语音学复习资料
《语言学概论》复习知识点——汇总
《语言学概论》复习知识点——汇总一、语言学的定义与研究对象1.语言学的定义及与其他学科的关系2.语言的定义与特点3.语言学的研究对象：语言符号、语音、词汇、语法、语义、语用等二、语音学1.音素与音素的分类2.语音的基本概念：发音器官、发音过程、音素与音位等3.语音的分类与描述方式：音库、国际音标等4.语音变体：音位变体、变体规律等三、词汇学1.词的定义及词的层次结构：词汇、形态、语素等2.词的分类：实词与虚词、实词的分类等3.词的构成过程：派生、复合、转化等4.词义与词义关系：同义、反义、上下位、隐喻、类比等5.词的语法功能：词类、语法关系等四、语法学1.句子的定义与分类：从句、疑问句、陈述句等2.句法的基本概念：短语、成分、汉语的基本句型等3.句法关系与句法结构：并列、从属、修饰等4.句法规则与句法分析：形式语法、语义角度的句法分析等5.语法现象的分析与解释：形式语法与功能语法的对比、语法规则、语法的普遍性、语法的可及性等五、语义学1.语义的定义与特点2.词义的构成与分类：词汇意义、语法意义、逻辑意义、上下文意义等3.语义关系与语义角色：同义、反义、上下位、隐喻、类比、关联等4.语义现象的分析与解释：语义成分的划分与关系、语义的可及性、语义的派生与转化等六、语用学1.语用学的定义与研究领域2.语言交际与语言交际行为：意图、目的、合作原则等3.言外之意与言外之行：言外之意的表示方式、言外之行的示例等4.语用现象的分析与解释：语言行为、语用规则、语用的多样性等七、语言学研究方法与分支学科1.语言学研究的方法论：描述性研究、实证研究等2.语言学的分支学科：应用语言学、对比语言学、历史语言学、社会语言学等3.参考书目和领域动态：《现代语言学导论》、《实用语义学》、《语法学》等这些都是《语言学概论》中的重要知识点，希望以上内容对您的复习有所帮助。
语言学概论期末复习重点
语言学概论期末复习重点一、语音学语音学是研究语音的学科，重点研究语音的产生、结构、运动和感知等方面。
在复习时，需要关注以下内容：1.国际音标的掌握，包括元音、辅音和音节等。
2.发音器官的构造和功能，比如舌头、喉头、声带等的作用。
3.音位与音素的区别，音位是语言中的最小语音单位，音素是语音的实际表现。
4.音变规律，比如浊音化、清音化、辅音的鼻化等。
二、语法学语法学是研究语言结构和规则的学科，包括句法学、词法学等分支。
在复习时，需要关注以下内容：1.语法的基本概念，包括句子、短语、词类等。
2.句法分析的方法，包括基于短语结构的上下位关系分析和基于依存关系的句法分析。
3.句子成分的分类与功能，包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语等。
4.语法关系的表示，包括句法树和依存关系图等。
三、语义学语义学是研究词义和意义的学科，包括词义学、语用学等分支。
在复习时，需要关注以下内容：1.语义的基本概念，包括词义、句义、语篇意义等。
2.词义的分类，包括编码词义和概念词义等。
3.语义关系的表示，包括隐性关系和显性关系等。
4.语义义原的掌握，比如用来描述词义的最小单位，可以用来解释多义、歧义、同义等现象。
四、语用学语用学是研究语言在特定情境中的使用和理解的学科，包括语用规则、言语行为等方面。
1.言语行为的分类，包括表示、指示、陈述、询问等。
2.言语行为的成分，包括言辞、语境、意图等。
3.语用规则的掌握，比如礼貌原则、言外之意等。
4.言语行为的实现方式，包括直接言语行为和间接言语行为等。
以上仅为语言学概论期末复习的一些重点内容，学生可以结合教材和课堂笔记进行更深入的学习和理解。
此外，复习时可以参考相关的案例和实例，加深对语言学原理的理解和应用。
语言学纲要复习资料
语言学纲要复习资料语言学纲要复习资料语言学作为一门研究语言的学科，涵盖了广泛的内容，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个分支。
本文将对语言学的主要概念和理论进行复习和总结，以帮助读者更好地理解和掌握这门学科。
一、语音学语音学研究的是语音的产生、传播和接收。
它关注的是语音的物理特性和语音单位的分类与描述。
语音学的基本概念包括音素、音位、音节等。
音素是语言中最小的语音单位，而音位是具有区别意义的音素。
音节则是由一个或多个音位构成的，是语言中的基本音节单位。
二、语法学语法学研究的是语言的结构和规则。
它关注的是句子的构成和句法关系。
语法学的基本概念包括词类、短语、句子等。
词类是语言中的基本单位，包括名词、动词、形容词等。
短语是由一个或多个词构成的，具有某种语法功能的单位。
句子是由一个或多个短语构成的，具有完整意义的单位。
三、语义学语义学研究的是词语和句子的意义。
它关注的是词语和句子的含义和语义关系。
语义学的基本概念包括词义、句义、语义角色等。
词义是词语的基本含义，而句义是句子的整体含义。
语义角色是句子中不同成分所承担的语义功能。
四、语用学语用学研究的是语言使用的情境和目的。
它关注的是语言的交际功能和言语行为。
语用学的基本概念包括语用规则、语用失误、语用推理等。
语用规则是语言使用中的约定和规范，它决定了言语行为的合理性和恰当性。
语用失误是指在语言使用中出现的不恰当或误导性的言语行为。
语用推理是根据上下文和语境进行的推理和理解。
五、语言变异与语言变化语言是一种活动的、变化的社会现象。
语言变异研究的是不同地区、社会群体和个体之间的语言差异。
语言变化研究的是语言随时间的变化和演变。
语言变异和语言变化的原因包括地理因素、社会因素、历史因素、个体因素等。
六、语言习得与语言教学语言习得研究的是儿童和成人在自然环境中学习语言的过程。
语言教学研究的是如何有效地教授和学习语言。
语言习得和语言教学的理论和方法包括行为主义、认知主义、社会交际主义等。
小学语音复习题
小学语音复习题小学语音复习题语音是语言的重要组成部分，它直接影响着我们的交流和表达能力。
小学语音复习题旨在帮助学生巩固和提高他们的语音技能。
通过多样化的练习题，学生可以加深对语音知识的理解，并提高自己的发音准确性和语音表达能力。
一、辨音题辨音题是语音复习的基础，它旨在让学生通过听力辨别不同音素的差异。
例如，给出一组单词，要求学生辨别其中的发音差异，如"cat"和"cut"的/t/和/c/音的区别。
这样的练习可以帮助学生更好地理解和掌握不同音素的发音规则。
二、连线题连线题是一种常见的语音复习题形式，它要求学生将相同发音的单词或音素进行配对。
例如，给出一组单词和相应的音标，要求学生将它们正确地连线。
这样的练习可以帮助学生加深对音标的理解，提高他们的发音准确性。
三、填空题填空题是一种灵活的语音复习题形式，它可以涵盖不同的语音知识点。
例如，给出一段对话，要求学生根据上下文和语音规则填写适当的单词或音素。
这样的练习可以帮助学生巩固和应用他们所学的语音知识，提高他们的语音表达能力。
四、口语练习题口语练习题是提高学生语音表达能力的重要手段。
例如，给出一组问题，要求学生用正确的语音和语调回答。
这样的练习可以帮助学生提高他们的口语流利度和语音表达能力，培养他们的语感和语音感觉。
五、语音规则总结题语音规则总结题旨在帮助学生总结和归纳所学的语音规则。
例如，给出一组单词和相应的发音规则，要求学生根据规则发音并总结规律。
这样的练习可以帮助学生巩固和深化对语音规则的理解，提高他们的发音准确性和语音表达能力。
六、听力理解题听力理解题是考察学生对语音的理解和应用能力。
例如，给出一段听力材料，要求学生根据所听到的内容回答问题。
这样的练习可以帮助学生提高他们的听力技能，培养他们对语音的敏感性和理解能力。
通过以上的语音复习题，学生可以全面地巩固和提高自己的语音技能。
这些练习题不仅有助于学生掌握正确的发音规则，还可以提高他们的语音表达能力和交流效果。
语言学概论复习重点
1.phonetics(语音学) A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. e.g:p. bilabial, stop.：（1）articulatory phonetics(发音语音学), from the speakers’ point of v iew（2）acoustic phonetics(声学语音学), from the hearers’ point of view（3）auditory phonetics(听觉语音学), from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.2.pragmatics(语用学)，a field of study to take care of that part of meaning of language in use.In many ways, pragmatics is the study of speakers intended meaning, or even the “invisible meaning”. Pragmatics can also be defined as the study of speaker meaning.Micropragmatics(微观语用学)：The research on the analyses of larger chunks of language, such as a whole conversation, an article or even a chapter of a novel or one act of a play in the user interaction concerning the mechanisms by which speakers encode their message in skilful ways and how hearers arrive at the intended meanings in spite of the differences between the literal meaning and the intended meaning is called macropragmatics. To study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.” R eference(指称)，deixis（指示），anaphora(回指) and presupposition(预设)” are all topics in this field.3.phonology(音位学)：phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language（1）phonemes, the smallest phonological unit that can distinguish meaning(eg:sip\zip)2.minimal pairs and sets minimal pairs: a pair of words, identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same position minimal set：a group of words differential by one sound segment in the same position3. free variation(自由变体) when two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation (eg: either 的两种发音)Cooperative principle there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation this is what called cooperative principle. It means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.4.Syntax(句法) If we focus on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence, we are studying what is known as the syntax of a language. It means the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.Every sentence is a sequence of words, but not every sequence of words is a sentence.The prescriptive Approach（规定的方法）: This view ofgrammar as a set of rules for the “proper” use of a language is st ill to be found today and may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.The Descriptive Approach（描述性的方法）: Linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach1.Structural analysis:its main objective is to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language.2.Immediate constituent analysis(直接成分分析法): Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents. The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis.5.Variations of the same phonemes（音位变体）means any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.6. Descriptive and prescriptive