An Overview of Roman Britain
托福阅读TPO19（试题+答案+...
托福阅读TPO19(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TheRomanArmy'sImpactonBritain托福TPO是托福备考小伙伴们最重要的参考资料，并且这个是在备考时候一定要认真多多练习，托福TPO是非常重要的希望大家一定要重视起来，小编为广大的托福考生整理了托福阅读TPO19(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:The Roman Army's Impact on Britain，下面就来跟小编一起来看下面精彩内容吧!托福阅读原文【1】In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government.【2】 Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. Some of these were certainlybrought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. When not campaigning, soldiers needed to be occupied; otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas.【3】 Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. Some of the demand for the services and goods was no doubt fulfilled by people drawn from far afield, but some local people certainly became entwined in this new economy. There was informal marriage with soldiers, who until AD 197 were not legally entitled to wed, and whole new communities grew up near the forts. These settlements acted like small towns, becoming centers for the artisan and trading populations.【4】The army also provided a mean of personal advancement for auxiliary soldiers recruited from the native peoples, as a man obtained hereditary Roman citizenship on retirement after service in an auxiliary regiment. Such units recruited on an ad hoc (as needed) basis from the area in which they were stationed, and there was evidently large-scale recruitment within Britain. The total numbers were at least 12,500 men up to the reign of the emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), witha peak around A.D. 80. Although a small proportion of the total population, this perhaps had a massive local impact when a large proportion of the young men were removed from an area. Newly raised regiments were normally transferred to another province from whence it was unlikely that individual recruits would ever return. Most units raised in Britain went elsewhere on the European continent, although one is recorded in Morocco. The reverse process brought young men to Britain, where many continued to live after their 20 to 25 years of service, and this added to the cosmopolitan Roman character of the frontier population. By the later Roman period, frontier garrisons (groups of soldiers) were only rarely transferred, service in units became effectively hereditary, and forts were no longer populated or maintained at full strength.【5】 This process of settling in as a community over several generations, combined with local recruitment, presumably accounts for the apparent stability of the British northern frontier in the later Roman period. It also explains why some of the forts continued in occupation long after Rome ceased to have any formal authority in Britain, at the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The circumstances that had allowed natives to become Romanized also led the self-sustaining military community of the frontier area to become effectively British.托福阅读试题1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 1? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Many Roman soldiers remained in Britain after conquering it, and their presence had a strong influence.B.The new Roman province of Britain seemed to awaken in the first century A.D. as the local economy improved.C.Camps, fortifications, and economic change contributed to the Roman conquest of Britain.D.With the conquest of Britain by Roman troops, the Roman Empire gained considerable economic strength.2. According to paragraph 1, the Roman army had the most influence on those areas of Britain that wereA.conquered first.B.near population centers.ed as military bases.D.rapidly incorporated into the empire.3. According to paragraph 1, what effect did military occupation have on the local population?A.It encouraged more even distribution of the population and the settlement of previously undeveloped territory.B.It created discontent and made continuing military occupation necessary.C.It required local labor to construct forts and feed and exercise the soldiers’ animals.D.It provided local leaders with opportunities to participate in governance.4. The word “suppress” in the passage (paragraph 1) is closest in meaning toA.respond to.B.warn against.C.avoid the impact of.D.stop by force.5. The word “friction” in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning toA.rebellion.B.conflict.C.neglect.D.crime.6. The author mentions “343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead”in paragraph 2 in order toA.describe the kinds of tasks soldiers were required to perform as punishment for disloyalty or misdeeds.B.illustrate some of the duties assigned to soldiers to keep them busy and well-behaved when not involved in military campaigns.C.provide evidence that Roman soldiers had a negative effect on the local area by performing jobs that had been performed by native workers.D.argue that the soldiers would have been better employed in the construction of infrastructure such as roads.7. The phrase “entitled to” in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning toA.given the right to.B.able to afford to.C.encouraged to.D.required to.8. According to paragraph 3, how did the soldiers meet their needs for goods and services?A.Their needs were met by the army, and all of their economic transactions took place within the fort.B.Most of their needs were met by traveling tradespeople who visit the forts.C.During their days off, soldiers traveled to distant towns tomake purchases.D.They bought what they needed from the artisans and traders in nearby towns.9. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of Britain’s auxiliary regiments of the Roman army?A.Membership in these regiments reached its highest point during the region of the emperor Hadrian.B.Most of the units recruited in Britain were sent to Morocco and other stations outside Europe.C.Soldiers served in the regiments for many years and after retirement generally stayed where they had been stationed.D.Most of the regiments stationed on the frontier were new units transferred from a neighboring province.10. According to paragraph 4, all of the following changes could be seen in the frontier garrisons by the later Roman period EXCEPT:A.Membership in the units passed from father to son.B.Fewer soldiers were stationed at the forts.C.Soldiers usually were not transferred to different locations.D.Frontier units became more effective and proficient.11. Why does the author mention that “some of the forts continued in occupation long after Rome ceased to have any formal authority in Britain”in paragraph 5 ?A.To emphasize the degree to which the stability of the British northern frontier depended on firm military control.B.To suggest that the Romans continued to occupy Britain even after they had formally given up the right to do so.C.To support the claim that forts continued to serve an import economic function even after they ceased to be of any military use.D.To describe one of the things that resulted from frontier garrisons’ becoming part of the local community over a long period.12. The word “circumstances” in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning toA.experiences.munities.C.conditions.ws.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? One solution was to keep them busy as sources of labor.Paragraph 2: Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. ■【A】Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably pla ced on the local area. ■【B】 Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. ■【C】When not campaigning, soldiers needed to be occupied; otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. ■【D】 Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summaryof the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentence do not belong to the summary because they express ideas that are no presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Th e Roman army’s occupation of Britain influenced and changed the local population.A.Although the presence of the army in certain areas caused resentment among the local population, it provided important services such as building infrastructure.B.By recruiting unemployed young men for its auxiliary units, the army made it possible for them to stay in their home towns and provide financial support for their families.rge quantities of cash from soldiers’ pay stimulated development, but also drove up prices, making it hard for local residents to afford goods and services.D.Though the army appropriated land and some goods, it also paid for many supplies, stimulating local economic growth.E.The forts contributed to the quality of local crafts by bringing in artisans from distant places who brought with them new skills and techniques.F.Roman soldiers started families with local inhabitants, and over the generations, the military community became a stable part of British society.托福阅读答案1.原文in的部分是非主要成分，结构是军队呆在blabla，并且有影响，所以答案是A。
英语作文英国历史
英语作文英国历史The history of Britain is a rich and complex one,from ancient Roman rule,through Germanic invasions and conquests,to the modern state of global engagement. The history of Britain dates back to the time of Roman rule,when it was known as Britain.In407AD,with the decline of the Western Roman Empire,Germanic people such as the Saxons,Angles and Jutes began to settle in Britain,and over the next150years,several kingdoms were established in England,a period known as the Seven Kingdoms.Medieval English history has seen a number of dynasty changes,including the Norman Conquest and later the Angevin Dynasty.The Norman Conquest is the conquest of England by William,Duke of Normandy in1066,an event that marked the beginning of English medieval history.The Angevin Dynasty was founded by Henry II, who acquired territories in England,Normandy and Ireland through inheritance and marriage,laying thefoundation for the later British Empire.Modern Britain began with the establishment of the Tudor Dynasty,during which Britain began to step out of the Middle Ages and ushered in the era of maritime discovery and industrial revolution.During this period,Britain actively participated in world affairs, maintained its international status,and used the NATO collective defense force to defend the security of Europe and the United Kingdom.The history of modern Britain begins in the20th century, a period in which the country experienced two world wars and played an important role in the post-war world order. Not only has the UK strengthened its ties with the Commonwealth countries to protect its extensive overseas interests,it has also flexed its soft power in the political,economic and cultural spheres. Overall,Britain's history is one that spans thousands of years,from ancient tribes to modern states,and from maritime empires to modern industrial societies.Britain's rich historical heritage is not only the foundation of its own cultural identity,but has also contributed to many important chapters in world history.翻译：英国的历史是一段丰富多彩且复杂的历史，它从古代罗马统治时期开始，历经日耳曼人的入侵与征服，再到参与全球事务的现代国家。
BBC英国史
