语言迁移文献综述
国内关于英语词汇中母语负迁移的研究近二十年的综述
国内关于英语词汇中母语负迁移的研究近二十年的综述摘要：通过统计近20年来有关英语词汇层面母语负迁移的研究所取得的成果，总结我国学者在此研究领域做出的贡献，发现我国学者详细研究了母语负迁移产生原因；系统归纳了母语负迁移的错误类型；并提出行之有效的措施消除母语负迁移。
但是研究中也存在一些不足，主要是研究对象多样性不够，研究方法单一。
关键词：母语负迁移；英语词汇；文献综述引言英语学习中的母语负迁移现象一直以来困扰着我国的英语学习者及语言研究学者们。
近年来，关于母语负迁移的研究也越发引起人们的重视；有关母语负迁移的文章和著作也越来越多。
本文通过阅读近二十年国内有关英语词汇层面母语负迁移的相关文献，得出了以下结论。
1、文献检索情况笔者在万方数据上以“英语词汇中的母语负迁移”为关键词在学位论文库中进行搜索，发现1999年至2018年有79篇关于英语词汇中母语负迁移的论文，其中有54篇期刊论文，33篇学位论文和1篇会议论文。
以此为研究英语词汇层面母语负迁移的有效资源。
统计了近20年国内有关英语词汇层面母语负迁移的变化趋势（见图1）。
如图示，2011-2018年文章数量达45篇，多于1999-2010年的34篇。
2012年之前，文章数量呈上升趋势，2012年以后，研究热度整体下降。
同时，关于英语词汇中的母语负迁移的研究多以非材料性研究为主（44篇，占56%），实证性研究有35篇；实证研究多以发放测试题为研究手段。
总体看来，国内关于英语词汇中的母语负迁移的研究越来越科学化。
2、国内关于英语词汇层面母语负迁移的研究现状2.1词汇层面母语负迁移的产生原因研究关于英语词汇层面母语负迁移的文章很多。
不少学者对英语词汇层面母语负迁移的产生原因进行了分析，主要是从语言知识、学习方法和英汉思维差异这几个角度来进行阐释。
高丽艳（2012）将学生写作中出现词汇错误的原因归结为：第一，受汉语使用习惯的影响；第二，词汇学习片面孤立；第三，音形分离记忆词汇；第四，受母语负迁移影响。
探讨中式英语中的语言迁移
文_学术探讨359摘要：随着英语全球化的不断推进，世界各国越来越多的学习者开始学习英语。
然而在学习的过程中，学习者或多或少都会受到自己母语的影响，也就是所谓的语言迁移。
英语也就从最初的标准英语演变成了现在的世界英语变体。
如印度英语，港式英语，新加坡英语。
多样性的语言使用规约以及文化传统被植入到不同地语言变体中。
充分体现了独特的中国文化的中式英语也是其中之一。
语言迁移研究是第二语言习得的一个重要组成成分，正确理解语言迁移将会有助于我们更好地理解二语习得。
本论文将从中式英语入手，寻求中式英语形成的理论依据，并分析语言迁移以及中式英语中的正迁移和负迁移。
关键词：中式英语；语言迁移；正迁移；负迁移一、语言迁移与中式英语语言迁移是指在外语学习过程中，由于母语与目标语之间存在相似性和差异性，学习者在学习过程中受到了母语的影响。
也就是说，当学习者运用目标语进行交流时，他们会有意无意地尝试运用母语的语音规则，意义规则或结构规则去表达观点。
在中国文化背景下形成的中式英语，是指带有中国语言及文化背景的语言学习者们所说的英语，带有独特的中国语言和文化特色。
中式英语以标准英语为核心，同时也传达出了中国的社会文化气息，是标准英语变体的一种表现形式。
主要用于在特定的语言环境和社会背景下，中国人与外国人的跨文化交际。
在中式英语的形成过程中，如果汉语与英语有相似之处，那么就会产生正迁移；如有不同的地方，则会产生负迁移。
在学习外语的初级阶段，正迁移会对语言的学习产生积极的影响；相反，负迁移将会对学习过程产生消极的影响。
根据以上观点，在教授第二语言的过程中，教师应具有分析及判断母语对第二语言学习者所产生的影响的能力。
二、中式英语形成的理论基础语言与文化联系紧密。
语言是文化的载体，是社会文化的核心因素。
文化以语言为媒介，一代代的传承下去。
由于受地理位置，历史发展，思维模式，宗教信仰等一些因素的影响，不同的国家拥有不同的文化观念。
语言与文化紧密相连且相互影响。
浅析对外汉语教学中的语言迁移现象
浅析对外汉语教学中的语言迁移现象摘要语言迁移的研究是第二语言习得研究的一个重要组成部分，从上个世纪五十年代以来一直倍受学者的关注。
近年来，汉语热不断升温，对外汉语教育事业蓬勃发展，基于这种情况，本论文主要研究对外汉语教学中的语言迁移现象，总结外国学习者在学习、交际等方面产生的语言迁移现象，分析其产生的原因，并总结提出相对应的教学方法和学习策略。
通过研究，充分认识对外汉语教学的特点，探索汉语习得规律，提高教学和学习质量，从而推动汉语习得研究的发展，同时也为第二语言习得研究提供资料和例证。
关键词：对外汉语语言迁移影响因素策略一、语言迁移理论（一）语言迁移的含义迁移是中介语的一个主要特点，语言迁移是中介语产生的重要根源。
心理学范畴中，迁移是指学习者在学习过程中，已掌握的知识或技能对新知识或技能的获得产生影响的现象。
而语言迁移是指第二语言学习者在使用目的语时，试图借助于母语的语音、语义、结构规则或文化习惯来表达思想的这样一种现象。
（二）语言迁移的发展阶段1、对比分析理论阶段语言迁移理论最早是在行为主义理论的影响下提出的，认为迁移是母语“习惯”在目的语中的延续。
对语言迁移的研究是在对比分析领域展开的。
对比分析理论的确立是以1957年Lado出版的《跨文化语言学》为标志的，该理论的语言学基础是布龙菲尔德的结构主义理论——刺激—反应，而在心理学上又受到行为主义心理学迁移理论的影响，行为主义心理学认为语言的塑造靠反复的机械操练，Lado赞成二者的观点，认为语言的学习是习惯的积累，对比分析是将第一语言和第二语言在语音、词汇、语法和文化层面一步一步地进行比较，从而预测第一语言对第二语言的影响，了解学习者的母语或目的语是如何迁移的，确定教学中的难点，进一步描述第二语言习得的本质。
这一时期普遍认为第一语言转移对第二语言习得既有有利的一面，也有不利的一面，即“正迁移”和“负迁移”。
然而，在二十世纪六十年代末七十年代初，对比分析理论和语言迁移受到了许多语言学家的质疑，认为这一理论并不是从学生的实际出发，而是单纯的对比两种语言间的异同，在实际学习中，两种语言之间的差异并非一定能够引起迁移，对比分析理论所预测到的情况并不准确，一些真正的重难点并没有被预测到，而往往是不该出错的地方出错，该出错的却没有出错。
语言迁移与汉语作为第二语言的教学
语言迁移与汉语作为第二语言的教学摘要语言迁移，作为第二语言学习过程中的常见现象，对学习者的第二语言习得起着关键的作用。
拉多在对比分析中认为“语言差异等于学习难度”，本论文在对语言迁移的定义和分类进行描述总结的前提下，以教学实践举例探讨在汉语作为第二语言的学习中语言差异和学习难度之间的联系及相互影响。
关键词语言迁移；正迁移；负迁移；汉语作为第二语言的教学引言在汉语作为第二语言的学习中，语言迁移发生在语言内部的不同层面上。
外国学生用目的语进行交际时，借助母语的语音、语义和结构等来表达自己的思想，此时就会产生语言迁移现象。
本文将从语言迁移的理论层面出发，举例分析语言迁移在汉语作为第二语言的学习中几个层面上的表现，揭示语言差异与学习难度之间的关系，以期望能对汉语作为第二语言的教学具有一定的价值。
一语言迁移的定义与分类迁移这一概念最初来源于心理学，行为主义心理学认为，把语言看成是一种习惯，习得第二语言就意味着克服旧的习惯并形成一套新的习惯，在形成新习惯的过程中，原有的习惯就会产生迁移作用，会对新语言的习得起到促进或阻碍的作用。
后来“迁移”这一个概念被引到了语言学领域，便有了“语言迁移”这一说法（戴炜栋,王栋《语言迁移研究：问题与思考》）。
关于语言迁移的分类，国内外心理语言学家给出了各种不同的分类方法。
一种是将语言迁移分为“交际中的迁移”和“学习中的迁移”。
一种是将语言迁移分为“语间迁移”和“语内迁移”。
二语言迁移对第二语言习得的影响国外心理语言学家认为在当母语的某些特征同目的语相类似或完全一致时，往往产生正迁移，而当母语与目的语的某些特点相迥异时，学习者将这些有差异的语言规则运用到目的语的学习和使用当中，则容易产生负迁移。
其实，通过实际教学实践后，笔者发现实际情况并非如此，两种语言差别大，虽然相比两种语言的共同之处掌握起来会慢一些，但是干扰反而小，掌握的准确度要大；而两种语言的某些特征相似但不完全相同，学习起来似乎比那些不存在共同点的某些特征更容易接受吸收，但因为相似不代表相等，两者之间有细微差别，如果没有完全理解，学习者更容易混淆，对日后的学习也会造成干扰。
Language transfer 语言迁移
Negative Transfer in Foreign Language Learning AbstractAccording to the language transfer theory, it is assumed that the learner’s mother tongue will positively or negatively affect one’s learning a foreign language. When there are differences between one’s mother tongue and target language, the mother tongue tends to interfere with the learning of the foreign language. This paper attempts to give a brief analysis of negative transfer in students’pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and culture learning. It also discusses what pedagogical concerns the existence of negative transfer warrants and what learners can do to reduce the influence of negative transfer.Key words: Native language, Negative transfer, pedagogical implication1. IntroductionLanguage transfer has been an important issue in applied linguistics, second language acquisition and language learning. When language learners have been using their native language for many years, they are very likely to transfer those roles in their mother tongue into the foreign language that they are learning. That’s what we call negative transfer. Therefore, differences between the