Leptospira and leptospirosis
12.莱姆病
病人由于仅在病程早期有短暂的细菌血症
传播途径
TRANSMITTED PATHWAY
蜱媒传播（ transmitted by ticks ）：蜱叮咬 接触传播：动物间接触尿液传播，也可传给与
其密切接触的人 其它传播方式
-虫媒：蚊、马蝇、鹿蝇
- 输血 - 母婴垂直传播（vertical transmission）
Burgdorferi first isolated by Willy Burgdorfer at the National Institute of Health in 1982, who named it after himself
1985年黑龙江省海林县首次发现， 已有19个省有病例报告
流行情况
31kDa及34kDa，使机体产生特异性IgG及IgA抗体，感 染后6～8周产生，可保持多年，可用于做诊断及流 行病学调查。
伯氏疏螺旋体
Borrelia Burgdorferi
基因型(genetic type)
12个基因型，我国4个基因型 有3个基因型具有致病性，亚洲只有后2种
B.Burgdorferi ss B.Garinii B.afzelii
属于螺旋体目，螺旋体科
致病性螺旋体的科和属
科
属
引起人类疾病 病原体
螺旋体科
密螺旋体属 梅毒 （Treponema）
雅司
疏螺旋体
莱姆病
（Borrelia） 鼠咬热
回归热
苍白密螺旋体苍白亚种
纤细螺旋体 伯氏疏螺旋体 小螺菌型螺旋体 回归热螺旋体
钩端螺旋体科
钩端螺旋体属 钩端螺旋体病 问号状钩端螺旋体 （Leptospira） (Leptospirosi
美国FDA对金霉素使用指南英文件
in combinations as follows:(i) Amprolium in accordance with 558.55.(ii) Amprolium plus ethopabate in accordance with 558.58.(iii) Bacitracin methylene disalicylate in accordance with 558.76. (iv) Clopidol in accordance with 558.175.(v) Decoquinate in accordance with 558.195.(vi) Hygromycin B in accordance with 558.274.(vii) Laidlomycin in accordance with 558.305.(viii) Lasalocid in accordance with 558.311.(ix) Monensin in accordance with 558.355.(x) Robenidine hydrochloride in accordance with 558.515.(xi) Roxarsone in accordance with 558.530.(xii) Salinomycin alone or with roxarsone in accordance with 558.550. (xiii) Tiamulin in accordance with 558.600.(xiv) Zoalene in accordance with 558.680.[41 FR 10995, Mar. 15, 1976]Editorial Note:For Federal Register citations affecting 558.128, see the List of CFR Sections Affected, which appears in the Finding Aids section of the printed volume and at .Sec. 558.140 Chlortetracycline and sulfamethazine.(a)Approvals. Type A medicated articles: 35 grams of chlortetracycline per pound with 7.7 percent (35 grams) of sulfamethazine to Nos. 046573 and 048164 in 510.600(c) of this chapter.(b)Related tolerances . See 556.150 and 556.670 of this chapter.(c) It is used in feed for beef cattle as follows:(1)Amount per head per day . Chlortetracycline, 350 milligrams plus sulfamethazine, 350 milligrams.(2)Indications for use. Aid in the maintenance of weight gains in the presence of respiratory disease such as shipping fever.(3)Limitations. Feed for 28 days; withdraw 7 days prior to slaughter.[61 FR 35954, July 9, 1996, as amended at 64 FR 15684, Apr. 1, 1999;66 FR 46706, Sept. 7, 2001; 68 FR 22294, Apr. 28, 2003; 69 FR 62407, Oct. 26, 2004]Sec. 558.145 Chlortetracycline, procaine penicillin, and sulfamethazine.(a)Approvals . Type A medicated articles: (1) 20 grams of chlortetracycline per pound, 4.4 percent (20 grams) of sulfamethazine, and procaine penicillin equivalent in activity to 10 grams of penicillin per pound to 046573 in 510.600(c) of this chapter.(2) 40 grams of chlortetracycline per pound, 8.8 percent of sulfamethazine, and penicillin procaine equivalent in activity to 20 grams of penicillin per pound to 046573 and 048164 in 510.600(c) of this chapter.(b)Specifications. (1) The antibiotic substance refers to the antibiotic or feed-grade antibiotic.(2) The antibiotic activities are expressed in terms of the appropriate antibiotic standards.(3) Type C medicated feed contains in each ton, 100 grams of chlortetracycline, 50 grams of penicillin as procaine penicillin, and 100 grams of sulfamethazine.(c)Related tolerances. See 556.150, 556.510, and 556.670 of this chapter.(d)Conditions of use.(1) It is administered to swine in a Type C feedfor reduction of the incidence of cervical abscesses; treatment of bacterial swine enteritis (salmonellosis or necrotic enteritis caused by Salmonella choleraesuis and vibrionic dysentery); prevention of these diseases during times of stress; maintenance of weight gains in the presence of atrophic rhinitis; growth promotion and increased feed efficiency in swine weighing up to 75 pounds.(2) Withdraw 15 days prior to slaughter.[40 FR 13959, Mar. 27, 1975, as amended at 43 FR 19385, May 5, 1978;47 FR 39814, Sept. 10, 1982; 48 FR 30615, July 5, 1983; 51 FR 7396, Mar. 3, 1986; 52 FR 2684, Jan. 26, 1987; 56 FR 14019, Apr. 5, 1991;61 FR 18082, Apr. 24, 1996; 62 FR 14300, Mar. 26, 1997; 63 FR 27845, May 21, 1998; 66 FR 46706, Sept. 7, 2001; 68 FR 47237, Aug. 8, 2003;69 FR 62407, Oct. 26, 2004]Sec. 558.155 Chlortetracycline, sulfathiazole, penicillin.(a)Approvals. Type A medicated articles: (1) 20 grams of chlortetracycline hydrochloride, 4.4 percent (20 grams) sulfathiazole, and procaine penicillin equivalent to 10 grams of penicillin per pound to No. 046573 in 510.600(c) of this chapter.(2) 40 grams of chlortetracycline hydrochloride, 8.8 percent (40 grams) sulfathiazole and procaine penicillin equivalent in activity to 20 grams of penicillin per pound to No. 046573 in 510.600(c) of this chapter.(b)Specifications. (1) The antibiotic substance refers to the antibiotic or feed-grade antibiotic.(2) The antibiotic activities are expressed in terms of the appropriate antibiotic standards.(c)Related tolerances. See 556.150, 556.510, and 556.690 of this chapter.(d)Conditions of use. It is used for swine as follows:(1)Amount per ton. Chlortetracycline, 100 grams plus penicillin, 50 grams plus sulfathiazole, 100 grams.(2)Indications for use . For reduction of incidence of cervical。
老鼠身上有细菌的英语作文