BBC英国史第01章：Beginnings 起源英语字幕文本：From its earliest days, Britain was an object of desire.Tacitus declared it "pretium victoriae" - worth the conquest, the best compliment that could occur to a Roman.He had never visited these shores but was nonetheless convinced that Britannia was rich in gold. Silver was abundant too.Apparently so were pearls, though Tacitus had heard they were grey, like the overcast, rain-heavy skies, and the natives only collected them when cast up on the shore.As far as the Roman historians were concerned, Britannia may be off at the edge of the world, but it was off the edge of their world, not in a barbarian wilderness.If those writers had been able to travel in time as well as space to the northernmost of our islands, the Orcades - our modern Orkney - they would have seen something much more astonishing than pearls: Signs of a civilisation thousands of years older than Rome.There are remains of Stone Age life all over Britain and Ireland.But nowhere as abundantly as Orkney, with its mounds, graves and its great circles of standing stones like here at Brodgar.Vast, imposing and utterly unknowable.Orkney has another Neolithic site, even more impressive than Brodgar, the last thing you would expect from the Stone Age, a shockingly familiar glimpse of ancient domestic life.Perched on the western coast of Orkney's main island, a village called Skara Brae.Beneath an area no bigger than the 18th green of a golf course lies Europe's most complete Neolithic community, preserved for 5,000 years under a blanket of sand and grass until uncovered in 1850 by a ferocious sea storm.This is a recognisable village.Neatly fitted into its landscape between pasture and sea, intimate, domestic and self-sufficient. Technically still the Stone Age and Neolithic period, these are not huts, they're true houses, built from sandstone slabs that lie all around the island and gave stout protection to villagers at Skara Brae, from their biting Orcadian winds.They were real neighbours, living cheek by jowl, their houses connected by walled, sometimes decorated alleyways.It is easy to imagine gossip travelling down those alleys after a hearty seafood supper.We have everything you could want from a village except a church and a pub.In 3,000 BC, the sea and air were little warmer than they are now.Once they'd settled in their sandstone houses, they could harvest red bream and mussels and oysters that were abundant in the shallows.Cattle gave meat and milk and dogs were kept for hunting and for company.In Neolithic times there would have been a dozen houses, half-dug into the ground for comfort and safety.A thriving, bustling little community of 50 or 60.The real miracle of Skara Brae is that these houses were not mere shelters.They were built by people who had culture, who had style.Here's where they showed off that style.A fully equipped, all-purpose Neolithic living room, complete with luxuries and necessities. Necessities?Well, at the centre, a hearth, around which they warmed themselves and cooked.A stone tank in which to keep live fish bait.Some houses had drains underneath them, so they must have had, believe it or not, indoor toilets. Luxuries?The orthopaedically correct stone bed may not seem particularly luxurious, but the addition of heather and straw would have softened the sleeping surface and would have made this bed seem rather snug.At the centre of it all was this spectacular dresser on which our house-proud villagers would set out all their most precious stuff.Fine bone and ivory necklaces, beautifully carved stone objects, everything designed to make a grand interior statement.Given the rudimentary nature of their tools, it would have taken countless man hours to build not only these dwellings but the great circles of stone where they would have gathered to worship.Skara Brae wasn't just an isolated settlement of fishers and farmers.Its people must have belonged to some larger society, one sophisticated enough to mobilise the army of toilers and craftsmen needed, not just to make these monuments, but to stand them on end.They were just as concerned about housing the dead as the living.The mausoleum at Maes Howe, a couple of miles from Skara Brae, seems no more than a swelling on the grassy landscape.This is, as it were, a British pyramid and in keeping with our taste for understatement, it reserves all its impact for the interior.Imagine them open once more.A detail from a village given the job of pulling back the stone seals, lugging the body through the low opening in the earth.Up 36 feet of narrow, tight-fitting passageway, lit only once a year by the rays of the winter solstice.A death canal, constriction, smelling of the underworld.Finally the passageway opens up to this stupendous, high-vaulted masonry chamber.Some tombs would have been elaborately decorated with carvings in the form of circles or spirals, like waves or the breeze-pushed clouds.Others would have had neat stone stores or cubicles where the bodies would be laid out on shelves.The grandest tombs had openings cut in the wall, to create side chambers where the most important bodies could be laid out in aristocratic spaciousness like family vaults in a country church. Unlike medieval knights, these grandees were buried with eagles and dogs, or even treasure.The kind of thing the Vikings who broke into these tombs thousands of years later were quick to filch.In return, these early tomb raiders left their own legacy.These wonderful graffiti.These runes were carved by the most skilled rune carver in the western ocean.I bedded Thorny here.Ingegirth is one horny bitch. As for the Orcadian hoi polloi, they ranked space in a common chamber, on a floor carpeted with the bones of hundreds of their predecessors.A crowded waiting room to their afterworld.For centuries, life at Skara Brae must have continued in much the same way.Around 2,500 BC, the climate seems to have got colder and wetter.The red bream and stable environment the Orcadians had enjoyed for countless generations disappeared.Fields were abandoned, the farmers and fishers migrated, leaving their stone buildings and tombs to be covered by layers of peat, drifting sand and finally grass.The mainland too, of course, had its burial chambers, like the long barrow at West Kennet.There were also the great stone circles, the largest at Avebury.But the most spectacular of all at Stonehenge.By 1,000 BC, things were changing fast.All over the British landscape, a protracted struggle for good land was taking place.Forests were cleared so that Iron Age Britain was not, as was romantically imagined, an unbroken forest kingdom stretching from Cornwall to Inverness.It was rather a patchwork of open fields, dotted here and there with copses giving cover for game, especially wild pigs.And it was a crowded island.We now think that as many people lived on this land as during the reign of Elizabeth 1, 2,500 years later.Some archaeologists believe that almost as much land was being farmed in the Iron Age as in 1914.So it's no surprise to see one spectacular difference from the little world of Skara Brae.Great windowless towers.They were built in the centuries before the Roman invasions, when population pressure was most intense and farmers had growing need of protection, first from the elements, but later from each other.Many of those towers still survive but none are as daunting as the great stockade on Arran, off Ireland's west coast.They didn't just spring up around the edges of the British islands.All over the mainland too, the great hill forts of the Iron Age remain visible in terraced contours such as at Danebury and Maiden Castle.Lofty seats of power for the tribal chiefs, they were defended by rings of earthworks, timber palisades and ramparts.Behind those daunting walls was not a world in panicky retreat.The Iron Age Britain into which the Romans eventually crashed with such alarming force was a dynamic, expanding society.From their workshops came the spectacular metalwork with which the elite decorated their bodies. Armlets, pins, brooches and ornamental shields like this, the so-called Battersea Shield.Or the astonishing stylised bronze horses, endearingly melancholy in expression, like so many Eeyores resigned to a bad day in battle.With tribal manufacture came trade.The warriors, druid priests and artists of Iron Age Britain shipped their wares all over Europe, trading with the expanding Roman Empire.In return, with no home-grown grapes or olives, Mediterranean wine and oil arrived in large earthenware jars.Iron Age Britain was not the back of beyond.Its tribes may have led lives separated from each other by custom and language, and they may have had no great capital city but together they added up to something in the world, the bustling of countless productive, energetic beehives.What the bees made was not honey, but gold.The Romans would have known about this strange but alluring world of fat cattle and busy forges. Evidence of its refinement would have found its way to Rome.Along with the glittering metal ware came stories of alarming cults, which may have prompted the usual Roman dinner time discussions."All very interesting, I daresay, "but would we really want to call them a civilisation?"Supposing they would have seen an ancient sculpture, like this haunting stone face with its archaic secretive smile, the eyes closed as if in a mysterious devotional trance.The nose flattened, the cheeks broad, the whole thing so spellbindingly reminiscent of things the Romans must have seen in Etruria or the Greek islands.Would they then have said, "Yes, this is a work of art"? Probably not.Sooner or later they would have noticed that the top of the head is sliced off, scooped out, like a boiled egg, to hold sacrificial offerings.Then they would have remembered stories that Rome told about the grisly brutality of the druids. Perhaps they would have even taken note of the stories told by the northern savages themselves, of decapitated heads who were said to speak mournfully to those who had parted them from the rest of their body, warning of vengeance to come.Then they would have thought, "Perhaps not."Perhaps we don't want to have much to do with an island of talking heads."So why did the Romans come here, to the edge of the world, and run the gauntlet of all these ominous totems?There was the lure of treasure, of course, all the pearls that Tacitus believed lay around Britain in heaps.Even more seductive was what Roman generals craved the most, the prestige given to those who pacified the barbarian frontier.And so, in the written annals of Western history, the islands now had not only a name, Britannia, but a date.In 55 BC Julius Caesar launched his galleys across the Channel.Julius Caesar must have supposed that all he had to do was land his legions in force and the Britons, cowed by the spectacle of the glittering helmets and eagle standards, would simply queue up to surrender.They'd understand that history always fought on the side of Rome.The trouble was, geography didn't.Not once but twice, Julius Caesar's plans were sabotaged by that perennial secret weapon of the British, the weather.On the first go round in 55 BC, a cavalry transport that had already missed the high tide and got itself four days late, finally got going only to run directly into a storm and be blown right back to Gaul.A century later, Claudius, the club-foot stammerer, on the face of it, the most unlikely conqueror of all, was determined to get it right.If it was going to be done at all, Claudius reckoned, it had to be done in such massive force that there was no chance of repeating the embarrassments of Julius.Claudius's invasion force was immense, some 40,000 troops.The kind of army that could barely be conceived of, much less encountered in Iron Age Britain. Claudius did succeed where Julius Caesar had failed, through a brilliant strategy of carrot and stick. He would seize the largely undefended oppida or towns and strike at the heart of British aristocracy, its places of status, prestige and worship.For the chieftains sensible enough to reach for the olive branch rather than the battle javelin, Claudius had another plan.Give them, or rather their sons, a trip to Rome, a taste of the dolce vita, and watch their resistance melt.While in Rome, many must have begun to notice that life for your average patrician was exceptionally sweet.Before long they began to hunger for a taste of it themselves.If there were sumptuous country villas amidst the olive groves of the Roman countryside, why could there not be equally sumptuous country villas amidst the pear orchards of the South Downs?Just fall in line, be a little reasonable, some judicious supports here and there and see what results - the spectacular palace at Fishbourne.The man who built it was Togidubnus, king of the Regnenses in what would be Sussex, and one of the quickest to sign up as Rome's local ally.He was rewarded with enough wealth to build himself something fit for a Roman.Only the extraordinary mosaic floors survive but it was as big as four football pitches, grand enough for someone who now gloried in the name of Tiberius Claudius Cogidumnus.He couldn't have been the only British chief to realise on which side his bread was buttered.All over Britain were rulers who thought a Roman connection would do more good than harm in their pursuit of power and status.The person we usually think of as embodying British national resistance to Rome, Queen Boudicca of the East Anglian tribe of the Iceni, actually came from a family of happy, even eager collaborators.It only took a policy of incredible stupidity, arrogance and brutality on the part of the local Roman governor to turn her from a warm supporter of Rome to its most dangerous enemy.In a show of brutal arrogance, the local governor had East Anglia declared a slave province.To make the point about who exactly owned whom, Boudicca was treated to a public flogging while her two daughters were raped in front of her.In 60 AD, Boudicca rose up in furious revolt, quickly gathering an army bent on vengeance.With the cream of the Roman troops tied down suppressing an insurgency in north Wales, Boudicca's army marched towards the place which symbolised the now-hated Roman colonisation of Britain, Colchester.It helped that it was lightly garrisoned.After a firestorm march through eastern England, burning Roman settlements one by one, it was the city's turn.The frightened Roman colonists had to fall back to the one place they were sure they were going to be protected by their emperor and their gods - the great temple of Claudius.If the terrified Romans thought they were going to escape the implacable anger of Boudicca, they were seriously out of luck.With thousands of them huddled terrified in the temple above these foundations, she began to set light to it.They must have been able to smell the scorch and smoke and fire coming towards them, as their new imperial city burned with themselves and everything else buried in smoke and ash. Thousands died in this place.Boudicca had her revenge.But her triumph couldn't last.The lightly-defended civilians of Colchester were one thing but now she would have to face a disciplined Roman army, fully prepared for all she could throw at them.Sure enough, when the two forces met, her swollen and unwieldy army was no match for the legions.Her great insurrection ended in a gory chaotic slaughter.