native language and the foreign language should be taken into consideration to find out what difficulties might be. At the same time, teachers as well as learners should come up with solutions to reduce the influence of negative transfer.2. Defining negative transferLanguage transfer refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called positive transfer. However, that language interference is most often discussed as a source of errors known as negative transfer. Negative transfer occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages. Within the theory of contrastive analysis, the greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative transfer can be expected.3. Manifestations of the negative transfer in English learning3.1 Negative transfer in pronunciationWhen people hear a speaker with a “foreign accent”, they often try to guess the speaker’s background. Often the clue seems to be how the individual talks. In such cases, questions put to the speaker such as “Are you German?”“Are you Spanish?” or “Are you Asian?”suggest an intuition about the nature of language, an awareness, however unconscious, that the native language of a speaker can somehow cause the individual to sound “foreign” in speaking another language. The detection of foreign accents is one example of the awareness that people often have of language transfer in pronunciation.3.1.1 Negative transfer in segmental levelSome difficulties in pronouncing inaccurately are caused by the non-existence of the phonemes in the mother tongue. Take /v/ and /θ/ for an example. Many English learners mispronounce them as they do not exist in Mandarin, and their mistakes can be attributed to the similarity of these two sounds with Chinese [w] and [s]. Chinese learners’ performances on the sound of /æ/ are not quite satisfying, for the phoneme is often replaced by [e], a sound that is close to Chinese [ai], and thus happiness or apple is mispronounced by many learners. Two languages also frequently have sounds which may seem identical but which in fact are acoustically different and may be perceived to be divergent from the target by the listener. For example, a comparison of an English ∕d∕with a Saudi Arabian Arabic ∕d∕ shows several differences. Among the differences, the duration of an English ∕d∕ at the end of a word tends to be shorter than its Arabic counterpart.3.1.2 Negative transfer in suprasegmental levelAlthough cross-linguistic influences on pronunciation frequently involve segmental contrasts, the influences are also frequently evident in suprasegmental contrasts involving stress, tone, rhythm, and other factors.Stress patterns are crucial in pronunciation in English since they affect syllables in English between certain nouns and verbs, such as between combine COMbine and comBINE. The first syllable in these two words has a different vowel sound, with thesound varying according to the acoustic prominence of the syllable. Such interactions have important implications not only for speech production but also for comprehension. When non-native speakers do not use a stress pattern that is a norm in the target language, this can result in a total misperception by listeners. Every English word has a definite place for the stress and one is not allowed to change it.In Chinese, stress does not have great influence. Thus stress errors are frequently committed by a Chinese learner.One of the most important typological distinctions between languages involves tone and intonation. Chinese is a “tone language”. It has four tones, that is, the level tone, the rising tone, the falling-rising tone and the falling tone. The syllable “ma”represents “mother”when it is used with a high level tone, and “horse” with a low rising tone. In contrast, English words have no fixed tones and their meanings are not identified by tones. In fact, the words in English sentences are influenced by different intonation. Different intonation can express different communicative intentions, attitudes and emotions. In other words, the meaning of a word in one English sentence not only has the meaning of vocabulary but also the meaning of the corresponding intonation. When Chinese students read English sentences, they are apt to replace the English intonation with fixed lexical tones instead of subordinating the lexical tones to the sentence intonation. As a result, every English word is pronounced clearly. Thus, the flexibility of English words is destroyed.3.2 Negative transfer in vocabularyA fundamental issue in the study of semantic transfer is the relation between language and thought. Expressions such as “learning to think in English”reflect a common belief that learning a particular language requires adopting a worldview which, to some extent, is unique to that language. When Chinese learners start learning English, they have been equipped with the deep-rooted Chinese way of thinking and their mother tongue inevitably influences their learning, especially the learning of vocabulary.3.2.1 The negative transfer caused by the non-equivalent conceptual meaning of wordsThe conceptual meaning is also called denotative or cognitive meaning, is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. The negative transfer often occurs when there is only a partial identity of conceptual meaning. “It was quite warm when I got here, but the climate suddenly changed.”