Rats,often maligned creatures in popular culture,are not only notorious for their ability to infest homes and carry diseases but also for their resilience and adaptability.The presence of bacteria on rats is a welldocumented fact,and it is this aspect that we will explore in this essay.Rats are known to carry a variety of bacteria that can pose a significant health risk to humans.One of the most common and potentially dangerous bacteria that rats can carry is Leptospira,which causes a disease known as leptospirosis.This bacterial infection can lead to severe symptoms such as high fever,headache,chills,muscle aches,and in severe cases,organ failure and even death.The bacteria are often found in rat urine,which can contaminate water sources and soil,posing a risk to anyone who comes into contact with these contaminated environments.Another bacteria that rats are known to harbor is Salmonella,a type of bacteria that can cause food poisoning.The presence of Salmonella on rats can contaminate food and surfaces,leading to illness in humans. Symptoms of Salmonella infection include diarrhea,fever,and abdominal cramps,which can be particularly dangerous for young children,the elderly,and those with weakened immune systems.In addition to these,rats can also carry the bacteria responsible for causing bubonic plague,Yersinia pestis.Historically,the plague has had devastating effects on human populations,with the most notable outbreak occurring in the14th century,which resulted in the deaths of an estimated 75to200million people in Eurasia and North Africa.While the risk of plague today is significantly lower due to advancements in medicine andpublic health,the potential for rats to carry this bacteria remains a concern.The ability of rats to carry bacteria is not limited to their physical contact with humans or the environment.Rats are also known to groom themselves,a process during which they can ingest their fur and the bacteria that reside there.This grooming behavior can lead to the internalization of bacteria,which can then be spread through their feces and urine.To mitigate the risk of bacterial transmission from rats,it is essential to implement effective rodent control measures.This includes sealing any entry points to buildings,maintaining cleanliness to reduce available food sources for rats,and using traps or poisons to control rat populations. Additionally,proper sanitation practices,such as washing hands thoroughly after handling potentially contaminated materials,can help prevent the spread of bacteria.Education about the risks associated with rats and the bacteria they carry is also crucial.Public awareness campaigns can inform people about the importance of maintaining a clean environment and the steps they can take to protect themselves from bacterial infections.In conclusion,while rats are often viewed as pests,their ability to carry and spread bacteria is a significant public health concern.By understanding the types of bacteria that rats can carry and the potential health risks they pose,we can take appropriate measures to protect ourselves and our communities.Through effective rodent control,sanitation practices,andpublic education,we can reduce the risk of bacterial transmission from rats and ensure a safer and healthier environment for all.。
医学制药英语词汇（L）
医学制药英语词汇(L)labelled antibody 标记抗体labichorea 唇舞病lability 不稳定性labiomancy 唇读labioplasty 唇成形术labium 唇labor 分娩labor pains 阵痛labor room 产房laboratory 实验室labrocyte 肥大细胞labyrinth 迷路labyrinthectomy 迷路切除术labyrinthine deafness 迷路性聋labyrinthitis 迷路炎lacerated wound 裂伤laceration 撕裂lacrimal caruncle 泪阜lacrimal gland 泪腺lacrimation 玲lacrimator 催泪剂lacrimotomy 泪菩开术lactacidemia 乳酸血lactagogue 催乳药lactation 泌乳lactation hormone 催乳激素lacteal vessel 乳糜管lacticemia 乳酸血lactiferous gland 乳腺lactifuge 止乳药lactigenous 泌乳的lactobacillus 乳酸杆菌lactocele 乳腺囊肿lactogenesis 生乳lactose 乳糖lactosuria 乳糖尿lactotherapy 乳食疗法lacuna 腔隙lacunar tonsillitis 陷窝性扁桃体炎lagnesis 色情狂lagnosis 色情狂lagophthalmos 兔眼laky blood 血细胞溶解血液laliatry 言语矫治学lalognosis 言语理解laloneurosis 神经性言语障碍lalopathology 言语病理学lalopathy 中枢性言语障碍lambdacism l 发音不准lambdacismus l 发音不准lambdoid stura 人字形锋lambliasis 贾弟虫病lambliosis 贾弟虫病lambo lambo 热带性化脓性肌炎lamel 薄层lamella 薄层lameness 跛行lamina 板laminectomy 椎板切除术laminotomy 椎板切开术lancet 柳叶刀land scurvy 血小板减少性紫癜language zone 语言带lanugo 胎毛lao kung 劳宫laparectomy 腹壁部分切除术laparo salpingectomy 剖腹输卵管切除术laparocele 腹疝laparocolectomy 剖腹结肠切除术laparocystidotomy 剖腹膀胱切开术laparogastrostomy 剖腹胃造口术laparohysteropexy 腹壁子宫固定术laparohysterotomy 剖腹子宫切开术laparomyomectomy 剖腹肌瘤切除术laparomyositis 侧腹肌炎laparonephrectomy 剖腹肾切除术laparorrhaphy 腹壁缝术laparoscope 腹腔镜laparoscopy 腹腔镜检查laparotomy 剖腹术laparotrachelotomy 子宫颈切开术laparouterotomy 剖腹子宫切开术large bowel 大肠large cell carcinoma 大细胞癌large gut 大肠large intestine 大肠large intestine merdian 手阳皿肠经larrey's cleft 拉雷裂larva 蚴laryngalgia 喉痛laryngeal cancer 喉癌laryngeal epilepsy 喉性癫痫laryngeal syncope 喉性癫痫laryngeal tumor 喉瘤laryngectomy 喉切除术laryngism 喉痉挛laryngitis 喉炎laryngocele 喉囊肿laryngocentesis 喉穿刺术laryngodynia 喉痛laryngofission 喉正中切开术laryngofissure 喉正中切开术laryngography 喉照相术laryngologist 喉科学家laryngopathy 喉病laryngopharyngectomy 喉咽切除术laryngophthisis 喉结核laryngoplasty 喉成形术laryngoplegia 喉麻痹laryngorrhaphy 喉缝术laryngoscleroma 喉硬结laryngoscope 喉镜laryngoscopy 喉镜检查laryngospasm 喉痉挛laryngostenosis 喉狭窄laryngostomy 喉造口术laryngotomy 喉切开术laryngotracheitis 喉气管炎laryngotracheobronchitis 喉气管支气管炎laryngoxerosis 喉干燥larynx 喉laser 激光laser medicine 激光医学laser microscope 激光显微镜laser photocoagulation 激光凝固laser photocoagulator 激光凝固器laser rays 激光线laser therapy 激光疗法lassa fever 拉沙热late pregnancy 晚期妊娠latency 潜伏状态latency period 潜伏期latent carcinoma 潜伏性癌latent disease 潜伏性病latent infection 潜伏感染latent schizophrenia 潜伏精神分裂症lateral curvature 脊柱侧凸lateral position 侧卧位laterodeviation 侧向偏斜lateroflexion 侧屈lateroposition 偏侧变位lateropulsion 侧步lateroversion 侧倾lathyrism 