(SHOUTS AND CRIES) Boudicca took her own life rather than fall into the hands of the Romans.Lessons had been learned the hard way, at least for some.When barbarians started attacking Roman forts in the north, the Romans knew exactly what to do. On 79 AD, an enormous pitched battle took place on the slopes of an unidentified Highland mountain, which Tacitus calls Mons Graupius.The result was another slaughter, but not before the Caledonian general, Calgacus, delivered the first great anti-imperialist speech on Scotland's soil.Here at the world's end, on its last inch of liberty, we have lived unmolested to this day defended by our remoteness and obscurity. But there are no other tribes to come, nothing but sea and cliffs and these more deadly Romans whose arrogance you cannot escape by obedience and self-restraint, These things they misname empire, they make a desolation and they call it peace.Of course, Calgacus never said any such thing.This was a speech written long after the event by Tacitus and it's entirely Roman, not Scottish.Yet this burning sentiment would echo down the generations.Like Britannia itself, the idea of free Caledonia was from the first, a Roman invention.There was one emperor, Spanish by birth, who understood that even the world's biggest empire needed to know its limits.He of course was destined, in Britain at any rate, to be remembered by a wall.When we think of Hadrian's Wall, we think of the Romans rather like US cavalrymen deep in Indian country, defending the flag, peering through the cracks and waiting nervously for war drums and smoke signals.A place where paranoia sweated from every stone.It wasn't really like that at all.As ambitious as this was, stretching 73 miles from coast to coast from the Solway to the Tyne, and though he probably conceived it in response to a rebellion on the part of the people the Romans loftily referred to as Brittunculi - wretched little Brits - almost certainly, he didn't mean it as anThe wall was studded with milecastles and turrets and forts like this one at Housesteads.But as Britain settled down in the second century AD, these places became up-country hill stations more like social centres and business centres than really grim, heavily-manned barracks.These forts were not to prevent people going to and fro so much as to control and observe them. The forts in particular, became a place where a kind of customs scam was imposed on those trying to do business on one side or the other.It 's better to think of the wall not so much as a fence but rather a spine around which control of northern Britain toughened, hardened and prospered.If we can imagine Hadrian's Wall as not such a bad posting, it's because our sense of what life was like at the time has been transformed by one of the most astonishing finds of recent archaeology -the so-called Vindolanda Tablets.They're scraps of Roman correspondence, jottings, scribblings and drafts of letters thrown away as rubbish by their authors almost 2,000 years ago.For 25 years, archaeologists have been digging up these letters, 1,300 of them, from seven metres below the ground.Up they've come, lovingly separated from dirt, debris and each other and painstakingly deciphered. At once poignantly fragile and miraculously enduring, the voices of the Roman frontier in the windy North Country, loud, clear and strong.From Masculus to Tribune Serianus. Greeting. Please instruct as to what you want us to do tomorrow. Are we all to return with the standard or only half of us?My troops have no beer. Please order some to be sent. I sent you two pairs of socks and sandals, and two pairs of underpants. Greet Elpus Tetricus and your messmates, with whom I pray you get on. He beat me and threatened to pour my goods down the drain.I implore your mercifulness not to allow me, an innocent from overseas, to be beaten by rods as if a criminal.I warmly invite you to my birthday party on the third day before the Ides of September.Please come, as it will be so much more enjoyable if you were here.A world of garrisons and barracks had now become a society in its own right.From the middle of the second century, it makes sense to talk about a Romano-British culture, and not just as a colonial veneer imposed on the resentful natives, but as a genuine fusion.Nowhere was this clearer than here in Bath.Bath was the quintessential Romano-British place.At once mod con and mysterious cult, therapy and luxury, a marvel of hydraulic engineering and a showy theatre of the waters of healing.The spa was an extravaganza of buildings constructed over a spring that gushed a third of a million gallons of hot water into the baths every day.When you soaked in a bath, you washed your body and your soul, ablution and devotion at the same time.Much of the bathing, the flirting, the gossip and the deal making went on in this austerely grandiose Great Bath.The spiritual heart of the place was the sacred spring - a ferny grotto where water collected and where the devotees of the presiding goddess, Sulis Minerva, could look through a window at the altar erected in her honour and occasionally could throw gift offerings in her way.Bath was not the only place where Romano-Britons could wallow in the well-being of the province.In Dover, the Romans built this 96-bedroom hotel, now 20 feet below street level but the last word in luxury for any VIP disembarking from Gaul.By the fourth century, however, Rome was in deep trouble, attacked by barbarians and undermined by political turmoil.Britannia couldn't remain detached from the fate of the rest of the empire forever.At some point, Dover's significance for Britannia changed from a port of entry to a defensive stronghold.The "Welcome" mat gave way to the "Keep Out" sign, in the shape of massive walls, built through the Grand Hotel's lobby.This is the sort of wall the Romans built at Dover.This is Portchester, a Roman shore fort, a truly colossal structure that makes all too clear the scale of threat the Romans felt the barbarians posed.Inside it lies a Norman castle, built 1,000 years later and now completely dwarfed by it.It was one of several forts strung out along the south and east coasts.Not even fortifications like those of Portchester or Hadrian's Wall in the north, could work without adequate troops.As more and more legionaries were sucked back to fight on the continent, and as Picts and Saxons, spotting weakness, started their own raids from the north and east, Britannia couldn't help but feel the chill of vulnerability.When, in the year 410, Alaric the Goth sacked Rome and the last two legions departed to prop up the tottering empire, that chill developed into an acute anxiety attack.This was one of the genuinely fateful moments in British history, the legions departing.It wasn't like Hong Kong in 1997, no flags flying or pipers piping.The Governor wasn't driving around his courtyard seven times pledging to return.Doubtless, many of the Romano-British did hope and expect to see the eagles back.The tax collectors, magistrates, town councillors, poets, potters, musicians and the newly-Christian priests all said to themselves, "Well, this couldn't go on forever."We couldn't always look to Mother Rome, and she is half-infested with barbarians."We can handle this."We've got the Saxon shore forts."We can hire barbarians to deal with the other barbarians.We can handle this."We CAN handle this." For the less confident, there was only one thing to do: Bury their treasure and head for the hills...planning, as refugees always do, to return when the worst was over and dig it all up again.In the case of this particular hoard of 15,000 coins, gems, medals, and this exquisite silver tigress, they never did.It was instead discovered in 1992 at Hoxne in Suffolk and is now kept in the British Museum. Some sort of force was badly needed to stop the barbarians in the north and west from exploiting the vacuum of power left by the exit of the legions.At first, the warriors from north Germany and Denmark, sailing up-river in their wave horses, seemed a boon, not a curse.When one local despot, Vortigern, naively imagined he could use the imported barbarians as his own military muscle but neglected to pay them as per the contract, he made one of the more spectacular blunders in British history.Furious at being stiffed, the Saxons turned on the local population they'd been hired to defend. After burning and pillaging, they took land in lieu of pay, settling down amidst the understandably dismayed native population.Dismayed, but not, I think, terrified.Though the earliest chroniclers of the coming of the Saxons thought of Vortigern's faux pas as heralding a sort of final apocalypse, no one had turned the lights out on Roman Britannia and declared the Dark Ages to have begun.The long process by which Roman Britannia morphed into the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms was gradual not sudden, an adaptation, not an annihilation.For a long time the Saxons were a tiny minority, numbered in hundreds rather than thousands, and lived in an overwhelmingly Romano-British population.As different as these cultures were, they were still neighbours.The vast majority tried and succeeded to live a sort of Roman life.Here at Wroxeter, Shropshire, the Roman Veraconium, there's wonderful evidence of this make-do, hybrid, improvised world poised between Roman ruins and Anglo-Saxon beginnings.When the bath house stopped functioning, the citizens took the tiles and used them for paving.When the roof of the great basilica threatened to fall in, the citizens went and demolished the building themselves.Inside the shell they put up a new timber structure spacious and elegant enough to give them the sense they were still living some sort of Roman lifestyle, although in an increasingly phantom Britannia.Eventually the adaptations became ever more makeshift, the fabric of Roman life increasingly threadbare, until it did indeed fall apart altogether.The island was now divided into three utterly different realms.The remains of Britannia hung on in the west.North of the abandoned walls and forts the Scottish tribes for the most part, stayed pagan.England, the realm of the Anglo-Saxons and Jutes, was planted in the east, all the way from Kent to the kingdom of Bernicia in Northumbria.The Saxon chiefs often built their settlements on the ruined remains of old Roman British towns, not least of course London.Like many invaders, they hankered after what they had destroyed.The showier pieces of their armour often bear startling resemblances to Roman armour and their leaders aspired to be something more than war chiefs.They wanted to be known as "dux", a Roman duke.In one crucial respect, the Germanic tribal societies were utterly different from the Romans.Theirs was a culture based on the blood feud and punishment by ordeal.An entire social system, its plunder was the glue of loyalty.The Saxons were no more immune to change than the Romans before them.To look at the relics recovered from Sutton Hoo burial site is to be teased by a powerful question: Did the Saxon lord buried here find his resting place in a pagan Valhalla or in a Christian Paradise? The history of the conversions between the sixth and eighth centuries is another crucial turning point in the history of the British Isles.But while the legions had long gone, the shadow of Rome fell once again on these islands.。