“C limate” refers to the average weather conditions at a particular place over a period of years, but in this sentence, the change means the particular condition at a certain time, so “weather” is the correct choice. To some students, these two words have the same conceptual meaning. It’s hard for them to tell the difference so that they usually take it for granted that these two words could be used indiscriminately.Let’s look at another example. “He also studies French except English. “Except” means “but not, leaving out”. So “except English” means that English is not the subject he is learning. B ut when we look at the second word “also”, it’s obvious that the word “except” is not correct. “B esides” should be the right answer as it means “as well as”. Chinese learners tend to mix up the conceptual meanings of these two words for they not perceive the distinction between them.3.2.2 The negative transfer caused by the non-equivalent connotative meaning of wordConnotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. Compared with conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable, that is, it may vary according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. When we study English, we usually memorize a group of words such as grin, beam, smile and smirk. They are all types of smile. The real differences between them lie in their connotative meanings. Beam is a smile which connotes happiness, while smirk is a smile which connotes gloating of some kind. Most Chinese learners find it hard to distinguish the connotative meanings of words, especially words which are called synonyms.In compositions, some learners use the word “peasant” which has a derogatory meaning in the present English dictionary. It refers to persons without education ormanners. If someone uses this word in their communication, they hold contempt on that person. Therefore, westerners prefer to use the word “farmer.” Without knowing the connotative meaning of different words, learners are very likely to commit mistakes.3.3 Negative transfer in grammarThere are often grammatical restrictions found in one language but not in another and such restrictions can occasion difficulty. A French-speaking student may make a sentence like this: At sixty-five years old they must retire themselves because this is a rule of society. While the form “retire”reflects a true French-English cognate, the French lexical item has a grammatical restriction that the ESL student applied erroneously to the English form- the use of the reflexive pronoun is necessary in French, whereas the use of the English reflexive themselves is not grammatical in the context of the sentence.3.3.1 Negative transfer in Syntax levelA great deal of evidence has been found for syntactic negative transfer in studies of word order, relative clauses, and negation.3.3.1.1 Word orderWord order has been one of the most intensively studied syntactic properties in linguistics. “Japanese learners of English do not at any time produce writing in which the verb is wrongly placed sentence-finally.” When the Japanese speak English, many times they put objects before verbs since the basic order of Japanese is SOV and the basic order of English SVO. The vast majority of human languages have CSO, SVO, or SOV as their basic word order. Yet while most languages can be compared in terms of these three patterns, they vary considerably in terms of rigidity. Speakers of a flexible language may use several word orders in English even though English word order is quite rigid. Finnish is a flexible SVO language. Speakers of Finnish may make such a sentence “This weekend got F. any fish”when they actually want to express that “This weekend F. caught no fish”. The sentence made by a French “I think it’s very good the analysis between the behavior of animals and the person” also reflect the relatively flexible word order of French. Chinese also has SVO as its basicorder but it’s relatively flexible compared with English.Other constituents besides S, V, and O are also subject to word-order rules. In noun phrases in English, for example, articles normally precede adjectives and nouns in the noun phrase and languages generally have rules specifying the occurrence of