山豆中毒laughing gas 一氧化氮lavage 灌洗lavement 灌洗laxative 轻泻药layer 层lazaretto 检疫留验站le cell 红斑性狼疮细胞lead colic 铅绞痛lead encephalopathy 铅毒性脑病lead gout 铅中毒性痛凤leech 蛭left ventricular failure 左心室衰竭left ventricular insufficiency 左心室衰竭leg 腿legal medicine 法医学legal physician 法医师leiasthenia 平滑肌无力leiomyoblastoma 成平滑肌瘤leiomyofibroma 平滑肌纤维瘤leiomyoma 平滑肌瘤leiomyosarcoma 平滑肌肉瘤leishmaniasis 利什曼病lememia 鼠疫杆菌血症lemmoblast 成神经膜细胞lemmocyte 神经膜细胞lemoparalysis 食管麻痹lengthwise section 纵长切开lenitive 润泽药lens 透镜lenticular nucleus 透镜状核lentiform nucleus 透镜状核lentiginosis 着色斑病lentigo 着色斑leonine facies 狮面leontiasis 狮面lepidoma 鳞状瘤lepra 麻风leprology 麻风学leproma 麻风结节leprosarium 麻风病院leprosary 麻风病院leprosy 麻风leptocyte 靶细胞leptomeninges 柔脑膜leptomeningitis 柔脑膜炎leptophonia 声弱leptosomic type 瘦长型leptospira 钩端螺旋体leptospirosis 钩端螺旋体病leptotrichosis 纤毛菌病lesbianism 女子同性恋lesion 损伤lesser circulation 肺循环lesser gastric curvature 胃小弯lesser omentum 小网膜lethal dose 致死量lethal gene 致死基因lethal mutation 致死突变lethality 致死率lethality rate 致死率lethargic encephalitis 埃科诺莫病lethargus 非洲昏睡病lethargy 嗜睡;嗜睡症lethe 记忆缺失leucocyte antibody 白细胞抗体leucocyte casts 白细胞圆柱leukasmus 白斑leukemia 白血病leukemia cell 白血病细胞leukemia cell antigen 白血病细胞抗原leukemia virus 白血病病毒leukemic reticulosis 白血病性网性细胞增多leukemic retinitis 白血病性视网膜炎leukoblast 成白细胞leukocyte 白细胞leukocyte migration inhibitory factor 白细胞游走抑制因子leukocyte transfusion 白细胞输血法leukocytemia 白血病leukocytic sarcoma 白血病性肉瘤leukocytolysis 白细胞溶解leukocytosis 白细胞增多leukoderma 白斑病leukodermia 白斑病leukodystrophy 脑白质营养不良leukoencephalitis 脑白质炎leukoencephalopathy 脑白质病leukogram 白细胞像leukokeratosis 白斑角化症leukoma 角膜白斑leukonychia 白甲病leukopedesis 白细胞渗出leukopenia 白细胞减少leukophlegmasia 股白肿leukoplakia 粘膜白斑病leukoplasia 粘膜白斑病leukopoiesis 白细胞生成leukorrhagia 白带过多leukosarcoma 白血病性肉瘤leukotaxis 白细胞球性leukotomy 脑白质切断术leukotoxin 白细胞毒素leukotrichia 白发病levigating agent 研和剂levocardiogram 左心室心电图levogyration 左旋leydig cell tumor 莱迪希细胞瘤li 1 商阳li 10 手三里li 11 曲池li 12 肘li 13 手五里li 14 臂li 16 巨骨li 17 天鼎li 18 扶突li 19 口禾li 2 二间li 20 迎香li 3 三间li 5 阳溪li 6 偏历li 7 温溜li 8 下廉li 9 上廉li 手阳皿肠经li kou 蠡沟li tuei 历兑li4 合谷liang men 梁门libido 性欲lice infestation 虱病lichen 苔癣lichen albus 苔藓病lichenification 苔癣化lichenoid 苔癣样的lid 睑lienculus 副脾lienogram 脾 x 线片lienography 脾造影术lientery 消化不良性腹泻life 生活life history 生活历life span 寿命life time 寿命ligament 韧带ligamentitis 韧带炎ligamentopexis 圆韧带固定术ligamentopexy 圆韧带固定术ligation 结扎ligature 结扎线ligature carrier 结扎器ligature furrow 结扎沟light adaptation 光适应light bath 日光浴light chain 轻链light coagulation 光凝固light diet 清淡饮食light microscope 光学显微镜light sense 光觉light sensitivity 光感受性light therapy 光线疗法lightning stroke 光射病lilliputian hallucination 小人口幻觉limb 肢lime water 石炭水limited surgery 有限外科limnemia 疟疾恶液质limophthisis 饥饿性虚损limotherapy 饥饿疗法limp 跛行lin chi 临泣line 线ling t'ai 灵台ling tao 灵道lingua 舌lingual bone 舌骨lingual gyrus 舌回lingual tonsil 舌扁桃体lingula 舌状体lingulectomy 肺小舌切除术linguopapillitis 舌乳头炎liniment 擦剂linitis 胃蜂窝织炎linitis plastica 皮革状胃linkage 连锁linoleic acid 亚油酸linolenic acid 亚麻酸lip 唇liparodyspnea 肥胖性呼吸困难lipectomy 脂肪切除术lipemia 脂血lipid 脂类lipide 脂类lipidosis 类脂沉积lipoarthritis 关节脂肪组织炎lipoatrophy 脂肪萎缩lipoblast 成脂细胞lipoblastoma 成脂细胞瘤lipocele 脂肪疝lipocere 尸蜡lipochrome 脂肪色素lipocyte 脂细胞lipodieresis 脂肪分解lipodystrophy 脂肪营养不良lipofibroma 脂肪纤维瘤lipogenesis 脂肪生成lipogranuloma 脂肪肉芽肿lipogranulomatosis 脂肪肉芽肿病lipohemia 脂血lipoid 类脂物lipoid thesaurismosis 类脂沉积lipoidemia 脂血lipolysis 脂肪分解lipoma 脂瘤lipomeria 缺肢lipomyxoma 粘液脂瘤lipopenia 脂肪减少lipopexia 脂肪蓄积lipophagia 噬脂lipophore 黄色素细胞liposarcoma 脂肉瘤lipothymia 晕厥lipotrophy 肥胖lipotropic factor 抗脂肪肝因子lipotropism 亲脂性lipotropy 亲脂性lipuria 脂肪尿liquefaction 液化liquefactive necrosis 液化性坏死liquid 液体的liquid extract 液态浸膏liquid medicine 药液liquorice root 甘草liquorrhea 液溢lisping s 发音困难listerellosis 李斯特菌病listeriosis 李斯特菌病lithate 尿酸盐lithemia 尿酸血症lithiasis 结石病lithicosis 肺尘埃沉着lithocystotomy 膀胱切石术lithogenesis 结石形成lithokelyphos 胎膜石化litholapaxia 碎石洗出术litholapaxy 碎石洗出术litholysis 结石溶解lithomyl 膀胱碎石器lithonephria 肾石病lithopedion 胎儿石化lithotomy 切石术lithotripsy 碎石术lithotriptor 碎石器lithotriptoscopy 膀胱镜碎石术lithotrite 碎石器lithotrity 碎石术lithuria 尿酸尿litigiousness 好讼litmus 石蕊litter 担架littin 蜂素little toe 小趾littritis 尿道腺炎live birth 活产livedo 大理石色皮liver 肝liver biopsy 肝活组织检查liver blotch 褐黄斑liver cell 肝细胞liver cirrhosis 肝硬变liver damage 肝损伤liver fibrosis 肝纤维症liver fluke 肝吸虫liver function test 肝功能检查liver lobule 肝小叶liver meridian 足厥阴肝经liver parenchyma 肝实质liver transplantation 肝移植lividity 绀living organism 活体living vaccine 活疫苗livor 绀loaiasis 罗阿丝虫病lobar pneumonia 大叶性肺炎lobe 叶lobectomy 叶切除术lobelia 路贝利草lobitis 叶炎lobocyte 分叶核白细胞lobotomy 白质切断术lobular atelectasis 小叶性肺膨胀不全lobular pneumonia 小叶肺炎lobule 小叶local anemia 局部缺血local anesthesia 局部麻醉local anesthetic 局部麻醉剂local asphyxia 局部缺血local hemostatic 局部止血药local immunity 局部免疫local potential 局部电位local radiotherapy 局部放射疗法localization 局部化localized ileus 局限性肠梗阻lochia 恶露lochiometra 子宫积恶露lochioperitonitis 产褥性腹膜炎lochiopyra 产褥热lochiostasis 子宫积恶露lockjaw 强直locomotor apparatus 运动器locomotor ataxy 运动性运动失调locomotorium 运动器locus ruber 红核loeschiasis 阿米巴病loevit cell 成红细胞logaditis 巩膜炎logagnosia 语言不能logamnesia 感觉性失语logaphasia 表达性失语症logasthenia 言语理解困难logoclonia 言语痉挛logomania 多言癖logoneurosis 言语障碍性神经病logopathy 中枢性言语障碍logopedia 言语矫治学logorrhea 多言症logospasm 痉语logotherapy 言语疗法loimology 传染病学loin 腰long chain 长链long neuron 轴索long sight 远视long standing dislocation 长期顽固性脱位long term prognosis 诊后病历longevity 长寿longitudinal muscle 纵肌longitudinal section 纵长切开loop 襻loop suture 环缝术loose body 关节鼠lordoscoliosis 脊柱前侧凸lordosis 脊柱前凸lotion 洗剂lotion base 洗剂基质lou ku 漏谷louse 虱lousicide 灭虱剂low frequency current therapy 低频率电疗法low jaw 颏low section cesarean 子宫底剖腹产术low temperature disinfection 