英国概况Unit 1
英美文化与国家概况British and American Studies ( British Part )Unit One大学英语第一教研室余非编2013年2月Unit 1 The Country and the People Contents:1.Geographic Features2.People and Religion3.Official and Local Languages------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1. Geographic Features1.1Component （组成部分）✧To the west and off the European Continent, several thousand of islands exist on theContinental Shelf. They are generally called the British Isles（不列颠群岛）.✧Of all these isles, the largest one is called Great Britain（大不列颠；英国）. For the sake ofconvenience, Great Britain is often shorten to Britain.✧The island of Great Britain runs nearly 1,000 kilometers from south to north . It extends , atthe widest part, about 500 kilometers from west to east.✧Still to the west of Great Britain is Ireland , the second largest island. It is politically dividedinto two parts, the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.✧The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国)is made up of Great Britain, Northern Ireland and a number of smaller islands around them.The total area of U.K. is over 245,000 square kilometers. Its total population is about60.94million (2008)Traditionally, Great Britain is divided into three countries or political regions:✧England in the south✧Scotland in the north✧Wales in the southwest.England :✧The largest area of all the three✧Its area : almost 60% of the whole island✧Its population : over 50 million .✧The importance of Engla nd is so great in Britain that some foreigners just say “England”when they mean Britain, and they say the “English people” when they mean the British people.Scotland :✧The second largest both in area and population✧Its area : about 78,760 square kilometers✧Its population : more than 5 million.Wales✧The smallest of the three both in area and population✧Its area : about 20,700 square kilometers✧Its population : about 2.7 million.Northern Ireland✧Its area : about 14,000 square kilometers✧Its population : about 1.5 million.Supplement 1Ireland✧Ireland was an independent kingdom before the Anglo-Norman（盎格鲁-诺曼语的）invaders came. Henry VIII（亨利八世）was the first English king to conquer Ireland and force English law on the Irish people. Soon after the conquest, large numbers of Scottish immigrants came in and established a colony in Ulster (阿尔斯特), another name for Northern Ireland.✧The Irish people were mostly Roman Catholics （罗马天主教）and they were opposed to theEnglish occupation. The English Government put down the rebellion made by the Irish people and passed the Penal Law (刑法) in 1690, which deprived the Irish Catholics of all their legal rights.✧Irish people never stopped fighting for independence. Their successful struggle finally led tothe establishment of the Republic of Ireland in 1927 within British Commonwealth（英联邦.In 1948 Ireland withdraw from Commonwealth and declared itself a republic.✧However, since most of the immigrants from Britain were Protestants (新教徒) , theyrefused to separate themselves form their home country. They held the northeast of the island , and up to now they continue to keep it within the United Kingdom. It is today’ s Northern Ireland.Supplement 2Irish Republican Army ( IRA)✧Nowadays, in Northern Ireland there are one-third of people are still Roman Catholics ,whodemand independence from Britain that is dominated by Protestantism (新教徒主义、新教徒).✧Therefore, some radical Roman Catholics organized a military group fighting for theindependence of Northern Ireland. It often resorts to terrorist campaigns （战役；活动）of bombing, murdering and arson.1.2 Physical Features（自然特色）✧Leaving Ireland on one side, The island of Great Britain can be divided into two partsaccording to its geographic features:1) The Highland Zone in the north and west and2) The Lowland Zone in the south and southeast.✧Britain is an island country, with its coastline running about 8,000 kilometers.✧The coastline is highly irregular with many bays and inlets that provide lots of harbors andshelters for ship and boats.✧As an island country, Great Britain does not share a land border with any other countriesexcept the Republic of Ireland.✧To the north of Great Britain the seaway is open and leads to the Arctic Ocean(北冰洋).✧Across the North Sea Britain faces such countries as Holland, Germany , Denmark andNorway.✧To the southeast and across the English Channel is France , which is linked with Britain by atunnel called the Channel Tunnel (海峡隧道)，open to traffic in 1994, was built by Britishand French private investors. The main tunnel is 50-km long at an average depth of 40 meters below the seabed.✧The tunnel has great symbolic importance as an unbroken link between Britain and theEuropean Continent.The Highlands of Scotland:✧Scotland is a mountainous country , with its highlands taking up over half of the country. BenNevis, the highest mountain in Britain, with an elevation of 1,300 meters in North Scotland. The Central Lowlands of Scotland:✧ A great valley , which forms the Central Lowlands of Scotland , is lying to the south of theHighlands of Scotland, the valley is also called the Middle Valley. It is the most important economic region in Scotland and accommodates three-quarters of Scotland’s total population.✧The Southern Uplands: The land on the southern side of the Central Lowlands of Scotland isknown as the Southern Upland. The area includes some very old mountains with round tops. The Pennines (奔宁山脉)：✧In the northern part of England, include some old mountains which make up a kind of plateau.Pennine Chains run about 120 kilometers from south to north , known as the backbone of England.The Lake District:✧Well-known for its unique lakes, is situated on the western side of the Pennines. The area hasthe finest scenery in Britain. It is also well-known in the history of English literature because it was home to Lake Poets (湖畔[派]诗人)，such as William Wordsworth (华兹华斯)；Robert Southey(罗伯特.骚塞_ .The Welsh Massif:✧This massif embraces all the hill masses that near to the west of middle part of England.2.People and Religion2.1 People✧The United Kingdom has a population of 60.94 million (2008), with an average populationdensity of 244 persons per sq km.✧British’s population is overwhelmingly urban, with about 90% living in urban areas and 10%living in rural areas.✧Like U.S.A, the United Kingdom is also a melting-pot of different cultures. It has a diversepopulation that includes people from almost every continent of the world , such as Indians, Chinese and Africans, but a majority of them are white westerns.✧Immigrants from India make up 1.5% of the population; Chinese, 0.3%; and Africans, 0.03%.✧Asian and black minorities are still suffering from discrimination and disadvantages.✧However, the British government has passed laws to ensure fairness and justice for ethnicminorities. The Race Relations Act of 1976 makes it illegal to discriminate against any person because of race, color, nationality, or origin, and it is a criminal offense to incite racial hatred.Ethnic component of white people in Britain :①English people : originate from the descendents of English-speaking Anglo-Saxonsand the Jutes(朱特人), who arrived in Britain as invaders between the 5th and 7thcenturies A.D.②Scottish and Welsh people: Most of them originate from Celts ---The first settlers wholived on this land, but later driven to the North and West by later arrivers.③French-speaking Normans: conquered England in 1066, adding another ethniccomponent to the nation.✧The U.K. has a smaller percentage of younger people and a higher percentage of older people,with more than 20% of the people over the age of 60; those under the age of 15 years make up only 19.5 of the population.✧Life expectancy in Britain is 75 years for men and 81 years for women. (2001)2.2 Religion✧The British law protects religious freedom. Everyone has the freedom to believe any church,or not to believe any religion at all. Most of the world’s religi ons have followers in Britain.✧The majority of the British people believe in Christianity., which is the religion of thefollowers of Jesus Christ. The first Christian church was established at Canterbury (坎特伯雷，英格兰东南部一座自治市)。
中世纪英国文学史
Early and Medieval Period (600 B.C—AD1485)1. Background1.1. Social Events1.1.1.The earliest settlers of the British Isles (600 B.C.---55 B.C.) ---The Britons不列颠人were a tribe of the Celts凯尔特人, who came to settle on the British Isles in about 600 BC. From the name ―Briton‖came such words as ―Britain‖, ―British‖and ―Britannica‖ today.1.1.2 The Roman Rule (55 B.C.---A.D.410)--- In 55 BC Julius Caesar led a Roman army to invade Britain. Being a primitive people the Britons were easily conquered and the island became a Roman province till the Roman Empire split into the Western and the Eastern Empires in 407.1.1.3. The Anglo-Saxon盎格鲁撒克逊Period (A.D. 449---1066)---When the Western Roman Empire grew too weak to maintain substantial army to guard the British Isles the Vikings北欧海盗---pirates from Northern Europe---came to plunder. But they had no intention to settle down here. By 449 A.D. the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes from today's Denmark came to settle on the British Isles, driving the Britons away into mountainous areas. Among the three tribes the Angles were the strongest and the most numerous. From this name were derived such words as Anglicize, Anglo-, England, English (the letters ―A‖and ―E‖were later confused) etc. Originally the Anglo-Saxons were pagan peoples.1.1.4. In 597 Saint Augustine of Rome led his missionaries to come to preach in England and within 100 years the whole British Isles became a Christian nation.1.1.5. The Norman Conquest (1066—1485)---In 1066 William the conqueror, Duke of Normandy诺曼底, an independent dukedom, defeated Harold II, the last Saxon King, at Hastings, a town in southern England. Very soon the Normans conquered England. While the Normans were rulers of this country, the core of the population were still the Anglo-Saxons. Although both the rulers and the ruled shared the same religion, three languages were used simultaneously:the common people ---English (dialect)the noble rulers --- Frenchpeople in the churches and schools --- LatinNot until the 15th century when Henry IV (1399-1413) used English as his native language did the English nobles and commons shared a single language. Today most of the British people are descendants of the Anglo-Saxons while the royal family still continues its French lineage and a large number of synonyms in the modern English vocabulary consist of words of Latin and French origins.1.1.6. The One Hundred Years War百年大战(1337-1453)---In 1337 the English King Edward III who owned most of the territories of France wanted to be the French king. France and its ally Scotland fought against the English who at first won many victories but later were defeated by the French. At the end of the war England lost all her French territory except Calais. Of Shakespeare's 10 history plays seven are about or related to this war. During the war Joan of Arc 圣女贞德was a heroine on the French side. She was arrested by the English army, charged with witchcraft andburnt in 1431 by the Roman Catholic Church. About 500 years later in 1920 she was canonized被追认为圣徒.Shakespeare's history play I Henry VI describes her as a witch. However G.B. Shaw wrote about her as a saint in the play Saint Joan (1924). Mark Twain wrote a fictional biography of her as a heroine in Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc (1896).1.1.7. The Wars of the Roses玫瑰战争(1455-1485) between the house of Lancaster (red rose) and the house of York (white rose)---In 1399 the English king Richard II died without an heir. The throne was usurped by the house of Lancaster and of York alternately. Only two years after the end of the One Hundred Years' War, their conflict broke into open wars which lasted 30 years. Finally in 1485 Henry VII killed the Yorkist king Richard III. Bringing the war to an end, he founded a new dynasty known in history as the Tudor Dynasty. One of Shakespeare's history plays Richard III is concerned with this war.1.2. An Overview of Literature in this Period1.2.1. There is no extant literature of the Britons except for legends, such as The History of British Kings (published in 1136 in Latin) by Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. 