grammars: descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in thelanguage.most modern linguistics are descriptive, it attempts to describe what people accurat ely say. Traditional grammars told people how to use a language. As traditional grammar trie d to lay down rules,they are often called prescriptive. To put it simple, description tells people what it is in a language while prescription tells people what should be in a language.Descripti ve---describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use(modern linguistic)Prescriptive---lay down rules for correct linguistic behavior in usinglanguage(traditional grammar)7. duality(二重性) L anguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.8. arbitrariness(任意性) one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.9.morphology(形态学) Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is thus the study of theinternal structure forms and classes of words.(unfriendly: unhappily, unkindly, unlonely)A morpheme（词素,形态素）is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. eg: tourists(tour,ist,s)Free morphemes（自由词素）: A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk, car, friend.Lexical morphemes（open class of word）：词汇语素(look, love, happy)Functional morphemes(closed class of words)：功能语素(but, when, the)Bound morphemes: bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)Derivational morphemes(派生词缀) which are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.(-er, -ness, -ly)Inflectional morphemes(曲折词缀)：which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical functional of a word.(-’s, -s, -ed, -ing, -er, -est)10. assimilation(同化) sounds belonging to one word or one syllable (音节)can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables，this is called assimilation. 11. tone language(声调式语言)language in which the meaning of a word depends on the pitch at which it is uttered.Chinese is tone language while English is not. In English, tone is regarded as a phonological f eature distinguish meaning.12.diacritics(变音符号) a sign placed above or below a character or letter to indicate that it has a different phonetic phonetic value, is stresses, or for some other reason.13. root(词根) A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. A word may contain more than one root, in which case it is a compound word , eg: bookshop, blackbird14. Blending(混成构词法) A single new word can also be formed by combing two separate forms. This process is usually called blending. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word.15. Acronym(首字母组合词) some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They are pronounced as single words. Words of this kind are called acronym. Such as UNESCO, NATO16.Derivation(派生法), Which is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. In contrast to compounding, a derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme and abound morpheme.17. compounding（复合法). Words like typewriter, workshop, tractor-driver are formed by putting two words together. This way of building new words is called compounding. Compounding is a productive way of word formation. By means of compounding, two free morphemes are combined to form a compound.18. Stress(重音) when a word has more than one syllables, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of stress.Nouns have first syllable stress, verbs second.19. syllable(音节) these units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole world, are called syllables.20. prototype(原型) the members of a particular community which are considered as the best examples of a lexical category are said to be prototype. According to prototype theory, people decide whether an en tity belongs to a category by comparing that entity with the prototype. For example, sparrow c an be said the prototype of birds.21. lexical gap(词汇空缺) the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language is called lexical gap. For instance, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull.22. semantic field (语义场) a set of words with an identifiable semantic connection23. sense and reference(意义和指称) sense and reference are two different, though related, aspects of meaning.Sense is to be defined in terms of relationships which hold between the linguistic elements themselves(mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic(语言内部的关系) relations eg: bachelor and married have the sense relationship of bachelor=never married Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements ( words, sentences ,etc) and the non-linguistic world of experience. Eg: things, actions, events and qualities.24. suffix(后缀) The suffix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.25. recursiveness(递归性)Recursion is the process a procedure goes through when one of the steps of the procedure involves invoking the procedure itself. Recursion in linguistics enables 'discrete infinity' by embedding phrases within phrases of the same type in a hierarchicalstructure.26. cohesion(衔接) cohesion is an important field of study in discourse(谈话，谈论) analysis. it refers to the grammatical and \or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.Five types of cohesive devices: reference, substitution(替代,替换), ellipsis(省略), conjunction, lexical cohesion27. coherence(连贯性) coherence refers to the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse.28. reflective meaning(反射意义) is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.(the nuclear family, the nuclear age)29. associative meaning(联想意义)Is the essential and inextricable part of what language is,and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communicatiIs the essential and inextricable part of what language is,and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication.It means the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.30. ambiguity (消解歧义)The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs.31. iconicity(象似性，形象性) iconicity is the conceived similarity or analogy between the form of a sign (linguistic or otherwise) and its meaning, as opposed to arbitrariness. Iconicity of order (顺序的象似性)refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction. It reflects the consistency of language with human cognition and the objective world..eg: I came, I saw, I conquered.