低温消毒法lower jaw bone 下颌骨lower limb 下肢loxia 斜颈loxotomy 斜切断术lr 1 大敦lr 10 足五里lr 11 阴廉lr 12 急脉lr 13 章门lr 14 期门lr 2 行间lr 3 太冲lr 4 中封lr 5 蠡沟lr 6 中都lr 7 膝关lr 8 曲泉lr 9 阴包lr 足厥阴肝经lu 1 中府lu 10 鱼际lu 11 少商lu 2 云门lu 3 天府lu 4 侠白lu 5 尺泽lu 6 孔最lu 7 列缺lu 9 太渊lu 手太阴肺经lu hsi 颅息lucidification 澄清lucotherapy 光线疗法lues 梅毒lugol's solution 复方碘溶液lumbago 腰痛lumbalization 腰椎化lumbar puncture 腰椎穿剌lumbar region 腰部lumbar vertebra 腰椎lumbus 腰lumen 腔管luminescent bacteria 发光菌lunate bone 月状骨lunatic asylum 精神病院lung 肺lung asbestosis 石绵肺lung biopsy 肺活组织检查lung cancer 肺癌lung capacity 肺活量lung field 肺野lung fluke 肺吸虫lung fluke disease 肺吸虫病lung gangrene 肺坏疽lung marking 肺斑纹lung meridian 手太阴肺经lung parameter tracking 肺参数的追踪lung transplantation 肺移植lung volume 肺活量lunula 甲半月lupinosis 山豆中毒lupoid 狼疮状的lupoid hepatitis 狼疮状肝炎lupoid ulcer 狼疮状溃疡lupoma 狼疮结节luteinization 黄体化luteinizing hormone 黄体化激素luteoma 黄体瘤luxation 脱位lying position 卧位lymph 淋巴lymph cell 淋巴细胞lymph corpuscle 淋巴细胞lymph follicle 淋巴滤泡lymph node 淋巴结lymph tube 淋巴管lymphadenectomy 淋巴结切除术lymphadenitis 淋巴结炎lymphadenocyst 淋巴结囊肿lymphadenogram 淋巴结造影照片lymphadenography 淋巴结造影术lymphadenoid 淋巴结样的lymphadenomatosis 淋巴瘤病lymphadenopathy 淋巴结病lymphadenosis 淋巴组织增生lymphadenovenous anastomosis 淋巴结静脉吻合术lymphangeitis 淋巴管炎lymphangiectasia 淋巴管扩张lymphangiectomy 淋巴管切除术lymphangioendothelioma 淋巴管内皮瘤lymphangiography 淋巴管造影术lymphangiology 淋巴管学lymphangioma 淋巴管瘤lymphangiophlebitis 淋巴管静脉炎lymphangioplasty 淋巴管成形术lymphangiosarcoma 淋巴管肉瘤lymphangiotomy 淋巴管切开术lymphangitis 淋巴管炎lymphatic channel 淋巴道lymphatic sarcoma 淋巴肉瘤lymphatic system 淋巴系统lymphatic temperament 粘液质lymphatic tuberculosis 淋巴结核lymphatic venous anastomosis 淋巴管静脉吻合术lymphatic vessel 淋巴管lymphatism 淋巴体质lymphatitis 淋巴系炎lymphedema 淋巴水肿lymphenteritis 肠浆膜炎lymphepithelioma 淋巴上皮瘤lymphnoditis 淋巴结炎lymphoblast 成淋巴细胞lymphoblastoma 成淋巴细胞瘤lymphoblastosis 成淋巴细胞增多lymphocele 淋巴囊肿lymphocyst 淋巴囊肿lymphocyte 淋巴细胞lymphocyte series 淋巴细胞系lymphocytic choriomeningitis 淋巴细胞性脉络丛脑膜炎lymphoglandula 淋巴结lymphogranulomatosis 淋巴肉芽肿病lymphography 淋巴系造影术lymphoid cell 淋巴样细胞lymphoid leukemia 淋巴性白血病lymphoid ring 淋巴性咽环lymphoid tissue 淋巴样组织lymphokinesis 淋巴循环lymphology 淋巴学lymphoma 淋巴瘤lymphomatosis 淋巴瘤病lymphopathy 淋巴病lymphopenia 淋巴细胞减少lymphoplasty 淋巴管成形术lymphopoiesis 淋巴细胞生成lymphorrhea 淋巴溢lymphosarcoma 淋巴肉瘤lymphostasis 淋巴郁滞lymphotomy 淋巴解剖学lymphtology 淋巴学lyophilization 低压冻干法lysate 溶解产物lysinuria 赖氨酸尿lysis 溶解lysogen 溶原性菌lysogenic bacterium 溶原性菌lysogenicity 致溶解性lysogeny 致溶解性lysosome 溶酶体lyssa 狂犬病lyssa virus 狂犬病病毒lyssin 狂犬病病毒。
杜拉米肯72-200抗生素说明书
030519Tel800-821-5570|Fax816-224-3080|***************100mL bottle, 12/case UPC # 7-45801-10552-2250mL bottle, 12/case UPC # 7-45801-10554-6500mL bottle, 12 /caseUPC # 7-45801-10555-3• Approved for lactating dairy cattle • Versatile, broad spectrum antibiotic• Effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Treats respiratory diseases, pinkeye, scours, and other bacterial infections.• Approved for sub-Q administration• Ready-to-use: no refrigeration or shaking required.• Concentrated formulation reduces injection sites and labor time when treating animals.• Duramycin 72-200 is the GENERIC EQUIVALENT to LA-200®.- Same formulation and quality as the pioneer product.- Generic alternative offers major cost savings and a choice for livestockproducers.Beef Cattle, Dairy Cattle, Calves - including pre-ruminating (veal) calves, SwineDuramycin 72-200 (oxytetracycline) is a sterile, preconstituted solution of the broad-spectrum antibiotic oxytetracycline. Each mL contains 200 mg of oxytetracycline base as amphoteric oxytetracycline, and on a w/v basis, 40.0% 2-pyrrolidone, 5.0% povidone, 1.8% magnesium oxide, 0.2% sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate (as a preservative), monoetha -nolamine and/or hydrochloric acid as required to adjust pH.Oxytetracycline 200mg/mL AntibioticLA 200 is a registered trademark of Pfizer, Inc.Duramycin 72-200 Oxytetracycline Injection 200 (mg/mL)ANADA 200-306, approved by FDAANTIBIOTICEach mL contains 200 mg of oxytetracycline baseas amphoteric oxytetracycline.For use in beef cattle; dairy cattle; calves,including preruminating (veal) calves; and swine.For animal use only.Read Entire Package Insert Carefully Before Using This Product.Duramycin 72-200 (oxytetracycline injection) is a sterile, ready-to-use solution for the administration of the broad-spectrum antibiotic oxytetracycline by injection.Duramycin 72-200 does not require refrigeration; however, it is recommended that it be stored at room temperature, 15°-30°C (59°-86°F). The antibiotic activity of oxytetracycline is not appreciably diminished in the presence of body fluids, serum, or exudates.CAUTION: When administered to cattle, muscle discoloration may necessitate trimming of the injection site(s) and surrounding tissues during the dressing procedure.WARNING:Discontinue treatment at least 28 days prior to slaughter of cattleand swine. Milk taken from animals during treatment and for 96hours after the last treatment must not be used for food. PRECAUTIONS:Exceeding the highest recommended level of drug per lb of body weight per day, administering more than the recommended number of treatments, and/or exceeding 10 mL intramuscularly or subcutaneously per injection site in adult beef and dairy cattle, and 5 mL intramuscularly per injection site in adult swine, may result in antibiotic residues beyond the withdrawal period.Reactions of an allergic or anaphylactic nature, sometimes fatal, have been known to occur in hypersensitive animals following the injection of oxytetracycline. Such adverse reactions can be characterized by signs such