1154) which records all British kings from Brut, great grandson of Aeneas, the Trojan hero and founder of Rome, who first came to found the city of London (New Troy), through King Lear, King Arthur and his 12 round table knights, down to Cadwallader (d. AD 689), the last king of the Britons. Among other legends of King Arthur the most famous are Sir Gawain and the Green Knight by an anonymous author of the 14th century and The Death of King Arthur by Thomas Malory of the 15th century.1.2.2. The Anglo-Saxons brought an epic poem Beowulf from their old home in Northern Europe, which was passed down orally into the eighth century when it entered its written form in old English. In 731 the Venerable Bede (672-735) completed his Ecclesiastical History of England英国宗教史in Latin, for which he has been regarded as father of English history. This earliest history book tells of the nation's history from Julius Caesar's invasion of Britain in 55 BC down to the author's own day. A group of short poems, written by anonymous authors, but copied in about 940 into The Exeter Book of Elegies爱塞特挽诗集, are mainly about the miseries of the Anglo-Saxons. The most famous is The Seafarer航海者, 120 lines in old English, translated into contemporary English by the American poet Ezra Pound. Although written no earlier than the 15th century, the cycle of Robin Hood stories in popular ballad form took place in the 12th century about the Saxon outlaw Robin Hood resisting the rule of the newly arrived Normans by robbing the rich to help the poor.1.2.3. Before the seventh century when England became a Christian nation, literature is mainly concerned with man's struggle against nature for survival, as is evidenced in Beowulf and The Seafarer. Since the seventh century however English literature is dominated by Christianity at least in themes. If the poems of Caedmon (fl. 670) and the mystery plays of the Middle Ages directly used ideas or stories of the Bible as raw materials, then William Langland, Geoffrey Chaucer and other medieval writerscouldn't avoid religion when they tried to represent the life of a religious people. Even such popular literature as the ballads about Robin Hood deal with such christian ideas as virtue and vice.1.2.4. Before Chaucer alliterative verse without rhyme had been the predominant poetic form. Chaucer borrowed syllable-counting rhymed lines such as rhyme royal and the heroic couplet from French poetry and used them very successfully in his poems. Since then syllable-counting rhymed lines, were popular for the next 500 years.2. Major Writers and Their Major Works2.1. Beowulf 贝奥武甫Genre: the national epic of the Anglo-SaxonsAuthorship: brought orally from Northern Europe by the Anglo-Saxons and first written down about the eighth centuryLanguage: old EnglishStructure: a prologue plus part one in 31 sections and part two in 11 sections totaling 3,182 linesSynopsis: In Part 1, the Danish king builds a hall named Heorot and makes merry with his knights every night there. Their noise reaches far into the bottom of the sea and awakens the sleep of a monster named Grendel. Grendel comes ashore to eat one knight every night. The Danish king asks Hygelac, the Geatish king for help. Hygelac sends his nephew Beowulf and 14 other knights to help. Beowulf fights with and kills Grendel. The next night Grendel's mother comes to avenge her son's death and is killed by Beowulf. And in Part 2, Hygelac and his only son Heardred are killed by the Swedish. The 20 year old Beowulf becomes the king and rules the Geats peacefully for 50 years before fighting a fire dragon and sacrificing his life for the people. The poem winds up with Beowulf's funeral.Features:The use of alliteration―Of men he was the m ildest and m ost beloved,To his K in the k indest, k eenest to praise.‖The use kennings (indirect metaphors)the sea----swan-road and whale-path,the soldier---- shield-bearer and battle-heroTheme: the primitive people's struggle against hostile forces in nature2.2. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight高文爵士与绿衣骑士Genre: a romance in alliterative verse in Middle EnglishStructure: 2,530 lines divided into four sectionsSetting: Britain in the early Anglo-Saxon periodAuthorship: an unknown author of the 14th centuryCharacters:Arthur, king of the Britons who resists against theAnglo-SaxonsSir Gawain, one of the 12 round table knights,Arthur's nephewThe Green knight, a knight in green clothes, on a green horse and with a green ax Sir Bercilak, host of the castle in the forest, the Green Knight in another form, Synopsis: Section 1:King Arthur and his 12 knights of the Round Table are at a feast celebrating Christmas. Suddenly a green knight on a green horse appears to challenge any one of them to cut off his head and to receive a return blow one year later. Sir Gawain, the king's nephew, is the only one who dares to answer the challenge and cuts off the Green Knight's head. The Green Knight picks up his head and leaves. Section 2: One year later Sir Gawain takes a journey to seek the Green knight to receive his return blow. On Christmas Eve he arrives at a Castle where the host and hostess warmly receive him. Sir Bercilak the host makes a deal with Gawain that he goes out hunting for three days while Gawain hunts inside the castle and that at each night they two will exchange exploits. Section 3: While Sir Bercilak goes hunting outside, his beautiful wife comes to seduce Gawain but he refuses and only accepts her kisses, one kiss on the first day, two kisses on the second, and on the third day the lady after giving him three kisses, shows him a magic girdle which can protect its wearer in battles. Each evening Gawain exchanges the kisses for Sir Bercilak's games. But thinking of his impending danger from the Green Knight, he keeps the magic girdle to himself. Section 4: The next morning Sir Gawain finds the Green Knight in a Green Chapel小教堂and kneels down to receive his blow. With the green ax the Green Knight feints at him twice before giving him a slight wound in the neck. Then he reveals to Gawain that he is the host of the castle in another form and that his wife tempted him in the castle only to test his chastity and that he gave Gawain a wound only because Gawain had broken the bargain by keeping the magic girdle. Gawain throws the girdle away and curses his cowardice. But Bercilak praises him, offers him the girdle again and invites him to his castle. Gawain declines and returns to tell his adventures to Arthur and the other 11 knights.Theme: praising the chastity, faithfulness and courage of a medieval knight2.3.William Langland 兰格伦(1332?-----1400?)2.3.1. His life: Langland was the son of a poor farmer in Shropshire in West England, and educated at the church. He was probably a priest of low order.低级神职人员.Later Langland lived in London for many years, earning his livelihood by writing legal documents. His only extant work is a long poem, Piers the Plowman.2.3.2. His masterpiece: Piers the Plowman农夫皮尔斯Genre: an allegorical poem寓言诗written between1367-1386Structure: two visions 梦幻containing over 7,300 linesdivided into 20 sectionsFeature: the use of alliterationsLanguage: middle English (west midland dialect)Chief characters (mostly with allegorical names):Will, the narratorHoly Church, a lovely ladyLady Meed奖赏夫人, a well dressed woman standing for briberyFalsehood虚伪，Lady Meed's first marriage candidateConscience良心, one of the king's knightsReason理性, the king's courtierPiers, a farmer, guide on the way to salvationTruth, an incarnation of HeavenSynopsis: Vision 1 (sections 1-7)---The narrator Will falls asleep on a hill and has a dream in which he sees a tower in the east (Heaven)and a dark pit (Hell) full of evil ghosts in the west. In between is a beautiful land full of people of different professions: peasants and workers work hard while all kinds of religious people lie and cheat, using religion to gain personal benefits. Of government officials the king and his knights are good but lawyers very bad. Next a lovely lady named Holy Church comes out of the tower in the east. She tells Will to seek Truth to save his soul. On his way Will sees Falsehood and Flatter together with a well dressed woman named Lady Meed who will marry Falsehood the following day. They go to London before the court. The king, hearing their coming, threatens to hang Falsehood and Flatter so that they both flee. Only Lady Meed stays and is brought to the court. The king orders Conscience, one of his knights, to marry her, but Conscience refuses on the excuse of her many faults. The king punishes Lady Meed but orders Reason and Conscience to be his counselor. Vision 2(sections 8-20)---Will wakes up but soon returns to his dream. Again he sees many people in an open field listening to Reason's preaching. Then the seven Deadly Sins---Pride傲慢, Lechery好色, Envy嫉妒, Wrath愤怒, Avarice贪婪, Gluttony饕餮and Sloth懒惰---begin to confess and repent one after another. After that a thousand men come to seek Truth but no one knows the way. Just then Piers the Plowman appears, claiming that he has been Truth's servant for 50 years, and offers to be their guide. Then he tells them he must plow his fields first. The wasters challenge Piers to fight. Piers calls for Hunger to conquer them so that they all ask for work. Meanwhile beggars and labourers curse the king for the labour law. Just then Truth sends a message to Piers, in which he pardons the king, the knights, the poor and the needy, but not lawyers, merchants, beggars and tramps. Piers tears the message into pieces and declares that he will engage himself in prayers and penitence instead of working so hard for worldly bliss.Theme: The poet satirizes all kinds of parasites in the society and believes that theonly way to Heaven is by hard and honest work.2.4. The Geste of Robin Hood罗宾汉传奇故事集printed in 1495Genre: a collection of legends in popular ballads民谣Setting: the forest of Sherwood near Nottingham in the 12thcenturyChief Characters:Robin Hood, head of the Saxon outlawsHis merry men of the green wood: outlaws who robbed the rich and helped the poor.Little Johns, his chief assistantAdam Bell, Clym of the Clough and William of Cloudesley, three most famous of Robin Hood's merrymen, good at archeryPoetic form: 4 – line stanzas rhymed abcb―But I have dreamed a dreary dream,Beyond the Isle of sky;I saw a dead man win a fight,And I think that man was I.‖Structure: 456 stanzas divided into eight fyttes (sections), with three story threads plus an epilogueSynopsis: [1] Robin Hood, brave and good at archery, and his merry men live in the green wood, robbing the rich to help the poor, protecting women from being harassed, and killing only in self-defense. One day when he learns that a poor knight owes a sum of money to an abbot修道院院长, Robin Hood robs a monk in the same abbey修道院and gives the money the knight to pay his debt.[2] With the help of Little John, he captures their chief enemy, the sheriff 行政司法长官of Nottingham, and eventually kills him.[3] The king comes to arrest Robin Hood but finally pardons him and he runs off to the green wood. [4] In the epilogue Robin Hood is killed by a wicked prioress女修道院院长and her lover.2.5.Geoffrey Chaucer 乔叟(1340 ?