激，被
应
试必须在其中一个刺激出现时，按左键，而当另一 个刺激出现时，按右键。
时 ➢ 在作出反应之前，必须对不同刺激有所辨别，
间 并作出不同反应的选择。
➢ 二择一的选择反应时比简单反应时长约0.07 秒，这个时间是辨别和选择所需要的时间。
黄月胜
实验心理学 一、反应时的含义
➢ 也叫反应潜伏期（response latency）； ➢ 指刺激施于有机体之后到明显反应开始所需要
的时间。 反 应 时 间
黄月胜
实验心理学 一、反应时的含义
包括以下三个时段：
➢ 第一时段，刺激使感受器产生了兴奋，其冲
动传递到感觉神经元的时间。
反 ➢ 第二时段，神经冲动经感觉神经到大脑皮质
反
验。
应 （一）相减法
时
任务一 心理过程1,2,3
间
任务二 RT任务二
心理过程1,2,3,4
- = RT任务一
？ RT心理过程4
黄月胜
实验心理学 三、反应时新法
（一）相减法 反应时相减法在认知心理学研究中的应用：
➢ 证明心理旋转存在的实验 反 ➢ 证明短时记忆视觉编码的实验 应 ➢ 启动效应与负启动效应的研究 时 间
黄月胜
实验心理学
反 应 时 间
黄月胜
实验心理学
（4）选择反应时和刺激数目的对
数成比例，刺激不是同一通道会
出现怎样的情况?
反
应 ➢ 波佩尔（E.Poppel）的实验
时 ➢ 通过耳机向被试的右耳呈现刺激，在被试的
间
左视野呈现光刺激。
➢ 被试只使用右手作出反应，当见到光时按一
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实验心理学笔记(朱滢、焦书兰版)第六
章：心理语言学
实验心理学笔记(朱滢、焦书兰版)连载之第六章：心理语言学
心理语言学是一门新兴的学科，它把语言过程作为自己的主要研究对象。
第一节语言获得
语言获得一种普遍的心理现象。
一、自然观察法
儿童的电报语言：布朗，他对13个2至3岁儿童的语言记录进行了分析。
结果发现，儿童使用的文法，是一种有规则地缩短了的成人文法的形式。
他创造了一个新名词，叫做“电报言语”
先进仪器完善自然观察法：韦尔曼和伦珀丝发现，当儿童说些什么，而听者作出了合适的反应时，只有3%的情况下儿童会重复自己的话。
而且，当儿童说些什么，听者却指出他或她没有理解这句话的意思时，儿童会在100%的情况下重复自己说的话。
这种现象清楚地说明此儿童说话是为了达到交际的目的。
二、调查法
1、学前儿童词汇调查
史密斯：儿童词汇量增加的速度是非常惊人的。
某些心理学家把儿童词汇量的这种戏剧性的增长，称之为：“语言爆炸”。
三、个案研究法是一个人作深度研究时采用的方法。
1、朗伯格对缺陷儿童的语言获得问题调查：事实证明，即使这个儿童没有发音的经验，他也能够理解语言。
2、社会隔离：格妮的情况表明，一个人到少年期后，语方习得还是可能的。
四、相关法：
1、纽波特：儿童词汇量与母亲言语行为的关系：母亲言语行为的几种量度和婴儿的词汇量，两者存在着明显的相关。
①母亲说出客本的次数愈多，儿童的词汇量愈大。
②母亲模仿和扩展孩子刚才说过的话的次数，与儿童词汇量的大小也是正相关。
③母亲重复刚才自己说的话的次数，与儿童词汇量的大小是负相关。
她的孩子的词汇量就小。
2、家庭环境：儿童的语言能力与以下三个因素是相关的。
（1）儿童母亲的复杂情况；（2）母亲的情绪和语方响应。
（3）适当的玩具及其有效性。
五、实验法
1、印证自然观察的问题
布朗的实验：儿童几乎总是重复名词、形容词和主要动词，他们很少重复冠词和助动词。