as restlessness, erection of hair, muscle trembling; swelling of eyelids, ears, muzzle, anus, and vulva (or scrotum and sheath in males); labored breathing, defecation and urination, glassy-eyed appearance, eruption of skin plaques, frothing from the mouth, and prostration. Pregnant animals that recover may subsequently abort. At the first sign of any adverse reaction, discontinue use of this product and administer epinephrine at the recommended dosage levels. Call a veterinarian immediately.Shock may be observed following intravenous administration, especially where highly concentrated materials are involved. To minimize this occurrence, it is recommended that Duramycin 72-200 be administered slowly by this route.Shortly after injection, treated animals may have transient hemoglobinuria resulting in darkened urine.As with all antibiotic preparations, use of this drug may result in overgrowth of nonsusceptible organisms, including fungi. A lack of response by the treated animals, or the development of new signs, may suggest that an overgrowth of nonsusceptible organisms has occurred. If any of these conditions occur, consult your veterinarian.Since bacteriostatic drugs may interfere with the bactericidal action of penicillin, it is advisable to avoid giving Duramycin 72-200 in conjunction with penicillin.STORAGE: Store at room temperature 15°-30°C (59°-86°F).Keep from freezing.CARE OF SICK ANIMALS: The use of antibiotics in the management of diseases is based on an accurate diagnosis and an adequate course of treatment. When properly used in the treatment of diseases caused byoxytetracycline-susceptible organisms, most animals that have beentreated with Duramycin 72-200 show a noticeable improvement within24-48 hours. It is recommended that the diagnosis and treatment of animaldiseases be carried out by a veterinarian. Since many diseases look alikebut require different types of treatment, the use of professional veterinaryand laboratory services can reduce treatment time, costs and needlesslosses. Good housing, sanitation, and nutrition are important in themaintenance of healthy animals, and are essential in the treatment ofdiseased animals.INDICATIONS:Duramycin 72-200 is intended for use in treatment of the following diseasesin beef cattle; dairy cattle; calves, including preruminating (veal) calves;and swine when due to oxytetracycline-susceptible organisms:Cattle: Duramycin 72-200 is indicated in the treatment of pneumonia andshipping fever complex associated with Pasteurella spp., and Hamophilusspp., infectious bovine keratoconjuctivitis (pink eye) caused by Moraxellabovis; foot rot and diphtheria caused by Fusobacterium necrophorum;bacterial enteritis (scours) caused by Escherichia coli; wooden tonguecaused by Actinobacillus lignieresii; leptospirosis caused by Leptospirapomona: and wound infections and acute metritis caused by strains ofstaphylococci and streptococci organisms sensitive to oxytetracycline.Swine: Duramycin 72-200 is indicated in the treatment of bacterial enteritis(scours, colibacillosis) caused by Escherichia coli; pneumonia caused byPasteurella multocida; and leptospirosis caused by Leptospira pomona.In sows, Duramycin 72-200 is indicated as an aid in control of infectiousenteritis (baby pig scours, colibacillosis) in suckling pigs caused byEscherichia coli.DOSAGE:Cattle: Duramycin 72-200 is to be administered by intramuscular,subcutaneous, or intravenous injection to beef cattle; dairy cattle;and calves, including preruminating (veal) calves.A single dosage of 9 mg of Duramycin 72-200 per lb of body weightadministered intramuscularly or subcutaneously is recommended in thetreatment of the following conditions:(1) bacterial pneumonia caused by Pasteurella spp., (shipping fever) incalves and yearlings, where retreatment is impractical due to husbandryconditions, such as cattle on range, or where repeated restraint isinadvisable.(2) infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (pink eye) caused by Moraxellabovis.Duramycin 72-200 can also be administered by intravenous, subcutaneous,or intramuscular injection at a level of 3-5 mg of oxytetracycline per lb ofbody weight per day. In the treatment of severe foot rot and advanced casesof other indicated diseases, a dosage level of 5 mg/lb of body weight perday is recommended. Treatment should be continued 24-48 hours followingremission of disease signs; however, not to exceed a total of 4 consecutivedays. Consult your veterinarian if improvement is not noted within 24-48hours of the beginning of treatment.Swine: In swine a single dosage of 9 mg of Duramycin 72-200 per lb ofbody weight administered intramuscularly is recommended in the treatmentof bacterial pneumonia caused by Pasteurella multocida in swine, wherere-treatment is impractical due to husbandry conditions or where repeatedrestraint is inadvisable.Duramycin 72-200 can also be administered by intramuscular injection ata level of 3-5 mg of oxytetracycline per lb of body weight per day. Treatmentshould be continued 24-48 hours following remission of disease signs;however, not to exceed a total of 4 consecutive days. Consult yourveterinarian if improvement is not noted within 24-48 hours of the beginningof treatment.For sows, administer once intramuscularly 3 mg of oxytetracycline per lbof body weight approximately 8 hours before farrowing or immediately aftercompletion of farrowing.For swine weighing 25 lb of body weight and under, Duramycin 72-200should be administered undiluted for treatment at 9 