(a.He opened the bottle and poured himself a glass of wine. b. He poured himself a glass of wine and opened thebottle.)Iconicity of distance accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance.(a. I killed the chicken. B. I caused the chicken to die.) Iconicity of distance can also give a satisfactory explanation to the sequence of multi-adjectives before a noun.Iconicity of complexity. The phenomenon that linguistic complexity reflects conceptual complexity. Iconicity of complexity accounts for our tendency to associate more from withmore meaning and, conversely, less form with less meaning. This idea has long been an important aspect of markedness theory. Marked forms and structures are typically more complex than unmarked ones.(a. On the Brighten train from Victoria I met her. b. On the Brighten train from Victoria I met the girl from next door.)32. Allomorpheme(语素变体)some morphemes are realized by more than one morphemes depending on the context they occur. Allomorphemes are phonological variants of the same morpheme.33.Tree diagram: S=NP(Art+N)+VP(V+NP[Art+N])34. Illocutionary acts: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning.35. language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.36. linguistics: the scientific and systematic study of language. 37. elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.38.pragmatics:a branch of linguistics that studies language in use. 39. stem:the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.40.semetic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situation described or represented by the clause, for example as agent, patient, or cause.。
【自考】语音学复习资料
语音学复习资料I. Multiple choice:( c ) 1. ______ is the science of speech sounds. a. Phone b. Phonemec. Phoneticsd. Phonology( b ) 2. In producing all vowels there is vibration of the vocal cords, so all vowels are ______.a.voicelessb. V oicedc. frontd. long( c ) 3. ______ consonant sounds are made with the lips closed.a. Fricativeb. Lateralc.Bi-labial d. Dental( b ) 4. The ending –s in “games”should be pronounced ______.a. /s/b. /z/c. /iz/d. /zi/(b ) 5. In ______ assimilation the assimilated sound is influenced by the preceding sound.a. regressiveb. Progressivec. doubled. reciprocal( b ) 6. ______ means the omission of a sound or sounds, either within the body of a word or at a junction of words.a.Assimilationb. Elisionc. Linkingd. Liaison( c ) 7. The ______ of a sound is the length of time during which it is held on continuously in a given word on phrase.a.voiceb. Spellingc. lengthd. form( a ) 8. ______ isconcerned with the stressingof individual words of two ormore syllables when they arepronounced in isolation.a. Word stressb.Sentence stress c.Intonation d. Tone( d ) 9. A rhythm unit isformed by a stressed ______,together with unstressedsyllables which may comebefore the stress and after it.a. vowelb.consonant c. soundd. syllable( b ) 10. These groupsof words which are closelyconnected in meaning and ingrammar are called ______.a. sound-linkingb. sense groupsc. pausingd. rhythm( d ) 11. The stressedsyllable of the last prominentword is a marker of thehighest importance, and it iscalled the ______ of the tune.a.tailb.pre-headc. headd. nucleus(b ) 12. A______represents a stressedsyllable pronounced with afall in pitch within thatsyllable.a. dashb.downwardcurve c. upward cured. dot( a ) 13. In un-emphaticEnglish speech the ______stressed syllable in asentence is usuallypronounced on the highestpitch.a. firstb. Secondc. thirdd. fourth( b ) 14. The ______tone express “certainty”or“completeness”.a. risingb.Falling c. falling-risingd. rising-falling( c ) 15. Auxiliary andmodal verbs are stressed______ of a sentence.a. in the middleb. at the endc. atthe beginningd. at any position(a ) 16. ______covers thearticulation,classification andcombination ofthe Englishspeech sounds.a. Phoneticsb.Phonology c. Phoned. Phoneme( c ) 17. StandardEnglish is the sort of Englishbased on the ______ dialect.a. New Yorkb. Cambridgec.London d.Washington( d ) 18. The modernphonetic transcription that ismost widely used now is the______.a. NarrowTranscription b.Broad Transcriptionc. Symbolsd. InternationalPhonetic Alphabet( d ) 19. /m/ is a nasalaccording to ______.a. the tensenessb. place of articulationc. work of thevocal cords d. manner ofarticulation( b ) 20. The ending–ed in “planned”ispronounced ______.a. /t/b. /d/c. /id/d. /it/( a )21. In producing______ theobstruction isformed in theglottis,between thetwo vocalcords.a. glottalb. velarc.lateral d.semi-vowel( b ) 22. In producing______ theobstruction isformed betweenthe tip of thetongue and theupper frontteeth.a. labio-dentalb. dentalc.alveolard. velar( b )23. The ending –sin “games”should bepronounced ______ .a. /s/b. /z/c. /iz/d. /zi/(b ) 24. The organs ofspeech, such as the teethridge, the palate are in______ cavity.a. nasalb. mouthc.tongued. pharynx( a ) 25. If threeconsonants should clustertogether at the beginning of aword, the first must be______.a. /s/b. /p/c. /b/d. /w/(d ) 26. ______ isconcerned withthe sound systemof language, itstudies thefunctioning ofthe speechsounds.a. Phoneb. Phonemec. Phoneticsd. Phonology( c ) 27. ______ soundsin English aremade with the softplate lowered.a. stopb. nasalc. velard. lateral( c )28. ______consonant soundsare made with thelips closed.a. Fricativeb. Lateralc. Bi-labiald. Dental( d ) 29. A rhythm unit is formed by a stressed ______, together with unstressed syllables which may come before the stress and after it.a. vowelb. consonantc. soundd. syllable( b ) 30. These groups of words which are closely connected in meaning and in grammar are called ______.a. sound-linkingb. sense groupsc. pausingd. rhythm( d ) 31. The stressedsyllable of the last prominentword is a marker of thehighest importance, and it iscalled the ______ of the tune.a. tailb. pre-headc.head .nucleus( b ) 32. A______represents a stressedsyllable pronounced with afall in pitch within thatsyllable.a. dashb.downward curve c.upward cure d. dot( a ) 33. In un-emphaticEnglish speech the ______stressed syllable in asentence is