- 1400)2.5.1. His life: He was the son of a London wine merchant.In 1357 Chaucer was a servant of Lionel, duke of Clarence.Two years later he joined the army and fought in Franceduring the One Hundred Years' War. He was taken prisonerbut later ransomed by the king. Chaucer married well, withPhilippa, sister of John of Gaunt's third wife Katherine Swynford in 1366. Throughout his life Gaunt was his patron. Probably owing to this relationship, Chaucer was sent to France and Italy on several diplomatic missions. During his 1372-3 journey to Italy he was said to have met Boccaccio1and Petrarch2. For a long time he was a member of Parliament. In 1387 his wife died. Chaucer held various government jobs in his later life, as controller of customs, courtier, the king's forester and so on. These, together with his previous experience as servant, soldier and diplomat, provided him with the opportunity to meet people from different walks of life and to know the social realities of his own time. After his death, Chaucer was the first poet to be buried in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey. 2.5.2. Chaucer's poetic career can be divided into three periods:2.5.2.1. He wrote under the French influence from the 1360s to 1372 and the best1Giovanni Boccaccio薄伽丘(1313-1375) , Italian writer whose masterpiece is The Decameron十日谈, a collection of 100 tales told by seven young ladies and three young men on their journey to the country during 10 days.2 Petrarch彼特拉克(1304-1374), Italian poet who invented the sonnet and is regarded as father of Italian humanism.work of this period is The Book of the Duchess公爵夫人的书(1370).Genre: an elegy of 1,334 linesPoetic form: octosyllabic八音节couplets borrowed from FrenchSynopsis: The poet falls asleep reading a book. In his dream, he follows a group of hunters and meets a knight in black who is sad over the death of his virtuous and beautiful lady. Then the hunters reappear and the bell strikes 12, awakening the poet who finds his book still in his hands.Theme: lamenting the death of Blanche of Lancaster, the first wife of Gaunt, the poet's patron2.5.2.2. He wrote under the Italian influence and his most important work in this period was Troylus and Criseyde特罗伊拉斯和克莱西德(1385),partly adapted and partly translated from Boccaccio's poem, Il Filostrato爱情的创伤. It is the longest of all of Chaucer's poems. Two hundred years later Shakespeare was to write a comedy Troilus and Cressida which tells the same story but has a happy ending.Genre: a narrative poem in 8,239 linesPoetic form: rhyme royal君王诗体, that is, a stanza of seven decasyllabic lines每段七行每行10个音节rhyming ababbccSetting: during the Trojan War in the ancient timeChief characters:Troylus, son of the Trojan king PriamCriseyde, daughter of Calchas, a Trojan soothsayer预言家Pandarus, Criseyde's uncle, Troylus' good friendDiomede, a Greek heroSynopsis: Troylus is a Trojan hero who always looks down upon love between men and women. Somehow he falls in love with Criseyde and with the help of her uncle Pandarus, the two lovers come together. Just at this time her father Calchas defects叛逃to the Greek camp where he persuades the Greek to exchange a Trojan captive with his daughter Criseyde. The two lovers have to part, and Criseyde promises to return in 10 days. However as soon as she arrives in the Greek camp a warrior Diomede pays court to追求her and when she realizes the impossibility to return to Troylus, she takes Diomede as her new lover. One day Troylus finds in a coat taken from Diomede in a battle a brooch胸针which he gave to Criseyde as a love token. He is in despair and seeks to kill Diomede but after killing many Greeks he finally is killed by Achilles.Theme: a love tragedy as a result of war2.5.2.3.He created works of his own by using heroiccouplets borrowed from French poetry. In this periodhis most important work was The Canterbury Tales坎特伯雷故事集Genre: a collection of short narrative poems in middleEnglishSetting: London and Canterbury (112 km southeast of London) in the 14th century Characters: 29 pilgrims plus the host of the London inn Harry BaillyStructure: designed 120 tales, finished 24 following ―the General Prologue‖.Poetic form: heroic couple t英雄双行体Background: Canterbury is famous for its cathedral which has been a holy place in England since its archbishop Thomas a Beckett's murder by the secret police sent by the king in 1170. Thomas a Beckett was later canonized as a saint.Content: Twenty nine pilgrims from different places and professions gather in a London inn on their way to Canterbury. The inn keeper Harry Bailly decides to go with them. Being a cheerful man, he suggests that in order to make their tiring journey easier, each one is to tell two stories on the way from London to Canterbury and two more stories on their way back. The poet had originally planned to write 120 tales but when he finished the 24th he fell dead. Today this book has a ―General Prologue‖plus 24 tales. Most of these stories are amusing and the language is humorous and satirical.2.5.3. Comments on Chaucer:2.5.3.1. He was the first English writer to borrow the heroic couplet英雄双行体from French poetry into English poetry, replacing the old English alliterative verse.2.5.3.2. He was the first English writer to use London dialect as a literary language (Middle English) and he contributed to the standardization of the English language.2.5.3.3.He is regarded as father of English poetry2.6. Sir Thomas Malory 托马斯·马洛礼(?---1471)2.6.1. His life: Thomas Malory was the son of agentleman in Warwickshire. He probably took part inthe One Hundred Years' War and was thereforeknighted sometime before 1442, and became aMember of Parliament in 1445. During the Wars of theRoses Malory fought on the Lancaster side. He wascharged with violence, theft and rape and was imprisoned for many years after 1450. His only work Le Mort d'Arthur was written in prison and completed in 1469. But it was not printed until 1485 by William Caxton3who probably revised the book.2.6.2. His literary work: Le Mort d'Arthur亚瑟王之死(Fr. The Death of Arthur) Genre: Prose romance in Middle EnglishBackground: Today this book has two different versions. The earlier version is divided into 21 books. But in 1934 another version was discovered, which is made up of eight parts and it is regarded as better and more authoritative.Structure and Contents: [1] The Book of King Arthur---Arthur is born and grows up to be a brave fighter, and with Merlin's counsel becomes the ruler of the whole country. By mistake he has an illegitimate son Mordred by his half sister. He marries Queen Guinevere, and inherits the Round Table from her father. [2] The Tale of Arthur and Lucius--- King Arthur has a war against Rome and kills Lucius the Roman emperor, becoming the Emperor himself. [3] The Tale of Sir Launcelot du lake---Launcelot is the most respected of the 12 knights. He fights many battles, helps women and pardons the enemies he has defeated. He is suspected of being Queen Guinevere's lover, but always challenges a duel to the person who says so to prove his innocence. 3William Caxton(1422-1491), English printer who set up the first printing house in England in 1476.[4] Sir Gareth of Orkney---Sir Gareth comes to Arthur's court without a name and a past and is despised by the knights. Then a woman Dame Lynette asks Arthur for help because her sister Lyonesse is captured by the Red Knight of the Red Lands. Sir Gareth volunteers to fulfill the task. He fights against the Black, Green, Red and Blue knights, killing the Black knight and taking others as captives to Arthur's court. He rescues Lyonesse and finally marries her. [5] Tristram de Lyons---Tristram is in love with the pretty lady Isolde, but his uncle King Mark also wants to marry her. He sends Tristram to ask for Isolde's hand on his behalf, which Tristram does. After King Mark's marriage with Isolde, Tristram has secret love relation with Isolde. He even takes her to live with him for some time before returning her to the King. King Mark, in revenge, kills Tristram. [6] The quest of the Holy Grail---The Holy Grail appears in Arthur's court and it miraculously produces food and drink for the knights. Then it mysteriously disappears. Gawain, Lancelot, Percival, Bors, and Galahad go their own ways to search it. Finally, Galahad, the only knight who has committed no sin finds it. [7]Launcelot and Guinevere---A knight named Mellyagaunce kidnaps Queen Guinevere and her unarmed knights and hold them prisoners in his castle. Sir Launcelot saves Guinevere and kills Mellyagaunce. Then Guinevere uses charms to attract Launcelot's love. They both betray King Arthur and become lovers. [8] The Morte Arthur---The two brothers Mordred and Agravaine try to expose Launcelot and Guinevere's adultery. Launcelot kills Agravaine while Mordred escapes. At this news, King Arthur sentences Guinevere to be burned at stake but she is rescued by Launcelot. King Arthur has a war with Launcelot when news comes that Mordred has taken over his throne in Britain. King Arthur leads his army back to Britain and is killed by Mordred. In the end, Guinevere becomes a nun while Launcelot a monk. Commentary: Le Mort d'Arthur is the first prose work in English literature and the most complete and authoritative of the King Arthur legends. Later generations of writers such as Edmund Spenser and Alfred Tennyson were to borrow materials from it for The Faerie Queene仙后and Idylls of the King国王叙事诗respectively. In this book Malory compared King Arthur to Henry V, the English king of his own time and expressed his patriotism. Although the language used in this book belonged to Middle English, we can discern in it a transition from Middle English to Modern English.3. Literary Terms3.1 The Middle Ages中世纪: from the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 to the founding the Tudor Dynasty都铎王朝in 1485. Because this period was dominated exclusively by Christianity, forbidding any free thoughts and beliefs, it is sometimes called the ―Dark Age‖.3.2. Epic史诗: a long narrative poem about the deeds of some national hero(es).3.3. Medieval Romance中古传奇: a long narrative poem describing the adventures and love of a medieval knight3.4.Ballad民谣: [L, ballare, ―to dance,‖like ballet] traditionally a song accompanying a dance and telling a story; later it became a form of poetry3.5. Setting (in narrative poetry and prose) or scene (in drama)场景: place and time inwhich a story takes place3.6. Heroic couplet英雄双行体: two iambic pentameter五音步抑扬格lines rhymed aaWhen the /sweet showers /of A/pril fall /and shoot /Down through /the draught /of March/ to pierce/ the root./4. Topics for Discussion and Term Papers4.1. Comment on Beowulf as the first epic in the English language4.2. Compare The Geste of Robin Hood with Shuihu Zhuan in Chinese literature.4.3. Comment on Chaucer as father of English poetry.。
英国概况 Britain(英文)
BritainChapter OneGeography. People and LanguageNew Words & Phrases.temperate 温带、和的precipitation 降雨量latitude 纬度immigrant 移民colony 殖民地diverse 多样化的Germanic 日尔曼语系的evolve 演变，发展Vikings 北欧海盗codify 编簨,系统化undocumented 无文件记载的subsequently 随后的barbarian 野蛮人division 部分，分界线husbandary 饲养业missionary 传教士monastery 修道院I.Geography1.full name: the United Kindom of Great Britain and Northen Lreland.2.Location: the U.K locates to the northwest of mainland Europe,an island countrysurrounded by sea,It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean.3.Area: 242.910 square kilometersposition: British Isles5.Political division: England, Scotland, Wales, Northen Island6.Mountain: Ben Nevis (本尼维斯)，1st 1343m7.River: Seven River (塞文河)，1st ,338km (in Wales)Thames River(in England), 2nd ,336kmke: Lough Neagh(内湖)，1st ,338km(in Northern Ireland)9.climate:a maritime climateplentiful preciperationfoggy,rainy, instablility10:Major Cities:1st :London,capital2nd :Birmingham(伯明翰)3rd :Leeds(利兹)II.People1.Race:the English 81.5%The Scottish 9.6%The Irish 1.9%The North Irish 7%2.Population: 60 million (a 2005 estimate)3.Religion: Christianitynguage: English is a member of the Indo-European family of language. It is in the Germanic group of this family.1.PeriodsOld English(5th -1150)The Angles,Saxons and Jutes drove the Celtic-speaking people out of what is now England into Scotland,Wales, and the Ireland in the 5th and 6th century, they used the language of northeastern regien of the Netherland—that is now called Old English.Middle English(1150-1550)In 1066, William, the Conqueror invaded and conquered England, they used French as the official language,so many French words came into English vocabulary. English day by day evolved into what is now referred to as Middle English.Modern English(1550-now)In 1467, The printing press was introduced by William Caxton,who brought standardization to English, the dialect of London became the standard. Spelling and grammar became fixed.2.Standard EnglishIt is based on the speech of the upper class of southeastern England, adopted as a broadcasting standard in the British media.It is used as much in printed material and is normally taught in schools and to non –native speakers learning language. It is called Queen’s English or BBC English. At present, nearly a quarter of the world’s population use English. It has became a universal linguia francaChapter Two HistoryNew words and Phrasespious 虔诚的coronation 加冕feudalism 封建制度charter 宪章constitution 宪法provision 条款parliament 议会monarchy 君主制度Puritan 清教徒dominion 领土，统治权retake 收回originate 发源maritime 海上的，靠海的norm 准则dialect 方言，地方话Christianity 基督教the British Isles 不列颠群岛Guildhall 市政厅St.Paul’s Cathedral 圣保罗大教堂Indo-European family of language 印欧语系Northen Ireland 北爱尔兰I.The Origin of the Nation (55BC-1066AC)国家的起源史前史：巨石阵：In 2500BC，TheBeaker folk(比克人) invaded the British islands,they built the Stonshenge in 1800BC-1400BC。