elements within noun phrases, verb phrases and other constituents. Since the rules governing the position of adjectives, adverbs, and other word classes vary considerably form one language to the next, it is natural to expect to find cases of word-order negative transfer in constituents. There is a strong tendency for Chinese speakers to follow Chinese instead of English norms for the replacement of adverbial elements, as seen in the following error: I very much like movies. From this we can see that native language influence does account well for the vast majority of the errors.3.3.1.2 Relative clausesEnglish primarily relies on a right branching direction, in which the relative clauses appear to the right of the head noun. In contrast, Chinese primarily relies on a left branching direction, in which modifying clauses appear to the left of the head noun. And the differences in branching directions favored in relative clause patterns occasion underproduction. Most Chinese learners seem to have often avoided using relative clauses in written compositions; in contrast, equally proficient students who speak Arabic and Persian used many more such clauses. Although the Arabic and Persian speakers produce a great number of errors in the relative clauses that they use, the similarity of patterns in the native and target languages apparently led them to attempt writing more sentences with relative constructions.In the case of relative clauses, another crucial factor is the grammatical role of nouns and pronouns. Restrictive relativization is a construct usually having a “domain noun”and invariably having a modifying clause. For example, the sentence “The musician who played at the concert is from China”has a relative construction consisting of a domain noun and a clause modifying the noun. One of the most common patterns in relative clauses is to have within the clause a pronoun with the same reference as the domain noun. This poses a great difficulty for Chinese wholearn English. There is considerable cross-linguistic variation in relative clause structures, and such variation occasions negative transfer.3.3.2 Negative transfer in semantic levelChinese and English belong to different language families. Thus there is a huge difference between the two grammatical systems. Chinese learners are prone to apply the grammatical rules of Chinese in their English learning. As a result, grammatical mistakes are frequently committed when Chinese learners study English. Chinese nouns have no plural forms and changing nouns into their plural forms is not easy for Chinese learners. They tend to decide the plural forms of English nouns based on Chinese abstract and non-abstract nouns. Usually errors would appear, such as “a good advice”, “a bad news”, “a fine weather”, “some changes”, “five equipments”, etc. On the other hand, some Chinese nouns are abstract, while the corresponding English nouns are countable and t hey have plural forms, such as “goods”, “table manners”, “many thanks”, “in high spirits”, etc.Influenced by the usage of the Chinese equivalent of “marry”, a lot of learners make sentences like “She married with a poor man.” The learner clearly thinks that the verb “marry”is intransitive as it is used this way in Chinese. It actually is a transitive verb in English. So we are supposed to say “She married a poor man”. Take the verb “serve” as another example. In Chinese way of thinking, the sentence goes like this: He serves for the people. But again “serve” is a transitive verb; “He serves people” is the correct answer. On the contrary, the Chinese equivalent of “laugh” is transitive while “laugh”is intransitive. So the sentence “I made a silly mistake and she laughed at me” should be changed into “I made a silly mistake and she laughed at me.”3.4 Negative transfer in cultureNegative transfer in culture refers to the cultural interference caused by cultural differences, which shows that people subconsciously use their cultural norms and values not only to guide their behaviors and thoughts but also to judge others’ behaviors and thoughts. Negative transfer in culture often results in communicative difficulties, misunderstandings and even hatred. When learners violate norms ofconversation in the target language, the violations are potentially much more serious than syntactic or pronunciation errors since such violations can affect what is often termed “the presentation of self.” Negative cultural transfer occurs in all processes of intercultural communication and foreign language learning and is of great significance in both fields.3.4.1 Negative Transfer of Surface-Structure CulturePoliteness is probably a universal notion; the expression of politeness in different societies varies considerably. One of the basic challenges in the study of politeness