usuallypronounced on the highestpitch.a. firstb.Secondc.third d. fourth( b ) 34. The ______tone express “certainty”or“completeness”.a. risingb. Fallingc. falling-risingd.rising-falling( c ) 35. ______ is thescience of speech sounds.a. Phoneb. Phonemec.Phonetics d.Phonology( a ) 36. ______ coversthe articulation, classificationand combination of theEnglish speech sounds.a. Phoneticsb.Phonology c. Phoned. Phoneme(c ) 37. StandardEnglish is the sort of Englishbased on the ______ dialect.a. New Yorkb. Cambridgec.Londond. Washington(d ) 38. The modernphonetic transcription that ismost widely used now is the______.a. NarrowTranscription b.Broad Transcriptionc. Symbolsd. InternationalPhonetic Alphabet( d ) 39. /m/ is a nasalaccording to ______.a. the tensenessb. place ofarticulationc. work of thevocal cords d. manner ofarticulation( a ) 40. The ending –edin “helped”is pronounced______.a. /t/b. /d/c. /id/d. /it/( a )4 1. In producing______ the obstruction isformed in the glottis,between the two vocal cords.a. glottalb.velar c. laterald. semi-vowel( b )42. In producing______ the obstruction isformed between the tip of thetongue and the upper frontteeth.a. labio-dentalb.dental c. alveolard. velar(c ) 43. The ending –sin “changes”should bepronounced ______ .a. /s/b. /z/c. /iz/d. /zi/( b ) 44. The organs ofspeech, such as the teethridge, the palate are in______ cavity.a. nasalb. mouthc.tongue d. pharynx( a ) 45. If threeconsonants should clustertogether at the beginning of aword, the first must be______.a./s/b. /p/c. /b/d. /w/(d )46. ______ isconcerned with the soundsystem of language, it studiesthe functioning of the speechsounds.a. Phoneb. Phonemec. Phoneticsd. Phonology(c )4 7. ______sounds in English are madewith the soft plate lowered.a. Stopb. nasalc. velard. lateral( c ) 48. ______consonant sounds are madewith the lips closed.a.Fricativeb. Lateralc. Bi-labiald. Dental( d ) 49. A rhythm unitis formed by a stressed______, together withunstressed syllables whichmay come before the stressand after it.a.vowelb. Consonantc. soundd. syllable(b ) 50. These groupsof words which are closelyconnected in meaning and ingrammar are called ______.a. sound-linkingb. sense groupsc.pausing d. rhythm( d ) 51. The stressedsyllable of the last prominentword is a marker of thehighest importance, and it iscalled the ______ of the tune.a. tailb. pre-headc. headd. nucleus(a ) 52. A ______represents a stressed syllable pronounced with a fall in pitch within that syllable.a. dashb. downward curvec. upward cured. dot( a ) 53. In un-emphatic English speech the ______ stressed syllable in a sentence is usually pronounced on the highest pitch.a. firstb. Secondc. thirdd. fourth( b ) 54. The ______ tone express “certainty”or “completeness”.a. risingb. Fallingc. falling-risingd. rising-falling( c ) 55. ______ is the science of speech sounds.a. Phoneb. Phonemec. Phoneticsd. Phonology( a ) 56. ______ covers the articulation, classification and combination of the English speech sounds.a. Phoneticsb. Phonologyc. Phoned. Phoneme ( c ) 57. Standard English is the sort of English based on the ______ dialect.a. New Yorkb. Cambridgec. Londond. Washington(d ) 58. The modern phonetic transcription that ismost widely used now is the______.a. Narrow Transcriptionb. Broad Transcriptionc. Symbolsd.InternationalPhonetic Alphabet(d ) 59. /m/ is a nasalaccording to ______.a. the tensenessb. place ofarticulationc. work of thevocal cords d. manner ofarticulation(c ) 60. The ending–ed in “protected”ispronounced ______.a. /t/b. /d/c. /id/d. /it/II. Choose the suitableanswers:1. A language consists ofthe important elements,namely () () () ()().a. speech soundsb.vocabulary c.grammar d. Signse. symbols2.In Englishpronunciation the vocalcords are drawn neartogether and vibratewhen we pronounce()()()()().a. vowelsb.voiceless consonants c.voiced consonantsd. the larynxe. thetip of the tongue3.According to themanner of articulationof consonant we maydistinguish ()()()()().a. plosivesb.fricatives c. affricatesd. nasalse. semi-vowels4.In English a weak formof a word is generallydistinguished from astrong form by ()()()()().a.thedifference invowelsoundsb.The absenceof a soundc.Thedifference inthe length ofa voweld.Theabbreviatedform of aworde.The wordaccent5.In English intonation thenucleus has differenttones. The mostimportant tones are()()()()().a. the falling toneb. the rising tonec. the falling rising toned. the rising falling tonee. the rising-falling-risingtone6.As a means ofcommunication by wordof mouth, language isused ()()()()().a. in oral speechb. in written languagec. in listeningd. in reading aloude. inbody language7.The voicelessconsonants are usually()()()()().a. aspiratedb. strongc. longd. Deepe.descriptive8.The English purevowels (monophthongs)are classified accordingthe principles of()()()()().a.the height ofthe raisedpart of thetongueb.the part ofthe tongueraisedc.the length ofthe voweld.the position(or shape) ofthe lipse.the degree oftenseness9.In Englishpronunciation elision isdivided into ()()()()().a. historical elisionb. contextual elisionc. linear elisiond. micro elisione.macro elision10.Main tone patterns ofAmerican speech are()()()()().a. the falling toneb. half falling tonec. the rising toned. the falling-rising tonee. the rising falling tone11.In order to study speechsounds, it is necessary toknow and learn theorgans of speech andtheir functions, as()()()()().a. the teethb. the lipsc. the tongued. the mouth cavityand the nasal cavity e.the vision12.According to the placeof articulation ofconsonant we maydistinguish ()()()()().a. bi-labialb. labio-dentalc. dentald. alveolare. palatal13.The English purevowels (monophthongs)are classified accordingthe principles of()()()()().a.the height ofthe raisedpart of thetongueb.the part ofthe tongueraisedc.the length ofthe voweld.the position(or shape) ofthe lipse.the degree oftenseness 14.The alternation ofstressed and unstressedsyllables results in theinfluence of rhythmupon ()()()()().a. word stressb. sentence stressc. key wordsd. rhythmic groupe. the tempo of speech15.In the case of the sound[f], occur initially in“feel”, the followinganswers would be given:()()()()().a. voicelessb. labio-dentalc. fricatived. Aspiratede.strong and long 答案 1. (1)(2)(3)()() 2.