mg/lb but should beadministered diluted for treatment at 3 or 5 mg/lb.Tel800-821-5570|Fax816-224-3080|***************9 mg/lb Dosage 3 or 5 mg/lb DosageVolume of Undiluted Volume of DilutedDuramycin 72-200 Duramycin 72-200Body weight 9 mg/lb 3 mg/lb Dilution* 5 mg/lb5 lb 0.2 mL 0.6 mL 1:7 1.0 mL10 lb 0.5 mL 0.9 mL 1:5 1.5 mL25 lb 1.1 mL 1.5 mL 1:3 2.5 mL* To prepare dilutions, add one part of Duramycin 72-200 to 3, 5 or 7 parts of sterile water, or 5% dextrose solution as indicated; the diluted product should be used immediately.DIRECTIONS FOR USE:Duramycin 72-200 is intended for use in the treatment of disease due to oxytetracycline-susceptible organisms in beef cattle; dairy cattle; calves; including preruminating (veal) calves; and swine. A thoroughly cleaned, sterile needle and syringe should be used for each injection (needles and syringes may be sterilized by boiling in water for 15 minutes). In cold weather, Duramycin 72-200 should be warmed to room temperature before administration to animals. Before withdrawing the solution from the bottle, disinfect the rubber cap on the bottle with suitable disinfectant, such as 70% alcohol. The injection site should be similarly cleaned with the disinfectant. Needles of 16-18 gauge and 1-1½ inches long are adequate for intramuscular and subcutaneous injections. Needles of 2-3 inches in length are recommended for intravenous use.Intramuscular Administration:Intramuscular injections should be made by directing the needle of suitable gauge and length into the fleshy part of a thick muscle such as in the rump, hip, or thigh regions; avoid blood vessels and major nerves. Before injecting the solution, pull back gently on the plunger. If blood appears in the syringe, a blood vessel has been entered; withdraw the needle and select a different site. No more than 10 mL should be injected intramuscularly at any one site in adult beef and dairy cattle, and not more than 5 mL per site in adult swine; rotate injection sites for each succeeding treatment. The volume administered per injection site should be reduced according to age and body size so that 1-2 mL per site is injected in small calves. Subcutaneous Administration:Subcutaneous injections in beef cattle, dairy cattle, and calves, including preruminating (veal) calves, should be made by directing the needle of suitable gauge and length through the loose folds of the neck skin in front of the shoulder. Care should be taken to ensure that the tip of the needle has penetrated the skin but is not lodged in muscle. Before injecting the solution, pull back gently on the plunger. If blood appears in the syringe, a blood vessel has been entered; withdraw the needle and select a different site. The solution should be injected slowly into the area between the skin and muscles. No more than 10 mL should be injected subcutaneously at any one site in adult beef and dairy cattle; rotate injection sites for each succeeding treatment. The volume administered per injection site should be reduced according to age and body size so that 1-2 mL per site is injected in small calves.Intravenous Administration:Duramycin 72-200 may be administered intravenously to beef and dairy cattle. As with all highly concentrated materials, Duramycin 72-200 should be administered slowly by the intravenous route.Preparation of the Animal for Injection:1. Approximate the location of vein. The jugular vein runs in the jugular groove on each side of the neck from the angle of the jaw to just above the brisket and slightly above and to the side of the windpipe (see Fig. l).2. Restraint. A stanchion or chute is ideal for restraining the animal. With a halter, rope, or cattle leader (nose tongs), pull the animal’s head around the side of the stanchion, cattle chute, or post in such a manner to form a bow in the neck (see Fig. ll), then snub the head securely to prevent movement. By forming the bow in the neck, the outside curvature of the bow tends to expose the jugular vein and make it easily accessible. Caution: Avoid restraining the animal with a tight rope or halter around the throat or upper neck which might impede blood flow. Animals that are down present no problem so far as restraint is concerned.3. Clip hair in area where injection is to be made (over the vein in the upper third of the neck). Clean and disinfect the skin with alcohol or other suitable antiseptic.Entering the Vein and Making the Injection:1. Raise the vein. This is accomplished by tying the choke rope tightlyaround the neck close to the shoulder. The rope should be tied in such away that it will not come loose and so that it can be untied quickly by pullingthe loose end (see Fig. ll). In thick-necked animals, a block of wood placedin the jugular groove between the rope and the hide will help considerablyin applying the desired pressure at the right point. The vein is a soft flexibletube through which blood flows back to the heart. Under ordinary conditionsit cannot be seen or felt with the fingers. When the flow of blood is blockedat the base of the neck by the choke rope, the vein becomes enlarged andrigid because of the back pressure. If the choke rope is sufficiently tight,the vein stands out and can be easily seen and felt in thin-necked animals.As a further check in identifying the vein, tap it with the fingers in front ofthe choke rope. Pulsations that can be seen or felt with the fingers in frontof the point being tapped will confirm the fact that the vein is properlydistended. It is impossible to put the needle