3、揭示隐蔽的过程
莫非特利用心脏节律变化为指标，测量幼婴的谚语知觉：发现这个时期的幼婴，如果听到一个新的声音，心脏节律就会变慢。
同一个声音不断重复，习惯化就会产生，在这种情况下，
心脏节律就恢复常态。
以幼婴的心脏节律变化作为辩别两个不同音节的指标。
▲儿童的听偏好：斯塔尔（实验内容）结果表明：控制组的孩子对两盘录音带没有表现出明显的偏爱，而实验组的孩子却表现出听偏爱。
他们能够辨别符合文法的句子和不符合文法的句子。
第二节句子的记忆
一、表层结构和深层结构：乔姆斯基提出了句子的“表层结构”和“深层结构”的思想
1、概念：人们实际上写的或说出来的句子，这就是句子的表层结构。
深层结构，则是指句子的基本的，比较抽象的意义。
两个句子，可能有非常不同的表层结构，但是，它们的深层结构，却可以是非常类似的，或者是相同。
2、有些句子的表层结构是完全一样的，但它们有不同的深层结构
萨文对核心句和核心句的转换的实验：它必须首先确切地记住这个句子，然后，要尽可能地记住呈现给他的词，可以预计，被试要记住和回忆的句子愈复杂，那么，被试对那些无关联的词的回忆成绩就会愈差。
与核心句一起呈现的词，被试能记住的就较多，而与转换句一起呈现的词，就试能记住的较少。
二、对句法的记忆
人们记住的往往是一个句子的意思，至于句子的确切形式或句法结构，他们是很容易忘记的。
三、对故事的记忆
基本的倾向：
（1）被试回忆的内容比故事原文简短了，
（2）某些表达方式更加成语化了，
（3）被试回忆的内容比较故事原文更加一致和合乎逻辑起来，被试在头脑里对故事余述内容作了一定的整理。
不管文章的表达方式是复杂的还是简单的，它们的内容在人记忆中的存储方式是相似的。
不管是复杂文章表达的信息还是简单文章表达的信息，都必定以相似的形式存储在人脑中的。
第三节语言与思维的关系——沃尔夫假说
一、沃尔夫假说的主要内容有两点：
一是语言决定论，即主张语言的结构决定思维的结构，语言支配思维，决定人的认识；
二是语言的关联性，即说不同语言的人有不同的思维结构，不同的语言有不同的决定认识的方式。
二、验证：
布朗和伦伯格探讨编码能力（语方属性）与再认（思维属性）之间的联系。
编码能力是指语言符号的效力（可用性）。
前一语言符号的可用性大，而后一语言符号的可用性则小。
就是说，它们的编码能力是不同的。
布朗认为：编码能力与思维的某种特定的尺度，即再认，应该是有关的。
被再认成绩相比，没有显著的差别。
但是，当任务难度加大时，再者相关的程度也就啬。
被试对高度可编码的颜色（如红色）的再认，是十分精确的；而对低度可编码的颜色（如核内部的颜色）的再认，并不十分精确，语言中的差异与思维中的差异是有联系的。
关于凯程：
凯程考研成立于2005年，国内首家全日制集训机构考研，一直致力于高端全日制辅导，由
李海洋教授、张鑫教授、卢营教授、王洋教授、杨武金教授、张释然教授、索玉柱教授、方浩教授等一批高级考研教研队伍组成，为学员全程高质量授课、答疑、测试、督导、报考指导、方法指导、联系导师、复试等全方位的考研服务。
凯程考研的宗旨：让学习成为一种习惯
凯程考研的价值观口号：凯旋归来，前程万里
信念：让每个学员都有好最好的归宿
使命：完善全新的教育模式，做中国最专业的考研辅导机构
激情：永不言弃，乐观向上
敬业：以专业的态度做非凡的事业
平衡：找到工作、生活、家庭的平衡点
服务：以学员的前途为已任，为学员提供高效、专业的服务，团队合作,为学员服务，为学员引路。