(1)(3)()()() 3. (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)4. (1)(2)(3)()()5.(1)(2)(3)()()6.(1)(4)()()()7.(1)(2)(3)()()8.(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)9.(1)(2)()()()10.(1)(2)(3)(4)()11.(1)(2)(3)(4)() 12.(1)(2)(3)(4)(5) 13.(1)(2)(3)(4)(5) 14.(1)(2)()()() 15.(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)III. Explain the followingterms:1.Assimilation2.Rhythm3.IPA4.Wordstress 5. Head6 .Liaison7.Incomplete Plosion8.Sentence stress 9.Tail10.Elision 11.Intonation 12.Pre-head答案1. In connected speech,sounds, under the influenceof their neighbors, arereplaced by other sounds.Sometimes two neighboringsounds influence each otherand are replaced by a thirdsound which is different fromboth the original sounds. Thisprocess is called assimilation.2. Rhythm in Englishspeech is based onstress. A rhythm unit isformed by a stressedsyllable, together withunstressed syllableswhich may comebefore the stress andafter it.3. The modern phonetictranscription that ismost widely used nowis the InternationalPhonetic Alphabet. Thecharacteristic of thistranscription is thateach symbol mustalways represent onesound and never anyother, and one soundmust be represented byonly one symbol.4．Word stress isconcerned with thestressing of individualwords of two or moresyllables when they arepronounced inisolation.5. The head begins withthe stressed syllable ofthe first prominentword (before thenucleus) and ends withthe syllableimmediately precedingthe nucleus.6. If we want to speakEnglish fluently, we must tryto avoid pronouncing eachword as if it were isolated.We must try to link wordstogether smoothly andnaturally.7. When a plosiveconsonant is immediatelyfollowed by another plosive,only the second plosive isfully exploded, but theclosure is held for double theusual time.8.Some words lose theirstresses, especially when wetalk quickly, other wordskeep their stresses and thesestressed syllables form whatis called sentence-stress9.All syllables followingthe nucleus are called the tail.10.Elision means theomission of a sound orsounds, either within thebody of a word or at ajunction of words. There arehistorical elision andcontextual elision.11.By intonation wemean the rise and fall of thepitch-change of the voicewhich take place on thenucleus.12.The pre-head consistsof any syllables before thestressed syllable of the firstprominent word.IV. Answer the followingquestions:1.What is lateralplosion?When a plosiveconsonant is immediatelyfollowed by the lateral ［l］as in metal , you must notallow the tip of the tongueto leave the teeth ridge, butwhen ［l］is made, the sidesof the tongue move awayfrom the sides of the palateso that the air passes roundthe sides of the tongue. Thisis known as the lateralplosion.2.How do youunderstand thefalling-rising tone?The fall and rise maybe confined within onesyllable, a fall from ratherhigh to low and then a riseto about the mid pitch. Ifthere is an unstressedsyllable following thenuclear syllable, the falloccurs on the nuclearsyllable and the rise on thetail; if there are two or more than two unstressed syllables, following the nuclear syllable, the fall still occurs on the nuclear syllable and the unstressed ones rise gradually to about the mid pitch. The falling-rising tone combines the falling tone’s meaning of “assertion”, “certainty”with the rising tone’s meaning of “incompleteness”. At the end of a sentence, it often conveys a feeling of reservation.3.What is SecondRise?When we read a long sentence with many stresses, we find it uncomfortable to keep our voice descending throughout. To get over this difficulty it is natural to raise our voice a little at a proper stressed syllable and let the descent start from a new high tone. This also helps produce a more lively impression even though the sentence is not long, as syllables thus raised in pitch are given rather more importance. The second rise in a sentence is shown by the sigh (↑) in front of the syllable to be lifted.4.How to read theconsonant clusterswell?Two things must be remembered when you read consonant clusters: (1) Don’t insert any vowel sound between the consonants. (2) The first consonant must be said very gently and quickly, and thesecond one is very oftenformed while the first one isbeing pronounced.5.What is StandardEnglishPronunciation?It is the sort ofEnglish based on theLondon dialect andused by educatedpeople in southernEngland. It is thepronunciation used bythe announcers of BBCand also widely usedthroughoutEnglish-speakingcountries. It has beenaccepted everywherefor the teaching ofEnglish to foreigners.6. How do youunderstand the fallingtone?The fallingglide may startfrom the highpitch of thespeaking voiceand fall to thelowest pitch, orfrom a mid pitchto the lowestpitch. The fallingglide is mosteasily perceptiblewhen it takesplace on asyllablecontaining a longvowel or adiphthong. Thefalling toneexpresses“certainty”or“completeness”.Thus astraight-forwardstatementnormally endswith a fallingtone, since itasserts a fact ofwhich the speakeris certain.7.What is nasalplosion?When a plosiveconsonant isimmediately followedby a nasal consonant,the explosion of theplosive consonant inthis case is not made bythe air escapingthrough the mouth, butthe mouth closure isretained and theexplosion is made bythe air escapingsuddenly through thenose at the momentwhen the soft palate islowered to form thenasal plosion.8. How do youunderstand the risingtone?A risingglide may extendfrom low to mid,or from mid tohigh. It is moreeasily perceptiblewhen it occurs ona syllablecontaining a longvowel or adiphthong. Therising toneexpresses“uncertainty”or“incompleteness”or “politeness”. Ageneral questionusually has arising tone, as thespeaker isuncertain of thetruth of what heis asking about.V. Application questions。
复习版语音学
5、边音
发音原理：发音 时，舌尖和上齿 龈接触，舌头两 边留有空隙，气 流从舌头两边通 过。 代表音：l
根据发音时气流的强弱，可以把声母中的塞音和塞 擦音分为送气音和不送气音两类。
送气音：发音时，口腔呼出的气流较强。 如：p t k c ch q 不送气音：发音时，口腔呼出的气流较弱。 如：b d g z zh j
开口呼（15个） 不是i,u, ü和以i,u, ü起头的韵母 ɑ,o,e, ê ,-i(前), i(后), ɑi,ei, ɑo,ou, ɑn,en, ɑng,eng,er. i,iɑ,ie,iɑo,iou, iɑn,in,iɑng,ing.