is to understand the differences of interpretation that different cultures make of certain kinds of behavior. The norms of linguistic politeness in France and the United States are the same in many situations, but there is at least one context in which the norms differ considerably-using the telephone. Telephone calls in France are seen as impositions more often than they are in the United States, and thus the etiquette of making calls in France more frequently requires callers to make an apologetic statement at the beginning of the call. Consequently, phone calls between French and American individuals who are bilingual but unfamiliar with the differences in telephone etiquette may give rise to perceptions of bizarre or rude behavior. Another most frequently quoted example is that when Chinese people is praised by a foreigner, they tend to be modest and say “where, where”, which makes foreigners puzzled and a little bit angry as they think that their judgment is doubted.Speakers of different languages prefer different levels of directness in their requests. For example, German speakers show a strong preference for modal forms suggesting a sense of obligation, whereas English speakers prefer modal forms with a weaker force, as in “Can you close the window?” Moreover, it appears that German speakers more often prefer declarative statements in contrast to English speakers, who more often prefer interrogative statements to make requests. The speech act study indicates that speakers of German often produce requests in ESL that are too direct and they may sound not very polite.Apologies also show considerable cross-linguistic variation and pose problems for second language learners. The comparison of the verbal behavior of speakers ofHebrew and English shows that English speakers use apologetic formulas more than the Hebrew speakers do. And native speakers of Hebrew generally use apologies when using English less often than native speakers of English do. Differences in the relations between apologies and other speech acts can lead to inappropriate uses of apologetic formulas. When English speakers cough or sneeze, they say “Excuse me”beforehand or afterwards. But it’s not the form in Chinese. So Chinese learners of English use “Excuse me” mush less than native speakers of English do.Requests and apologies are not the only types of speech acts that can cause difficulties in learning to be polite in a foreign language. Language-specific speech acts require learners to become familiar with very new patterns of culture. In second language acquisition, much of the difficulty in becoming a competent speaker is likely to come from the simultaneous existence of universal and specific elements in spoken interactions. The difficulty may be compounded by beliefs on the part of learners that their requests, their greetings, their facial expressions, their volume, and so on, are not arbitrary in the way that words in their native language are.3.4.2 Negative Transfer of deep-Structure CultureUnder the influence of traditional worldviews and value orientations, Chinese thinking patterns are characterized by synthesis, vagueness and retrospection; whereas thinking patterns of most native speakers of English are characterized by analysis, precision and anticipation. Influenced by the specific thinking patterns, Chinese people are used to talking or writing in a roundabout way and keeping off the point and often putting the most important or critical points at the end or even just to give a hint. Such a circular way of talking or writing is regarded as politeness in Chinese culture and it can save enough "face" for both sides. Native speakers of English, especially Americans, however, like coming straight to the point in conversations or writing. The topic is often mentioned at first so as to attract hearers’ or readers’ attention.In Sino-American communications, the transfer of thinking patterns often arises at the level of discourse whose realm of study has been extended to include literary discourse and whole fields of culture and symbolic systems, among whichface-to-face conversation within speech acts is paid more attention to. The following hypothetical conversation may demonstrate the striking difference in discourse pattern influenced by different thinking patterns. “Mr. Wong and Mr. Richardson have a conversation. Mr. Richardson has enjoyed this conversation and when they are ready to part he says to Mr. Wong that they really should get together to have lunch sometime. Mr. Wong says that he would enjoy that. After a few weeks, Mr. Wong begins to feel that Mr. Richardson has been rather insincere because he has not followed up his invitation to lunch with a specific time an d place”.The difference in discourse pattern expected by Asian speakers of