托福TPO47阅读原文+题目+答案
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Roman Cultural Influence on BritainAfter the Roman Empire’s conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., thepresence of administrators, merchants, and troops on British soil, along withthe natural flow of ideas and goods from the rest of the empire, had an enormousinfluence on life in the British Isles. Cultural influences were of three types:the bringing of objects, the transfer of craft workers, and the introduction ofmassive civil architecture. Many objects were not art in even the broadest senseand comprised utilitarian items of clothing, utensils, and equipment. We shouldnot underestimate the social status associated with such mundane possessionswhich had not previously been available. The flooding of Britain with red-glosspottery form Gaul (modern-day France), decorated with scenes from Classicalmythology, probably brought many into contact with the styles and artisticconcepts of the Greco-Roman world for the first time, whether or not thesymbolism was understood. Mass-produced goods were accompanied by fewer moreaesthetically impressive objects such as statuettes. Such pieces perhaps firstcame with officials for their own religious worship; others were then acquiredby native leaders as diplomatic gifts or by purchase. Once seen by the natives,such objects created a fashion which rapidly spread through the province.In the most extreme instances, natives literally bought the whole packageof Roman culture. The Fishbourne villa, built in the third quarter of the firstcentury A.D., probably for the native client king Cogidubnus, amply illustrateshis Roman pretensions. It was constructed in the latest Italian style withimported marbles and stylish mosaics. It was lavishly furnished with imported sculptures and other Classical objects. A visitor from Rome would have recognized its owner as a participant in the contemporary culture of the empire, not at all provincial in taste. Even if those from the traditional families looked down on him, they would have been unable to dismiss him as uncultured. Although exceptional, this demonstrates how new cultural symbols bound provincials to the identify of the Roman world.Such examples established a standard to be copied. One result was an influxof craft worker, particularly those skilled in artistic media like stone-carving which had not existed before the conquest. Civilian workers came mostly from Gaul and Germany. The magnificent temple built beside the sacred spring at Bath was constructed only about twenty years after the conquest. Its detail shows that it was carved by artists from northeast Gaul. In the absence of a tradition ofClassical stone-carving and building, the desire to develop Roman amenities would have been difficult to fulfill. Administrators thus used their personal contacts to put the Britons in touch with architects and masons. As many of the officials in Britain had strong links with Gaul, it is not surprising that early Roman Britain owes much to craft workers from that area. Local workshops did develop and stylistically similar groups of sculpture show how skills in this new medium became widerspread. Likewise skills in the use of mosaic, wall painting, ceramic decoration, and metal-working developed throughout the province with the eventual emergence of characteristically Romano-British styles.。
英概之英国简介
The Introduction of UKGeographyThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, or UK, is a sovereignstate located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. The UK lies between the North Atlantic and the North Sea, and comes within 35 km of the northwest coast of France, from which it is separated by the English Channel. Politically, UK is a union made up of four constituent countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland with a total area of approximately 242,000 square kilometers.Britain is an island country and the surrounding sea gives England a varied climate. We never know what the weather will be like from one day to the other. It can be sunny one day and rainy the next. As we have such a variable climate changing from day to day, it is difficult to predict the weather.The longest river in the UK is the River Severn which flows through both Wales and England. The largest lake in the UK is founded in Northern Ireland.HistoryCeltic was the first people who had arrived in Britain in BC. Then In 5th century A.D. the southeast of the island of Great Britain was controlled by the Roman Empire. After the Romans removed, Anglo- Saxon and the Jutes invaded. In 7th century feudal system began to form. Later a king united of England, the history said "Anglo - Saxon times". The duke of Normandy crossed the sea and conquered England in 1066. Then he established the of Norman dynasty. From 1338 to 1453, British and French had a war for about one hundred; the UK wined at first but lost later. In 1649, the republic was formatted. In 1801, England and Scotland merged with Ireland. In 18 century to the 19th century, Britain became the first country of the world which completed industrial revolution.In the 19th century, it was the heyday of the British Empire. In 1914, the colonies were 111 times greater than local possession. And it was the first colonial power, claiming to be "day not fall empire". But after the First World War, it began to decline.PoliticsThe United Kingdom today is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. But unlike other countries in the world, the UK has no written constitution in any one documents; it is only partly written and contained in multiple documents. The English constitution shows the following characteristics: Constitutional monarchy, Parliamentary sovereignty, Representative democracy, and the rule of law. In United Kingdom, Parliament is the supreme legislation body. It comprises three elements: the Crown, the non-elected House of Lords, and the elected House of Commons. The House of Commons is consisted of 651 people and it is also known as Lower House. However, the House of Lords today is more a place of discussion and debate rather thanone of substantial power.The English government is instituted at three levels: central government, country government and district government. Since 1945, the British party politics has been a two-party system of government in the UK Parliament with power being held by either the Conservative Party or the Labor Party.EconomyThe economy of United Kingdom was once at the forefront in the world during the 19th –century Industrial Revolution. UK as a member of the European Union still owns one of the most developed economies. And it has the second largest economy in European and the fifth largest gross domestic product in the world. The capital, London, is along with New York City, one of the two largest financial centres in the world.Then let’s talk about the indust ries of UK.First in energy, primary energy production accounts for 10 percent of the UK GDP, one of the highest shares of any industrial nation. About the agriculture, 77percetn of the land is used for agriculture but only 24 percent of this land is used to grow crops, while other places are only suitable for grazing. Today, the UK remains an important manufacturing country, although it imports large quantities of manufacturing goods from overseas.CultureBritish society today is known for its multicultural climate, which gives strength and diversity to all aspects of British culture. This , along with increased free time and disposable(可自由使用的) money, allows people to organize their private life in different activities in many fields, including leisure, arts, sports, and media. Their lifestyle are not just the expressions of individuals, but more often the values of social groups by age, gender, and class, and more importantly, are associated with national identities.British people prefer to spend their leisure time within the home. Holidays and where to spend them have also become an important part of British life. Sports also play a prominent role in British life such as football, tennis, golf. Except them, British also have artistic activities and media activities. Their life is colorful.The UK national flag is the Union Flag and its national anthem is God Save the King/Queen.GeographyThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, or UK, is a sovereignstate located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. The UK lies between the North Atlantic and the North Sea, and comes within 35 km of the northwest coast of France, from which it is separated by the English Channel. Politically，the UK is a union made up of four constituent countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland with a total area of approximately 242,000 square kilometers.英国包括大不列颠和北爱尔兰组成，它也是一个主权国家位于西北海岸的欧洲大陆。
托福tpo47阅读第一篇答案及原文题目
托福tpo47阅读第一篇答案及原文题目托福阅读是托福考试中很重要的一部分，考生们想要提高托福阅读的分数离不开平时的练习，其中托福tpo系列便是很好的复习资料。
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托福tpo47阅读第一篇答案及原文题目Roman Cultural Influence on BritainAfter the Roman Empire’s conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., the presence of administrators, merchants, and troops on British soil, along with the natural flow of ideas and goods from the rest of the empire, had an enormous influence on life in the British Isles. Cultural influences were of three types: the bringing of objects, the transfer of craft workers, and the introduction of massive civil architecture. Many objects were not art in even the broadest sense and comprised utilitarian items of clothing, utensils, and equipment. We should not underestimate the social status associated with such mundane possessions which had not previously been available. The flooding of Britain with red-gloss pottery form Gaul (modern-day France), decorated with scenes from Classical mythology, probably brought many into contact with the styles and artistic concepts of the Greco-Roman world for the first time, whether or not the symbolism was understood. Mass-produced goods were accompanied by fewer more aesthetically impressive objects such as statuettes. Such pieces perhaps first came with officials for their own religious worship; others were then acquired by native leaders as diplomatic gifts or by purchase. Once seen by the natives, such objects created a fashion which rapidly spread through the province.In the most extreme instances, natives literally bought the whole package of Roman culture. The Fishbourne villa, built in the third quarter of the first century A.D., probably for the native client king Cogidubnus, amply illustrates his Roman pretensions. It was constructed in the latest Italian style with imported marbles and stylish mosaics. It was lavishly furnished with imported sculptures and other Classical objects. A visitor from Rome would have recognized its owner as a participant in the contemporary culture of the empire, not at all provincial in taste. Even if those from the traditional families looked down on him, they would have been unable to dismiss him as uncultured. Although exceptional, this demonstrates how new cultural symbols bound provincials to the identify of the Roman world.Such examples established a standard to be copied. One result was an influx of craft worker, particularly those skilled in artistic media like stone-carving which had not existed before the conquest. Civilian workers came mostly from Gaul and Germany. The magnificent temple built beside the sacred spring at Bath was constructed only about twenty years after the conquest. Its detail shows that it was carved by artists from northeast Gaul. In the absence of a tradition ofClassical stone-carving and building, the desire to develop Roman amenities would have been difficult to fulfill. Administrators thus used their personal contacts to put the Britons in touch with architects and masons. As many of the officials in Britain had strong links with Gaul, it is not surprising that early Roman Britain owes much to craft workers from that area. Local workshops did develop and stylistically similar groups of sculpture show how skills in this