齐齿呼（9个）
i和以i起头的韵母
合口呼（10个）
u和以u起头的韵母
塞音
不送 气 送气
b P z c f s
d t zh ch sh r j q x
g k
塞擦 音
不送 气 送气
擦音
清音 浊音
h
g)
第四章 语音的结合
主要内容
一、音节 二、复合元音 三、复辅音 四、汉语的语音结构
一、音节
音节是由一个或几个音素组成的最小的语音 片断。 汉语里，一个音节就是一个汉字。（儿化的 情况除外）
u,uɑ,uo,uɑi,uei, uɑn,uen,uɑng, ueng,ong.
ü, üe, üɑn, ün,iong.
撮口呼（5个）
ü和以ü起头的韵母
三、辅音的分类（以汉语声母为例）
声母的发音是由发音部位和发音方法来决定 的。
发音部位：发辅音时，口腔对气流构成阻碍 的部位。 发音方法：发辅音时，气流破除发音部位所 构成阻碍的方法。
语言学复习提纲：语音学与语法学要点
语言学复习提纲：语音学与语法学要点
一、语音学要点
1. 发音器官与音素
•发音器官包括声门、舌头、唇等部位，能够产生不同音素。
•音素是语言中的最小音位单位，分为元音和辅音等。
2. 声调与音节
•声调是语言中一个音节的音高变化。
•音节是一个完整的语音单位，包含元音和辅音。
3. 音变与语音规则
•音变是一种音素发音的变化规律。
•语音规则是对语言中音素发音的稳定规范。
二、语法学要点
1. 词类与句子成分
•词类包括名词、动词、形容词等，是构成句子的基本单位。
•句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语等，构成句子的结构要素。
2. 句法关系与语法规则
•句法关系指不同句子成分之间的关系。
•语法规则是组织句子成分的规律，保证句子构成符合语言习惯。
3. 语法意义与语法功能
•语法意义是句子结构所表达的含义。
•语法功能是句子中成分在语言交际中所承担的作用。
三、总结
以上是语言学中语音学与语法学的要点内容，通过学习这些基本知识，可以更好地理解语言的结构和功能。
细致的复习与实践可以帮助我们提高语言表达和沟通能力，在日常生活和学习工作中更加游刃有余。
语言学概论自考复习资料第二章第一节
第⼆章语⾳ 第⼀节语⾳的性质 ⼀、语⾳是语⾔的物质外壳 1.语⾳在语⾔中的作⽤： （1）语⾳是由⼈的发⾳器官发出的，负载着⼀定的意义，并作为语⾔符号系统载体的物质外壳。
（2）语⾔是⼈类交流思想，传递信息的交际⼯具，语⾳是语⾔的物质外壳。
语⾔借助声⾳这种可以被感知的物质形态，才能使语⾔成分物质化，⽆形的意义才能够被传递，接受、辨别和理解。
（3）语⾔借助声⾳把说话⼈和听话⼈的⼤脑联结起来。
（4）离开语⾳这个物质外壳，语⾔就⽆法发挥其社会交际⼯具的作⽤。
2.语⾳与-般声⾳的区别： （1）语⾳是由⼈的发⾳器官发出的，（2）并且这种声⾳能负载-定的意义，（3）并且是作为语⾔符号系统载体的，⽽-般的声⾳不具备这些特点。
3.语⾳学的性质和任务：语⾳学是研究语⾳的学科，它研究语⾳在“发⾳→传递→感知”过程中的⽣理、物理和⼼理特征，分析语⾳的各种要素和社会功能，彼此之间的结合关系，以及语⾳系统的构成和发展演变规律等。
⼆、语⾳的物理属性 1.语⾳物理属性的含义：指物体受外⼒的作⽤⽽发⽣振动，并推动周围的空⽓形成声波，声波传到⼈的⽿朵⾥，引起⿎膜的振动，刺激听觉神经⽽使⼈产⽣声⾳的感觉。
2.语⾳四要素：是指⾳⾼、⾳强、⾳长、⾳质，任何⼀种声⾳都具有这四个⽅⾯的物理属性。
⾳⾼决定于频率，⾳强决定于振幅，⾳长决定于发⾳体振动的时间，⾳质决定于⾳波的形式。
3.⾳⾼：就是声⾳的⾼低，是由频率的⼤⼩决定的，频率同⾳⾼成正⽐。
4.⾳⾼同发⾳体的形状和质地的关系：相对⽽⾔，⼤的、长的、粗的、厚的发⾳体振动慢、频率低、发出的声⾳也低；⽽⼩的、短的，细的、薄的、紧的发⾳体振动快、频率⾼，⾳也⾼。
5.⾳⾼在语⾔中的作⽤： （1）⾳⾼在⼀些语⾔中有区别意义的作⽤。
（2）⾳⾼在任何语⾔中都是语调的主要构成要素，⽽语调则可以表达各种语⽓以及说话⼈的态度和情绪等。
6.⾳强与使发⾳体振动的外⼒的关系： （1）⾳强指声⾳的强弱，它决定于⾳波振幅的⼤⼩。
中文语音学知识点
中文语音学知识点一、声母声母是汉语拼音中的第一个音素，指在发音时，在元音之前叫出的辅音，也称声音。
声母是一个音节的头部，用来区分和鉴别不同的音节。
1. 单声母：单个辅音构成的音，如b, p, m, f等。
2. 复合声母：由辅音和韵母i, u结合构成的音，如zh, ch, sh等。
二、韵母韵母是汉语音节的核心部分，由声母和声母之后的元音构成。
韵母包括单韵母和复韵母两种形式。
1. 单韵母：由单个元音构成的音，如a, o, e, i, u, ü等。
2. 复韵母：由辅音和元音构成的音，如ai, ou, ei, an, en, ang, ing等。
三、声调声调是在汉语拼音中用虚线表示，用来区分不同意思的音节。
汉语普通话中的声调有四个：阴平、阳平、上声、去声。