English (such as Chinese) and by western speakers of English (such as Americans) is the source of the problem between Mr. Wong and Mr. Richardson. As is mentioned above, Americans often put the important points at the beginning of a conversation, while Chinese people are used to displacing important points until nearer the end of a conversation, which has led Mr. Wong to think that this mention of having lunch is of some importance to Mr. Richardson. Whether it is important to him or not, Mr. Wong believes that Mr. Richardson is seriously making an invitation to lunch. Mr. Richardson, however, has made such invitation at the end of his conversation because it is of little major significance. For him it does not signify any more than that he has enjoyed his conversation with Mr. Wong. It is not a specific invitation, but just a conversational way of parting with good feelings toward the other. It is this difference in discourse pattern that results in misunderstanding between two participants.In intercultural communication, people often take what they believe for granted because they have grown up in the culture and think their way is the best. In this case, they tend to transfer their own cultural values and beliefs to the situation of intercultural communication as guidelines for their behaviors, so that misunderstandings or ineffective communications arise.4. Implications for teachingWhat we talked above implicates that cross-linguistic influence has considerable potential to affect the course of second language acquisition. Therefore, in foreignlanguage learning and teaching the basis of language instruction was the differences between the native language and target language, contrastive Analysis came into fashion in the 1960s. Starting with describing comparable features of the native language and the target language, contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatch or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter. However, the contrastive analysis was soon found problematic, for many of the predictions of the target language learning difficulty formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to be either uninformative: teachers had known about these errors already, or inaccurate: predicted errors did not materialize in the learner language while errors did show up that the contrastive analysis had not predicted. People came to realize that “Difference” and “Difficulty” are not identical concepts. The once predominant contrastive analysis was gradually replaced by Error Analysis.The contrastive approach to learners’ errors sheds new light on people’s attitudes: the incorrect English sentence “He comes from China, Beijing” is produced according to the word order of Chinese, instead of the correct English word order “He comes from Beijing, China”. By error’s analysis, teachers know what the key points and important points are.There are many ways to help learners reduce the influence of negative transfer. 4.1 increasing the amount of language inputThe reason why many learners are influenced by negative transfer is that they are lack of input of the target language. Therefore, language learners should be given a large amount of foreign language input. By listening to original materials, learners know how native speakers speak English and they get the correct pronunciation; by reading original books, learners learn how native speakers write in English and get the correct usage of words. It helps learners reduce the influence of negative transfer in pronunciation as well as vocabulary.4.2 Getting a better understanding of the cultureLanguage is part of the culture and plays a very important role in it. In the broadest sense, language is the symbolic representation of the people, the history andtheir ways of living and thinking. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture. Therefore, learning a foreign language well means more than merely mastering the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. It also means learning to see the world as native speakers of the language do, learning to understand the way in which their language reflects the ideas, customs, and behaviors of the society. To better avoid negative transfer, learners should think in the second language and avoid relating everything to their native language. So getting students familiar with the culture in which the target language is used should be a goal for teachers.5.ConclusionThis paper is a preliminary attempt to explore the different variables affecting language transfer. It can be seen that language transfer is important to foreign language learning. To subdue negative transfer, learners should increase the amount of language input and have a better understanding of the culture in which the target language is used. The methods presented in the paper are finite. Teachers and learners can come up with many more feasible and practical methods to accomplish the formidable and complicated process of eliminating interference of the native language.Reference1. Terence Odlin. 1989. Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press2. Diane Larsen Freeman and Michael H. Long. 2008. An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press3. Kellerman, E.. 1977. Towards the characterization of the strategy of transfer in second language learning. In Interlanguage Studies Bulletin. 58-146.4. 夏纪梅. 1995. 英语交际常识: 中国人与外国人之间的误会实例分析. 广州:中山大学出版社5. 李文中. 1993. 中国英语与中国式英语. 外语教学与研究. 18-24.。