into the vein unless it isdistended. Experienced operators are able to raise the vein simply by handpressure, but the use of a choke rope is more certain.2. Inserting the needle. This involves three distinct steps. First, insert theneedle through the hide. Second, insert the needle into the vein. This mayrequire two or three attempts before the vein is entered.The vein has a tendency to roll away from the point of the needle, especiallyif the needle is not sharp. The vein can be steadied with the thumb andfinger of one hand. With the other hand, the needle point is placed directlyover the vein, slanting it so that its direction is along the length of the vein,either toward the head or toward the heart. Properly positioned this way, aquick thrust of the needle will be followed by a spurt of blood through theneedle, which indicates that the vein has been entered. Third, once in thevein, the needle should be inserted along the length of the vein all the wayto the hub, exercising caution to see that the needle does not penetrate theopposite side of the vein. Continuous steady flow of blood through theneedle indicates that the needle is still in the vein. If blood does not flowcontinuously, the needle is out of the vein (or clogged) and another attemptmust be made. If difficulty is encountered, it may be advisable to use thevein on the other side of the neck.3. While the needle is being placed in proper position in the vein, anassistant should get the medication ready so that the injection can bestarted without delay after the vein has been entered.4. Making the injection. With the needle in position as indicated bycontinuous flow of blood, release the choke rope by a quick pull on the freeend. This is essential - the medication cannot flow into the vein while it isblocked. Immediately connect the syringe containing Duramycin 72-200(oxytetracycline injection) to the needle and slowly depress the plunger. Ifthere is resistance to depression of the plunger, this indicates that theneedle has slipped out of the vein (or is clogged) and the procedure willhave to be repeated. Watch for any swelling under the skin near the needle,which would indicate that the medication is not going into the vein. Shouldthis occur, it is best to try the vein on the opposite side of the neck.5. Removing the needle. When injection is complete, remove needle withstraight pull. Then apply pressure over area of injection momentarily tocontrol any bleeding through needle puncture, using cotton soaked inalcohol or other suitable antiseptic.Not for Human Use. Restricted Drug (California).Use Only as Directed.MANUFACTURED FOR:DURVET INC.Blue Springs, Missouri 64014MADE IN THE UK025215I03Figure l Figure llJUGULAR GROOVETel800-821-5570|Fax816-224-3080|***************。
传染病的诊断标准(2015)
人感染H7N9禽流感(2014版)
③实验室主要检查1）.血常规。白细胞总数一般不高 或降低。重症患者多有白细胞总数及淋巴细胞减少， 可有血小板降低。2）.血生化检查。多有肌酸激酶、 乳酸脱氢酶、天门冬氨酸氨基转移酶、丙氨酸氨基转 移酶升高，C反应蛋白升高，肌红蛋白可升高。3）. 病原学及相关检测。核酸检测阳性；甲型流感病毒抗 原检测阳性；病毒分离阳性动态检测急性期和恢复期 双份血清H7N9禽流感病毒特异性抗体水平呈4倍或以 上升高。
2.2.3.1。 2.2.4.2 临床诊断病例：具备2.2.4.1＋2.2.2
中任何一项。 2.2.4.3 确诊病例：具备2.2.4.2＋2.2.3.2。
猩红热鉴别诊断
麻疹 病初有明显的上呼吸道卡他症状，第3～ 4病日出疹，疹型与猩红热不同，皮疹之间有 正常皮肤，面部发疹。颊内粘膜斑及白细胞计 数减少为重要区别。
流行性感冒的鉴别诊断
钩端螺旋体病：钩端螺旋体病(leptospirosis，简称钩体病)是由
各种不同型别的致病性钩端螺旋体(Leptospira，简称钩体)所引 起的一种急性全身性感染性疾病，属自然疫源性疾病。鼠类和猪 是两大主要传染源。临床特点为起病急骤，早期有高热、全身酸 痛、软弱无力、结膜充血、腓肠肌压痛、表浅淋巴结肿大等钩体 毒血症状;中期可伴有肺出血、肺弥漫性出血、心肌炎、溶血性 贫血、黄疸、全身出血倾向、肾炎、脑膜炎、呼吸功能衰竭、心 力衰竭等靶器官损害表现;晚期多数病例恢复，少数病例可出现 后发热、眼葡萄膜炎以及脑动脉闭塞性炎症等多与感染后的变态 反应有关的后发症。
农场牛品种分类和牛常见病英语词汇
Bovine 牛的；牛科动物Bull 公牛Ox 牛；公牛Cow 母牛Calf 犊牛Feeder cattle 架子牛；育肥母牛Yak 牦牛Dairy cattle 奶牛American-brown bovine 美国褐牛Ayrshire cattle 爱尔夏牛Chinese Holstein cattle 中国黑白花奶牛Guernsey 更赛牛；（格恩西奶牛）Holstein-Friesian 菏斯坦黑白花奶牛Jersey cattle 娟姗牛Red-White Dairy Cattle 红白花奶牛Switzerland brown cattle 瑞士褐牛Beef cattle 肉牛Angus cattle安格斯牛Charolais cattle 夏洛来牛Droughtermaster 抗旱王肉牛Hereford cattle 海福特牛Limousin cattle 利穆赞牛Dual-purpose cattle 乳肉兼用牛Chinese red steppe 中国草原红牛Danish red cattle 丹麦红牛Sanhe cattle 三河牛Simmental 西门塔尔牛Buffalo 水牛Dechang buffalo 德昌水牛Murrah buffalo 摩拉水牛Niliravi buffalo 尼里拉菲水牛Chinese cattle 中国牛Bohai black cattle 渤海黑牛Jinnan cattle 晋南牛Luxi cattle 鲁西牛Mongolian cattle 蒙古牛Nanyang cattle 南阳牛Qinchuan cattle 秦川牛Yanbian yellow cattle 延边黄牛Abomasum accumulation 皱胃积食Anthropozoonosis 人畜共患传染病Atony of forestomach 前胃弛缓Babesiasis （巴倍）焦虫病Bovine anaplasmosis 牛边虫病Anaplasma marginale 牛边缘边虫；牛边缘无形体；牛边缘无浆体Bovine anemia 牛贫血Rickettsia 立克次氏体Bovine respiratory disease 牛呼吸系统病Mannheimia haemolytica 溶血性曼氏杆菌；溶血性曼海姆菌Pasteurella multocida 多杀性巴氏杆菌；多杀性巴斯德菌Lethargy haemophilus 昏睡嗜血杆菌Bovine mycoplasma 牛支原体Bovine colibacillosis 牛大肠杆菌病Escherichia coli 埃希氏大肠杆菌Bovine diphtheria 牛白喉Corynebacterium diphtheriae 白喉杆菌Bovine FMD (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) 牛口蹄疫Brucellosis 普鲁士菌病；布氏杆菌病Brucella melitensis 羊布鲁氏杆菌Clostridium septicum 败毒梭菌Clostridium perfringens 产气荚膜梭菌Clostridium Welchii 魏氏梭菌Cow mastitis 奶牛乳房炎Cow hoof disease 奶牛蹄病Cow endometritis 奶牛子宫内膜炎Cow tuberculosis 奶牛结核病Esophageal obstruction 食道阻塞Gastroenteritis 胃肠炎Impaction of rumen 瘤胃积食Impaction oznasum 瓣胃阻塞Leptospirosis 钩端螺旋体病；细螺旋体病Leptospira 钩端螺旋体（属）；细螺旋体（属）Neonatal meningitis 新生儿脑膜炎Streptococcus agalactiae 无乳链球菌Pasteurella pneumonia 巴氏杆菌肺炎；巴斯德菌肺炎Pasteurella hemolytica 溶血性巴氏杆菌Rumen acidosis 瘤胃酸中毒Ruminal tympany 瘤胃臌气Sudden death syndrome 牛猝死症Traumatic reticulitis 创伤性网胃炎；（创伤性蜂窝胃炎）Urea poisoning 尿素中毒。
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ReviewLeptospiraandleptospirosis
BenAdlera,*,AlejandrodelaPen˜aMoctezumabaAustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinStructuralandFunctionalMicrobialGenomics,MonashUniversity,Clayton,Australia