声调是音节的一个重要组成部分，发音时要根据正确的声调来区分意思。
1. 阴平：声调符号是一条水平线，不做标记。
2. 阳平：声调符号是一个向右倾斜的虚线“ˇ”。
3. 上声：声调符号是一个向上的斜线“ ”。
4. 去声：声调符号是一个向下的斜线“ ˋ”。
四、声音的发音部位声音的发音部位是指在发音时，声带、舌头、嘴唇等器官的位置。
声音的发音部位直接影响音的清浊、音的高低、音的前后等音质特点。
1. 清音：声带发音，不带气，如p, t, k等。
2. 浊音：声带发音，带气，如b, d, g等。
3. 牙音：舌尖与上齿接触或接近的音，如z, c, s等。
4. 唇音：嘴唇为发音部位的音，如m, f, p等。
五、声音的发声方法声音的发声方法是指在发音时，声带振动和气流通过口腔、鼻腔产生声音的方式。
声音的发声方法直接影响音的声调、语音音色等特点。
1. 清辅音：喉头声带振动，气流通过口腔产生声音，如p, t, k等。
2. 浊辅音：喉头声带振动，气流通过口腔产生声音，如b, d, g等。
3. 鼻音：声带振动，气流通过鼻腔产生声音，如m, n, ng等。
4. 复音：声带振动，气流同时通过口腔和鼻腔产生声音，如z, c, s 等。
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一：名词解释
1．声源：因振动而发声的物体叫做声源
2．振幅：空气质点振动幅度叫做“振幅”，即空气质点在振动时离开平衡位置的最大偏移量。
3．基音：组成复音的各个纯音振幅不同，频率也不同，其中频率最低、振幅最大的叫基音。
4．共振：如果两个物体的固有频率相同，其中一个在外力的作用下发出声音，另一个物体受到相同频率的空气质点运动的影响，也会发出声音来，这种现象叫做声音的共振（共鸣）。
5．浊音生源：气流通过声门时，使声带颤动，产生周期性声波，就是浊音。
6．紊音声源：发音器官的某一部分紧缩成非常窄小的通路，气流通过时形成紊乱的湍流，产生嘶嘶的噪声，就是紊音。
7．瞬音声源：发音器官的某一部分紧缩到完全不让气流通过，使气流产生比较强的压力，然后突然放开，气流瞬时间冲出去，产生一种非常短暂的瞬时爆破音。
8．开放型音段：气流从喉腔、咽腔进入口腔从唇腔出去时，这些声腔完全开放，气流能够顺利通过，这样产生的最小音段就是开放型的。
9．封闭性音段：如果这条通路的某一部分封闭起来，气流被阻不能畅通，这样产生的最小音段就是封闭型的。
10．半元音：如果发音时开口度很小，接近于封闭状态，气流外出时只受到极轻微的阻碍，这时发出来的声音就是介于元音和辅音之间的声音。
这种处于元音和辅音之间的声音可以称为“半元音”。
11．单元音：不和其他元音结合就能在音节中单独存在的元音叫做单元音。
12．塞音：持阻阶段阻碍完全闭塞，使气流无法通过，声音短暂间歇，维持到除阻阶段，阻碍突然放开，气流骤然冲出，形成极为短暂的瞬音。
13．擦音：持阻阶段阻碍并不完全闭塞，让气流挤出去形成湍流，产生紊音。
14．塞擦音：成阻阶段阻碍完全闭塞，气流无法通过；进人持阻阶段后阻碍略略放松，让气流挤出去产生摩擦，形成一种先塞后擦的音，称为“塞擦音”。
15．鼻音：成阻阶段口腔里形成的阻碍完全闭塞，但软腭下降，打开气流通往鼻腔的通路，在持阻阶段气流能顺利从鼻腔出去，形成鼻音。
16．边音：舌尖形成阻碍不让气流通过，但舌头两边或一边留出空隙，让气流从舌边流出，这样发出的声音称为“边音”。
17．颤音：发音器官中双唇、舌尖和小舌的肌肉都具有一定的弹性，当气流通过时这些部位受气流冲击产生颤动，发出来的声音就是“颤音”。
18．闪音：如果舌尖不是连续颤动而只是弹动一次，轻轻一闪，就是舌尖闪音。
19．通音：持阻阶段口腔的通路接近于开放，气流通过时只产生极轻微的摩擦，甚至可以没有摩擦，称为“通音”或“无擦通音”。
20．复元音：一个音节内部，两个或者三个元音相连而组成的元音群。
21．复辅音：一个音节内部，由两个或者三个辅音相连而构成的辅音群。
22．音连：从一个音到另一个音，中间必然经历的过渡阶段，叫做音联，又叫做音渡。
23．声调：音高是言语中不可缺少的物理因素，具有区别音节意义的音高就是“声调”。
24．调类：把一种语言中出现的所有的调值加以归类，的出来的类别就是调类。
25．语流音变：语流内的一连串音紧密连接，发音部位和发音方法不断改变，有时因前后音互相影响，使语音发生明显的临时变化，这种语音变化就是“语流音变”。
26．同化作用：不相同的音在语流中相互影响变得发音相同或相似，这种音变称为同化
作用。
27．异化作用：相同或相似的音在语流中接近时，发音容易拗口，于是产生了异化作用，变得发音不相同或不相似。
28．连读变调：声调语言的两个或两个以上音节连在一起时，音节所属调类的调值有时会发生变化，这种现象称为“连续变调”。
29．区别特征：一种语言的全部音位都可以分解和归纳为若干语音特征的对立，这种语音特征就是区别特征。
30．音位：音位是一种语言或者方言中具有区别意义作用的最小语音单位。
二：简答题
1．原音的特点是什么？