论述二语习得过程中的语言迁移现象
论述二语习得过程中的语言迁移现象1 语言迁移研究的发展与现状语言迁移是指语言学习者在学习的过程中,已经学习过的知识对新知识和技能的学习所产生的影响。
早期行为主义对迁移的研究要追溯到40年代和50年代,Fries的研究主张科学描述学习者的目的语,并且与其母语进行比较。
从而推动了语言学的对比分析研究。
50年代,行为主义心理学受到了挑战,认知语言学和普遍语法理论开始提出了“语言习得机制”和“普遍语法理论”,他们发现语言学习者总是会在母语与目的语两种语言间相似的地方出错,Corder还提出了“错误分析理论”,主张系统性地分析学习者在第二语言学习中所犯的错误。
Corder的《母语作用》中指出了负迁移的存在,他认为在第二语言学习的早期,迁移是起正作用的,当两种语言的语法结构有很大的差异时,学习者并没有母语迁移,而是求助于回避策略。
Kellerman的研究更进一层,他区别了学习者三种回避现象:目的语规则难于理解,特定情况下对目的语规则感到困难,学习者不愿意去表达。
他认为这是由于学习者与目的语文化之间的心理和社会距离造成的。
跨语言影响的研究主要是受到了认知语言学的推动,它以现代语言学和生成语法为理论框架,主要是对具有不同母语背景的学习者进行语言特性输出比较,从而寻找语言的规律,主要的著作有《语言学习中的语言迁移》、《迁移和干扰》、《输出中的迁移》、《语用迁移》等等,这些研究都是受到了行为主义、认知语言学、普遍语法的影响,并且又以认知语言学为基础进行的创新理论研究。
2 语言迁移的主要表现形式语言迁移强调学习者学习过程中产生的错误是传统语言迁移研究,研究者倾向于把迁移分为正负两种迁移,而且认为错误的产生是母语负迁移的结果。
但是经过众多学者的研究,语言迁移的表现形式有多种,主要可以分为以下几点。
2.1 正向迁移正向迁移就是由于母语和目的语之间有相同或者相似的语言规则,对学习产生了积极促进作用的迁移。
如果本族语和目的语之间的词汇规则相似,那么学习者在学习第二语言的过程中就会省时省力,而且效果会非常好,也就是说母语与第二语言之间的语法有相似的地方就会促进学习者的二语习得。
语言文化论文：跨文化交际中的语言迁移特点及教学策略
跨文化交际中的语言迁移特点及教学策略一、语言与文化迁移的理论思考在语言迁移现象上，有大量的先行研究值得参考。
其中从认知观点出发的一种主流倾向是奥苏伯尔的认知结构迁移理论。
在这之后的研究中，符号性图式理论、产生式理论和结构匹配理论等均具有鲜明的学术指导性。
冯忠良曾经指出“:不管怎样解释和定义迁移，迁移现象的存在是毫无疑义的。
各种迁移理论虽然都承认迁移是一种认知活动，体现了个体主动的心理加工过程，但迁移究竟是什么许多方面仍存在分歧。
一些研究者着眼于各理论在更高层次上的概括，提出迁移是新旧经验的整合过程”.（冯忠良，1992）通过同化、顺应与重组三种方式可以实现这一整合过程，其内在是在原有认知结构与新学习的相互影响和作用下，形成新的认知结构。
在跨文化交际的外语学习中，迁移理所当然体现在浅层层面上的语言形式，同时也表现在语言行为所涵盖的文化因素的深层层面上。
多数研究者认为语言迁移是习语者的内在因素之一。
认为语言迁移是不能直接观察到的，因此内隐地影响了习得效果。
在这里引用一个概念叫做“习得论”.习得论认为迁移主要表示习语者建立第二语言体系之时第一语言特征的自动参入。
Odlin 在1989 年提出大量的研究表明迁移确实是第二语言习得一个非常重要的因素。
其他习得论者也纷纷研究形成迁移的原因。
心理学的行为主义学习论与格式塔学习论都用到迁移。
习得论者承认迁移等于承认第一语言是习得二语的手段，这种手段主要作用于获得外语的基础手段。
心理学的研究表明各个学科和技能之间或同一学科和技能各个部分之间，经常存在着某种程度的彼此互相影响的现象。
在心理学中的“迁移”是指在学习过程中，已经掌握的知识和技能会对以后新知识的学习和新技能的形成产生一定的影响。
“迁移”具有两面性。
一方面是“一个新问题的解决，是利用主体经验中己有的旧工具实现的……”（巴甫洛夫语），称为正迁移；另一方面即为负迁移，指由于共同因素所引起的反应在新旧知识的技能中具有相逆性，因而旧知识旧技能对新知识新技能具有抑制作用的迁移（或称干扰）。
语言迁移研究综述
语言迁移研究综述作者：孙青来源：《校园英语》 2021年第7期文/孙青【摘要】语言迁移与外语教学密切相关，一直以来是二语习得领域的重点。
本文从对比分析假说(Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis)和语言迁移、普遍语法(Universal Grammar)和语言迁移、认知理论和语言迁移三个阶段进行概述，探讨围绕语言迁移的实际问题与研究方向。
【关键词】语言迁移；第二语言习得；应用语言学【作者简介】孙青(1996.04-)，女，汉族，浙江嘉兴人，浙江师范大学，硕士研究生，研究方向：话语分析。
一、引言语言迁移(Language Transfer)指由语言之间的异同而产生的已习得的语言对目标习得语言的影响。
自诞生以来，语言迁移研究一直是语言研究领域的重要课题。
二、语言迁移研究分类1.对比分析假说(Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis)和语言迁移。
从结构主义语言学和行为主义心理学视角下出发的研究者提出了“对比分析假说”(Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis)(Lado，1957)，“差异=难度”是对比分析假说的主要观点。
岳鹏(2014)基于对比分析与错误分析，对中国大学生英语写作的母语负迁移进行试验研究，总结并分析了主要错误类型，以及负迁移现象在词汇、语法、语篇等不同层次的表现。
程莉(2020)基于对比分析假说，从连接词冗余、连接词错用、连接词漏用三个方面，总结了非英语专业学生写作中的误用情况，对连接词的教学提出了运用对比教学，培养学生差异意识的建议和对策。
也有学者从发音方面进行了对比研究，刘钰(2014)对比研究了中文和英文在音段音位和超音段音位上的相同或相似之处，包括声调 (tone) 与语调 (intonation)；重音 (stress) 与节奏 (rhythm)，对二语学习者“中式英文”的发音问题提出了针对性的教学建议。
也有学者认为，母语与二语之间的差异并非一定会导致语言习得的困难或负影响，恰恰相反，其差异性会使得目标语的结构更容易被习得。
幼儿语言教育研究的文献综述
关于幼儿语言教育研究的文献综述摘要:学前儿童语言教育是研究儿童语言发生发展的现象、规律及其训练和教育的一门科学。
［1］通过对幼儿语言教育的回顾、发展状况和趋势、影响因素、意义、策略和方法、感悟与启示等相关文献的查阅，希望能够对教师进行语言教育活动和对幼儿语言能力的发展提供一些参考.关键词：幼儿语言教育一、幼儿语言教育的发展状况和趋势（一)幼儿语言教育的回顾1。
我国幼教中的语言教育可以追溯到1903年在武昌创办的第一所幼稚园中。
当时课程内容很简单，在语言教育内容方面，主要是歌谣——浅显的小诗;组织谈话—-保教人员与幼儿谈话。
［2］2。
幼儿语言教育在上世纪30年代——50年代进入单元教学阶段。
它以陈鹤琴先生主持制定的《幼稚园课程标准》中关于语言教育目标为标志。
语言教育的课程实施采用“整个教学法"，即把各科内容打成一片,从幼儿的认知水平、能力、经验、兴趣出发,在他们所接触到的自然环境和社会环境中选取中心,各科（常识、音乐、故事、图画、手工等)围绕中心选取教材,把各科内容自然的结合起来。
［2］3。
从50年代初到50年代末进入学习苏联阶段。
废除单元教学,全面学习苏联分科教学。
这一阶段语言教育比较重视上课，对日常生活和游戏中的语言培养不够。
［2］4.从80年代以来开始建立中国自己的语言教育体系.随着幼教改革的深入发展，幼儿语言教育在总结历史的经验与问题的基础上，在语言教育目标的分类、层次、内容、幼儿园语言教育活动的设计与组织、幼儿园日常生活和游戏中的语言培养等方面的改革与研究，取得一定进展。
[2]由此可知：我国幼儿语言教育的发展经历了一个既漫长又短暂的时间。
而且还在继续发展中，但相关的理论还没有太多，大多是具体的实施建议等.(二）幼儿语言教育的发展状况1。
随着《幼儿园教育指导纲要（试行）》的颁布，“早期阅读教育热”随之兴起。
“过热”的背后出现种种问题.其中幼儿教师早期阅读教育意识与能力的缺失是主要问题之一。
translanguaging文献综述
translanguaging文献综述
Translanguaging（跨语言交际）是指使用多种语言进行交流和沟通的过程。
在全球化的背景下，跨语言交际已成为一种普遍现象，并在教育、商务、政治等领域得到广泛应用。
本文将对translanguaging的相关文献进行综述。
首先，translanguaging被定义为“在一个特定的社会和文化背景下，人们使用多种语言进行交流和沟通的过程”。
这一概念最早由法国学者Philippe Gouverneur于2009年提出，并得到了许多学者的认同和支持。
他们认为，跨语言交际不仅仅是简单地使用多种语言，更是一种文化和社会现象，需要从多个角度进行研究和分析。
其次，translanguaging在教育领域的应用也受到了广泛关注。
研究表明，跨语言交际可以帮助学生更好地理解和掌握多种语言和文化知识，提高学习效果和学习动机。
同时，跨语言交际还可以促进学生的创造性思维和解决问题的能力。
因此，许多教育者开始尝试将跨语言交际融入到教学实践中，以提高学生的学习成果和竞争力。
跨语言交际还在商务和政治领域得到了广泛应用。
在商务领域，跨语言交际可以帮助企业更好地开展国际贸易和合作，增强企业的国际竞争力。