bDepartamentodeMicrobiologı´aeInmunologı´a,FacultaddeMedicinaVeterinariayZootecnia,UniversidadNacionalAuto´nomadeMe´xico,
Coyoaca´n04510,Mexico
Contents1.Leptospiratheorganism...............................................................................2872.Leptospirosisthedisease..............................................................................2883.Leptospirosisthezoonosis.............................................................................2894.Genomicsandmolecularbiology.......................................................................2905.Pathogenesis.......................................................................................2916.Immunityandvaccines...............................................................................2927.Diagnosisandtypingofisolates........................................................................2948.Conclusions........................................................................................295References.........................................................................................295
1.LeptospiratheorganismLeptospiresarespirochetes,about0.1mmindiameterby6–20mminlengthandincludebothsaprophyticandpathogenicspeciescomprisingthegenusLeptospira,whichbelongstothefamilyLeptospiraceae,orderSpirochaetales(Faineetal.,1999).Atthe2007meetingofthe
VeterinaryMicrobiology140(2010)287–296ARTICLEINFOArticlehistory:Received8October2008Receivedinrevisedform18November2008Accepted2March2009Keywords:LeptospiraLeptospirosisABSTRACTLeptospirosisisthemostwidespreadzoonosisworldwide;itispresentinallcontinentsexceptAntarcticaandevidenceforthecarriageofLeptospirahasbeenfoundinvirtuallyallmammalianspeciesexamined.Humansmostcommonlybecomeinfectedthroughoccupational,recreational,ordomesticcontactwiththeurineofcarrieranimals,eitherdirectlyorviacontaminatedwaterorsoil.Leptospiresarethin,helicalbacteriaclassifiedintoatleast12pathogenicand4saprophyticspecies,withmorethan250pathogenicserovars.Immunityfollowinginfectionisgenerally,butnotexclusively,mediatedbyantibodyagainstleptospiralLPSandrestrictedtoantigenicallyrelatedserovars.Vaccinescurrentlyavailableconsistofkilledwholecellbacterinswhichareusedwidelyinanimals,butlesssoinhumans.Currentworkwithrecombinantproteinantigensshowspromiseforthedevelopmentofvaccinesbasedondefinedprotectiveantigens.Thecellularandmolecularbasisforvirulenceremainspoorlyunderstood,butcomparativegenomicsofpathogenicandsaprophyticspeciessuggeststhatLeptospiraexpressesuniquevirulencedeterminants.However,therecentdevelopmentofdefinedmutagenesissystemsforLeptospiraheraldsthepotentialforgainingamuchimprovedunderstandingofpathogenesisinleptospirosis.ß2009ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.
*Correspondingauthor.E-mailaddress:ben.adler@med.monash.edu.au(B.Adler).
ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirectVeterinaryMicrobiology
journalhomepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/vetmic
0378-1135/$–seefrontmatterß2009ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.03.012SubcommitteeontheTaxonomyofLeptospiraceaeheldinQuito,Ecuador,itwasdecidedtogivethestatusofspeciestothepreviouslydescribedgenomospecies1,3,4and5,resultinginafamilycomprising13pathogenicLeptospiraspecies:L.alexanderi,L.alstonii(genomospecies1),L.borgpetersenii,L.inadai,L.interrogans,L.fainei,L.kirschneri,L.licerasiae,L.noguchi,L.santarosai,L.terpstrae(genomos-pecies3),L.weilii,L.wolffii,withmorethan260serovars.Itisexpectedthatadditionalnewspeciesexist.SaprophyticspeciesofLeptospiraincludeL.biflexa,L.meyeri,L.yanagawae(genomospecies5),L.kmetyi,L.vanthielii(genomospecies4),andL.wolbachii,andcontainmorethan60serovars.Ontheotherhand,theserovarclassificationofLeptospiraisbasedontheexpressionofthesurface-exposedepitopesinamosaicofthelipopo-lysaccharide(LPS)antigens,whilethespecificityofepitopesdependsontheirsugarcompositionandorienta-tion.Leptospireshavedistinctivehookedends,(Fig.1).Twoperiplasmicflagellawithpolarinsertionsarelocatedintheperiplasmicspaceandareresponsibleformotility;theFlaAandFlaBproteinsconstitutetheflagellarsheathandcorerespectively.ElectronmicroscopyshowedaflaBmutanttobedeficientinendoflagellaandnon-motile(Picardeauetal.,2001).
Leptospireshaveatypicaldoublemembranestructureinwhichthecytoplasmicmembraneandpeptidoglycancellwallarecloselyassociatedandareoverlaidbyanoutermembrane(Cullenetal.,2004).Withintheoutermembrane,theLPSconstitutesthemainantigenforLeptospira.ItisstructurallyandimmunologicallysimilartoLPSfromGramnegativeorganisms.Nevertheless,itisrelativelynon-toxictocellsoranimals,beingasmuchas12timeslesslethalformicewhencomparedwithE.coliLPS(Faineetal.,1999).LeptospiralLipidAcontainssomeunusualfeatures(Que-Gewirthetal.,2004),includingamodifiedglucosaminedisaccharideunitwhichisphos-phorylatedandmethylated.InadditiontoLPS,structuralandfunctionalproteinsformpartoftheleptospiraloutermembrane.Alargeproportionofsuchproteinsarelipoproteinswithrelativeabundanceonthecellsurface:LipL32>LipL21>LipL41(Cullenetal.,2005).IntegralmembraneproteinssuchastheporinOmpL1(Shangetal.,1995)andthetypetwosecretionsystem(T2SS)secretinGspD(Rodrı´guezReyesetal.,2005),arealsolocatedintheoutermembraneofLeptospiraandhavebeenshowntobeantigenic.Leptospiresareobligateaerobeswithanoptimumgrowthtemperatureof28–308C.TheygrowinsimplemediaenrichedwithvitaminsB1andB12,long-chainfattyacids,andammoniumsalts.Long-chainfattyacidsareutilizedasthesolecarbonsourceandaremetabolizedbyb-oxidation(Faineetal.,1999).Growthofleptospiresin