（1）发元音时气流顺利通过声腔，声带颤动，形成的声波都是周期性的，因此元音都是浊音。
（2）发元音时声腔各部分用力比较自然均衡，气流能够畅通无阻，气流量自然也就比较弱。
（3）元音的音色是由声腔的共振决定的。
（4）
2 . 原音的声学特点是什么？
1)元音的声源是声带颤动产生的周期性声带音，声带音通过声腔时产生共振作用，和声腔固有频率相同或相近的一些频率得到加强，另外有一些频率则减弱甚至消失。
2)谐波的频率越高，振幅就越小。
3)声学特点还表现在元音发音机制和共振峰的关系：
① F1和舌位高低密切相关。
舌位高，F1就低；舌位低，F1就高。
②F2和舌位前后密切相关。
舌位靠前，F2就高；舌位靠后， F2就低
③F2和嘴唇的圆展也有关系。
圆唇作用可以使F2降低一些。
3 . 辅音的特点是什么？
（1）由于气流暂时被阻不能通过或只能勉强挤出去，所产生的声音大都是瞬音或紊音。
（2）发辅音时气流量强一些。
（3）发辅音时声腔都要形成阻碍。
4 . 辅音的声学特点是什么？
(1)从发音方法上来说有三：发音方法的不同是三种声源（浊音、紊音、瞬音）的不同或组合方式的不同。
尖锋即冲直条，是瞬音在语图上的表现，颤音和闪音在语图上的表现也是尖锋；乱纹是紊音在语图上的表现；横杠是浊音在语图上的表现。
(2)音征，反映了辅音对临近元音共振峰频率的影响。
(3)塞音的持阻阶段在语图上表现为为尖峰之前有一段基本空白的间隙。
(4)辅音的清浊在语图上的表现是低频横杠的有无上。
(5)辅音的不同发音部位拥有不同的音轨。
5 . 音节结构类型有哪些？
元音V辅音C
（1）V：VV VVV
（2）C-V：CV CCV CCCV CVV CCVV CCCVV CVVV CCVVV CCCVVV
（3）V-C：VC VCC VCCC VVC VVCC VVCCC VVVC VVVCC VVVCCC
（4）C-V-C：书上没有，呃......课件上也没有。
（5）汉语音节的结构类型：（C）+（V）V（V，N，P）
6 .普通话四声的特点有哪些？
（1）平声分为阴平和阳平：阴平声是从古代清声母平声演变来的，阳平声是从古代浊声母平声演变来的。
（2）全浊上声并人去声这可以说是北方方言的共同特点。
（3）入声消失分别归入阴平、阳平、上声和去声。
7 . 辅音的发音部位有哪些？
（1）唇音：双唇音，唇齿音。
（2）舌尖音：舌尖—齿音，舌尖—齿龈音，舌尖—硬腭音。
（3）舌叶音：舌叶—齿龈音。
（4）舌面音：舌面前—前硬腭音，舌面中—前硬腭音，舌面后—软腭音。
（5）小舌音：舌根前—小舌音。
（6）喉音：舌根—喉避音。
8 . 四呼分类标准有哪些？
（1）开口呼是主要元音为a，o，e，ə，ʅ，ɿ而没有韵头的韵母；
（2）齐齿呼是主要元音为 i 和韵头为 i 的韵母；
（3）合口呼是主要元音为 u 和韵头为 u 的韵母；
（4）撮口呼是主要元音为 y 和韵头为 y 的韵母。
9 . 普通话声母和其他方言比较特点有哪些？
（1）有三套整齐相配的塞擦音和擦音：
（2）有卷舌通音[r]。
（3）有唇齿擦音[f]。
（4）能分别[n]和[l]。
（5）浊音声母少。
10 . 普通话韵母和其他方言比较特点有哪些？
（1）有舌尖韵母[ ]和[ ]。
（2）有卷舌韵母[ ]。
（3）四呼齐全，合口呼韵母较多。
（4）复韵母较多。
（5）辅音韵尾只有[ ]和[ ]。
11 . 归纳音位的基本原则有哪些？
（1）对立原则：在某一语言或方言中，几个音素如果在同样的语音组合环境中能区别词或语素，那么这几个音素就是对立性的关系，它们可以成为各自独立的音位。
（2）互补原则：两个音素如果不能出现在相同的语音环境里，而又呈互补分布状态，这两个音素就形成互补关系。
（3）语音近似：互补分布是把若干音素归并为一个音位的必要条件，不是充足条件。
属于一个音位的各个变体在语音上还应该是近似的，至少本地人听起来比较近似，如果两个音的音感差异明显，即使是互补关系也不能归并为一个音位。
12 . 语音区别特征公认的有哪些？
（1）辅音性/非辅音性。
（2）元音性/非元音性。
（3）浊音性/非浊音性。
（4）鼻音性/非鼻音性。
（5）延续性/非延续性。
（6）粗糙性/非粗糙性
13 . 分析语流音变现象
1.语流音变：在连续的语流中，一个音可能由于邻近音的影响，或自身所处地位的不同，或说话的快慢、高低、强弱的不同而在发音上产生一些变化，这种现象叫“语流音变”。
2.同化、顺同化，逆同化、异化：（1）语流里两个不同的音，其中一个因受另一个影响而变得跟它相同或相似的现象叫同化。
（2）由前面的音影响后面的音而产生的同化叫顺同化。
（3）由后面的音影响前面的音而产生的同化叫逆同化。
（4）语流中两个相同或相近的音，其中一个因受另一个影响而变得跟它不相同或不相近的现象叫异化。
3.弱化：语流中有些音在发音上变弱的现象叫弱化。
辅音的弱化表现为发音的阻力变小，元音的弱化表现为发音的用力程度减弱。
4.脱落、增音：语流中有些原有的音消失的现象叫脱落；有时加进了原来没有的音的现象叫增音。