在政治领域，跨语言交际可以促进不同国家和地区之间的交流和合作，增进相互了解和信任。
translanguaging作为一种新兴的研究领域，已经引起了广泛的关注和研究。
未来，随着全球化的深入发展，跨语言交际将会在更多的领域得到应用和发展。
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第2 章文献综述个体现在的学习是学习过程中的一部分，既受到以往学习经验的影响，又将对以后的学习产生影响，这就是学习迁移。
学习迁移伴随着整个学习过程出现。
本章主要回顾学习迁移理论，同时对学习迁移理论在大学法语词汇教学领域国内外研究现状进行简要的阐述和评论。
同时在本章中将深入展开阐述大学法语词汇具体分类，分类方法以对比语言学为理论依据，其中具体分类方法包括：英法词汇音义比较法，英法词汇形义比较法，英法主题词汇比较法，英法构词规律比较法和英法具体词汇比较法。
2.1 学习迁移理论学习者不但可以将所学的东西进行应用，而且能“举一隅而三隅反”，也就是根据已经掌握的某一方面的知识来推知其他相关的知识，这种现象就是学习迁移。
迁移这个词语来源于桑代克，他把迁移定义为之前的学习对后来学习产生的影响。
随着研究的不断深入，人们发现后来的学习对之前的学习也会产生影响，而且心理学家也把这种影响看做迁移；如果再按照以前的定义去理解迁移就显得过于片面，因此给迁移重新定义就是指一种学习对另外一种学习的影响。
根据不同的分类方法，人们将学习迁移分为不同的种类。
人们通常所说的正迁移和负迁移是按照学习迁移产生的效果进行分类的；顺向迁移和逆向迁移是按照学习迁移的顺序进行分类的；特殊迁移和非特殊迁移是按照学习迁移的内容进行分类的；远迁移和近迁移则是按照学习迁移的距离进行分类的。
2.1.1 传统的学习迁移理论针对迁移是怎样发生，心理学家们围绕一般的学习过程进行了大量的实验研究，提出了各种迁移理论。
这些理论对于理解学习迁移有一定的启发。
在此，仅以形式训练说、共同要素说和概括化理论为例，来阐述传统的学习迁移理论。
第一、形式训练说。
形式训练说兴起于十八世纪，盛行了大约两百年，是影响教学工作最早的迁移理论。
形式训练说的理论基础是官能心理学，人官能包括观察能力、记忆能力、想象能力、推理能力等。
形式训练说主张对人的各种官能分别进行训练，通过这种方式来促进迁移的普遍发生。
它认为迁移是在“形式训练”的过程当中产生的，6第2 章文献综述而形式训练就是认为学习材料的难度重要而不是教学内容本身，主张通过对那些难记的古典语言、数学和自然科学中的难题进行学习；在经历了如此的学习过程之后，便能最大限度地产生迁移效果。
形式训练说还持有以下观点：教学以训练和改进人的各种官能为最重要的目标。
但是对于人的各种官能是否可以通过训练提高之后自动迁移到一切活动中，以及教学的主要目标是否为训练和改进人的官能，形式训练说虽然认为答案是肯定的，但是却拿不出经得起科学检验的证据。
第二、相同要素说。
为了检验形式训练说，美国心理学家桑代克在十九世纪末二十世纪初有针对地设计了一系列严谨的实验；并在此基础之上总结出了相同要素说。
他认为：某种心理机能随着另外一种心理机能的改进而改进需要这两种心理机能包含共同成分，共同的刺激和反应的联结构成了心理机能的共同成分。
他还针对此设计了一系列实验力图去证明自己的观点。
桑代克在迁移方面的积极探索揭示了形式训练说当中存在的问题；但是在对于迁移的范围方面，他人为地将迁移的范围缩小了；他认为只有两种情境之间存在相同要素或共同成分时，迁移才能产生，否则迁移就不会产生，这种观点是片面的。
第三、概括化理论。
桑代克的迁移理论所涉及的迁移范围较小，他只关注先期和后期学习中是否有相同要素。
贾德的概括化理论认为先前的学习A 之所以能够影响到后继的学习B，是因为学习者在学习A 时掌握了一般原理，而一般原理的部分或全部将适用于A、B。
概括化理论强调掌握一般原理的重要性，并且认为两种学习中存在相同要素只是产生迁移的必要前提，也就是说相同要素固然是迁移产生的必要前提，但是相同要素存在却未能被学习者发现也不会发生迁移，因此迁移产生的关键是学习者能从两种学习过程中概括出他们的共同原理。
1908 年贾德做了“水下击靶”实验证实了这一点。
后来赫德里克森、施罗德、奥佛林和特拉韦斯也做过类似的实验，也都证实了贾德的概括化理论；同时指出，概括不是一个自动过程，而是与教学方法密切相关。
同样的教材，教学方法不同，教学效果和迁移效果也大不相同。
综上所述：传统学习迁移理论具有以下特点：第一、从研究对象来看，传统迁移理论研究的迁移都是发生在两种学习活动之间；第二、从促使迁移发生的条件来看：1. 两种学习活动之间发生迁移的前提和基础是这两种学习活动包含共同要素；2. 学习者能对7河北大学文学硕士学位论文这些共同要素进行概括。
2.1.2 现代的学习迁移理论现代认知心理学将迁移的研究深入到教材的知识结构和学生的认知结构。
奥苏泊尔认为一切有意义的学习过程中必然伴随着迁移，而学生本身的认知结构在这些有意义的学习中始终处于最关键的地位，但是对于每个学生来说，他们自身的认知结构却是相异的。
根据认知结构的构成内容和内容组织形式的不同，奥苏伯尔总结出对学习迁移产生影响的三个变量：可利用性变量、可辨别性变量和稳定性变量。
第一、认知结构中可以用来起固定作用的适当观念就是可利用性变量。
在这些概念当中，可以为新知识的学习提供最佳的固定点就是那些可以进行较高层次抽象概括的观念；如果原来构建的的认知结构当中缺乏适当的、起固定作用的、可用来同化新知识的观念，新知识在认知结构中就无法被有效地固定，这种情况会造成新知识的不稳定和意义含糊，学习者会很快忘记所学的新知识，这些都不利于新知识的掌握。
第二、原来构建的的认知结构中被用来同化新知识的适当观念和新知识之间的可辨别程度就是可辨别性变量。
当可辨别程度高时，就促进新知识的掌握；新知识掌握的便利性与可辨别程度成正比。
可辨别程度低时可分为两种情况：一，原有认知结构中知识掌握牢固，这将导致新知识迅速被遗忘；二，原有知识结构中知识掌握不牢固，这将导致新旧知识之间相互干扰。
第三、原来构建的认知结构中被用来起固定作用的适当观念的稳定性就是稳定性变量。
如果原来构建的认知结构中被用来起固定作用的适当观念稳定性差，它不但不可以用来同化新知识，还会对原有知识和新知识之间的可辨别程度产生影响。
针对这种情况，采取及时纠正、反馈和重复学习的方法会提升原来构建的认知结构中被用来起固定作用的适当观念的稳定性。
现代学习迁移理论由诸多理论构成，上文以认知结构与迁移为例进行了阐述。
认知结构与迁移理论对我们的启示在于：第一、学生的认知结构来自教材知识结构，这就要求教材以概括水平较高的基本概念、原理为核心，基本内容之间要形成清晰的、有层次的联系，从而提高原来构建的认知结构里面能够用作同化新学知识的观念的稳定性；第二、教师在教学过程中，要积极引导学生在新旧知识之间建立联系，引导学生去用原有知识同化新知识，又要引导学生注意分辨新旧知识之间的区别。
8第2 章文献综述2.1.3大学法语教学中英语词汇迁移研究第二外语法语针对英语专业学生学生开设，大学法语词汇的学习是法语学习的一个非常重要的部分，因此如何教授法语词汇，最大程度地提高英语专业学生学习效果便成了大学法语教学研究领域的研究热点，与此相关的学术论文数量很多。
国外在对母语或一门外语对另外一门外语学习影响研究方面，理论研究比国内多，还有人将理论研究结果运用到实际教学中去，还出版了相关的教材。
Weinreich 指出：两种语言相似的情况下会产生正迁移；两种语言相异的情况下则会产生负迁移[7]。
Hammerly 在其论文中写到：人们早就发现如果在两种语言中存在许多读音相似、意义相似的词汇，这将对词汇习得产生积极的促进作用[8]。
Ard. Hombur指出：虽然对在词汇层面上的语言迁移现象研究不多，但都证实了这一点。
例如：西班牙人和瑞典人学英语时，词汇掌握得很快[9]。
Nielson 给正在进行法语学习的德国人和英国人进行测试，测试内容为法语和德语中共有但是英语中没有的语法特征；结果发现德国学生在阴阳性、关系代词用法和动词变位三方面的成绩都明显优于英国学生。
Zobl认为：当两种语言在词汇层面存在差异时，这些差异会对词汇学习造成影响。
例如：汉语中没有冠词，因此初学英语的中国人会表现出使用指示词“this”来替代冠词的倾向[10]。
以Stockwell 为首的几个专家在对英语和西班牙语进行比较之后，从英语语言对西班牙语言学习过程中产生的迁移出发，为母语为英语的、学习西班牙语的人们制定了一套“难度等级”[11]。
自从学习迁移理论被引进到我国之后，我国外语教学领域的一些学者和外语教师不断加强这方面的研究与探索，并积极结合自己学校具体教学实际，将此理论应用到具体教学中。
这些前辈的研究探索通过对学习迁移理论以及其具体应的全面介绍，为大学法语词汇教学提供了许多切合实际、实用性较强的宝贵意见。
对于英语和法语词汇层面的比较，国内的研究主要集中在词形、构词以及一些具体词用法比较，但是涉及到比较结果运用到实际教学促进法语词汇学习的不多；英语词汇和法语词汇相似现象的归纳结果具如下：1. 在词形方面：关潇玥分成了两部分：同形同义和近形同义；她的分类是基于英语、法语词汇拼写和意义的关联[12]。
郑立明将英语和法语词汇对比之后分成了三类：拼写完全相同、拼写9河北大学文学硕士学位论文相似、拼写完全不同或无对应词。
他在研究中注意到了英语和法语词汇方面的一些相似相近现象并进行了归纳，并指出这三类中第三类是需要强化记忆的地方。
但是他的分类不够完善，没有提到词形相同或相似但是意义完全不同的情况。
例如：法语中car 是一个连词，是因为的意思；但是在英语中car 却是一个名词，是小汽车的意思。
杨玲、邓泽龙认为英语和法语存在大量的同形同义、形近同义、词尾变通等同义词及形似义异词，其中形同义异或形近义异是干扰对象；他们的分类较为全面，也提出了努力的方向[13] [14]。
骆怡之的研究结果分为拼写完全相同、拼写相似或发音相似、动词、副词和拼写完全不同或无对应单词；他将动词和副词单独拿出作为两类，实际上动词部分按照他的阐述，其实是可以划归到拼写相似里面，再把动词单独分类似乎显得有点多余[15]。
对于副词来说，副词既可以划到拼写相似又可以放到构词法里面，但是似乎放到构词法里面效果会更好。
王吉祥在其论文中对英语和法语的共同词汇和借用词汇从存在方式和具体分析两方面对这些词汇进行分析和阐述[16]。
他认为存在方式包括：直接借用，共源词和对应词，转写词。
他还从语法、语意、语音和拼法四方面对这些共同词汇进行分析。
他不仅从形式上揭示了英法共同词汇和借用词汇，还揭示了其深层意义以及构成规律，为掌握这些词汇提供了便捷的途径与方法。
胡佳在《大学法语四级考试词汇详解》中提出将英法“形似”的词汇加以对比[17]。
在具体比较中从词汇形式和意义出发，分为同形同义词、近形同义词和词尾通变词。
她立足于英语词汇与法语词汇形式、意义的关系将英语词汇和法语词汇进行分类概括；总体来看，她是在前人（周正言，周正言在《大学法语1-4 级词汇超常速记》（2003）中根据英语和法语形式与意义相近的程度、构词方法将大学法语1-4 级词汇分类）总结的基础之上概括的，较其他人的比较分类要更全面，她虽然注意到在和英语词汇形式相似、意义相同的法语词汇e 的音符变化，但是她却没总结e 的音符变化规则。