new medium became widerspread. Likewise skills in the use of mosaic, wall painting,ceramic decoration, and metal-working developed throughout the province with the eventual emergence of characteristically Romano-British styles.This art had a major impact on the native peoples, and one of the most importance factors was a change in the scale of buildings. Pre-Roman Britain was highly localized, with people rarely traveling beyond their own region. On occasion large groups amassed for war or religious festivals, but society remained centered on small communities. Architecture of this era reflected this with even the largest of the fortified towns and hill forts containing no more than clusters of medium-sized structures. The spaces inside even the largest roundhouses were modest, and the use of rounded shapes and organic building materials gave buildings a human scale. But the effect of Roman civil architecture was significant. The sheer size of space enclosed within buildings like the basilica of London must have been astonishing. This was an architecture of dominance in which subject peoples were literally made to feel small by buildings that epitomized imperial power. Supremacy was accentuated by the unyielding straight lines of both individual buildings and planned settlements since these too provided a marked contrast with the natural curvilinear shapes dominant in the native realm.Passage1After the Roman Empire’s conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., the presence of administrators, merchants, and troops on British soil, along with the natural flow of ideas and goods from the rest of the empire, had an enormous influence on life in the British Isles. Cultural influences were of three types: the bringing of objects, the transfer of craft workers, and the introduction of massive civil architecture. Many objects were notart in even the broadest sense and comprised utilitarian items of clothing, utensils, and equipment. We should not underestimate the social status associated with such mundane possessions which had not previously beenavailable. The flooding of Britain with red-gloss pottery form Gaul (modern-day France), decorated with scenes from Classical mythology, probably brought many into contact with the styles and artistic concepts of the Greco-Roman world for the first time, whether or not the symbolism was understood. Mass-produced goods were accompanied by fewer more aesthetically impressive objects such as statuettes. Such pieces perhaps first came with officials for their own religious worship; others were then acquired by native leaders as diplomatic gifts or by purchase. Once seen by the natives, such objects created a fashion which rapidly spread through the province.1. The word “mundane” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. materialB. ordinaryC. valuedD. useful2. Paragraph 1 suggests that one benefit for British natives in buying such items as red-gloss pottery made in Gaul wasA. improved quality of utilitarian itemsB. Understanding the symbolism of Classical mythologyC. higher social standingD. Learning to mass-produce pottery for a profit3. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following ideas about contacts that existed between Britain and the Roman Empire before the Roman conquest of Britain?A. They were sufficient for native Britons to become familiar with everyday Roman objects.B. They were not sufficient for even very basic aspects of the culture of the Roman Empire to find their way into British life.C. They were not sufficient for British to have heard of the power of the Roman Empire.D. They were sufficient for individual Britons to become very interested in trying to participate in the culture of the Roman Empire.Passage 2In the most extreme instances, natives literally bought the whole package of Roman culture. The Fishbourne villa, built in the third quarter of the first century A.D., probably for the native client king Cogidubnus, amply illustrates his Roman pretensions. It was constructed in the latest Italian style with imported marbles and stylish mosaics. It was lavishly furnished with imported sculptures and other Classical objects. A visitor from Rome would have recognized its owner as a participant in the contemporary culture of the empire, not at all provincial in taste. Even if those from the traditional families looked down on him, they would have been unable to dismiss him as uncultured. Although exceptional, this demonstrates how new cultural symbols bound provincials to the identify of the Roman world.4. The wo rd “lavishly” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. exclusivelyB. additionallyC. appropriatelyD. richly5. According to paragraph 2, the style and furnishings of theFishbourne villa suggest that the person for whom it was built wasA. cultured according to the contemporary standards of the empireB. caught between native and Roman traditionsC. originally a visitor from RomeD. a member of a socially inferior familyPassage 3Such examples established a standard to be copied. One result was an influx of craft worker, particularly those skilled in artistic media like stone-carving which had not existed before the conquest. Civilian workers came mostly from Gaul and Germany. The magnificent temple built beside the sacred spring at Bath was constructed only about twenty years after the conquest. Its detail shows that it was carved by artists from northeast Gaul. In the absence of a tradition of Classical stone-carving and building, the desire to develop Roman amenities would have been difficult to fulfill. Administrators thus used their personal contacts to put the Britons in touch with architects and masons. As many of the officials in Britain had strong links with Gaul, it is not surprising that early Roman Britain owes much to craft workers from that area. Local workshops did develop and stylistically similar groups of sculpture show how skills in this new medium became widerspread. Likewise skills in the use of mosaic, wall painting, ceramic decoration, and metal-working developed throughout the province with the eventual emergence of characteristically Romano-British styles.6. The word “sacred” in the passage is closet in meaning toA. holyB. ancientC. naturalD. Secret7. According to paragraph 3, one factor contributing to success of the earliest Roman-style construction projects in Britain wasA. the fact that long before the conquest many civilian workers from Gaul and Germany had settled in BritainB. the rapid development of characteristically Romano-British stylesC. the availability, in northeast Gaul, of structures that could serve as standards to be copiedD. the use, by administrators, of personal connections to bring craft workers form Gaul into contact with Britons Passage 4This art had a major impact on the native peoples, and one of the most importance factors was a change in the scale of buildings. Pre-Roman Britain was highly localized, with people rarely traveling beyond their own region. On occasion large groups amassed for war or religious festivals, but society remained centered on small communities. Architecture of this era reflected this with even the largest of the fortified towns and hill forts containing no more than clusters of medium-sized structures. The spaces inside even the largest roundhouses were modest, and the use of rounded shapes and organic building materials gave buildings a human scale. But the effect of Roman civil architecture was significant. The sheer size of space enclosed within buildings like the basilica of London must have been astonishing. This was an architecture of dominance in which subject peoples were literally made to feel small by buildings thatepitomized imperial power. Supremacy was accentuated by the unyielding straight lines of both individual buildings and planned settlements since these too provided a marked contrast with the natural curvilinear shapes dominant in the native realm.8. In paragraph 4, why does the author mention that “Pre-Roman Britain was highly localized, with people rarely traveling beyond their own region”?A. To suggest that the Roman conquest of Britain increased the standard of living for nativesB. To indicate that pre-Roman Britain was more interested in festivals and community life than conquering other regionsC. To explain why architecture during this period was not built to be particularly largeD. To illustrate how the traditional roundhouse evolved under the influence of Roman civil architecture9. The word “modest” in the passage in closet in meaning toA. comfortableB. limited in numberC. poorly litD. not large10. According to paragraph 4, people in pre-Roman Britain lived, for the most part, inA. architecture that seemed imperial in sizeB. small communitiesC. large roundhousesD. fortified towns11. According to paragraph 4, why did straight lines in buildings and settlements emphasize the dominance of those who introduced them ?A. Because straight lines were in contrast to the shapes found in pre-Roman architectureB. Because unlike curved lines, which are shaped in all sorts of different ways, straight lines do no differC. Because the dominant lines in entire settlements were the same as those in individual buildingsD. Because building and settlements were easier to construct when the dominant lines were straight lines12. According to paragraph 4, buildings from the pre-Roman period differed sharply from buildings reflection Roman civil architecture in each of the following respects EXCEPTA. their outside and inside dimensionsB. the impact they had on peopleC. the geometric shapes in which they were builtD. the positioning of buildings in clusters13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Practical and unimpressive, most were barely taller than the average adult.Where would t he sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.This art had a major impact on the native peoples, and one of the most importance factors was a change in the scale of buildings. Pre-Roman Britain was highly localized, with people rarely traveling beyond their own region. On occasion large groups amassed for war or religious festivals,but society remained centered on small communities. Architecture of this era reflected this with even the largest of the fortified towns and hill forts containing no more than clusters of medium-sized structures. The spaces inside even the largestroundhouses were modest, and the use of rounded shapes and organic building materials gave buildings a human scale. [■] But the effect of Roman civil architecture was significant. The sheer size of space enclosed within buildings like the basilica of London must have been astonishing. [■] This was an architecture of dominance in which subject peoples were literally made to feel small by buildings that ep itomized imperial power. [■] Supremacy was accentuated by the unyielding straight lines of both individual buildings and planned settlements since these too provided a marked contrast with the natural curvilinear shapes dominant in the native realm.[■]14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided plete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 3 points.Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it.To review the passage, click VIEW TEXT.The conquest of Britain by the Roman Empire resulted in significant cultural change.Answer ChoicesA. New objects entering Britain ranged from mass-produced articles for everyday use to works of art, and they were widely-and enthusiastically-accepted by native Britons.B. Constructing and furnishing buildings in the Roman style required skills that native workers did not at first have, so workers were brought in from other parts of the empire.C. Native Britons traveled to Gaul to learn Classical stone-carving and building techniques.D. The conquest was followed by a building boom, and enough villas and temples in the Italian style were built that a visitor from Rome would have felt quite at home in post-conquest Britain.E. An important symbol of Roman supremacy was Roman architecture, whose enormous size, emphasized by the use of straight lines, made the natives feel insignificant.F. Characteristically Romano-British concepts took hold in architecture; roundhouses were built much larger than before, and straight lines began to be used in interior spaces.是托福考试中很重要的一部分，考生们想要提高托福阅读的分数离不开平时的练习，其中托福tpo系列便是很好的复习资料。
英语作文介绍英国
英语作文介绍英国The United Kingdom, commonly known as Britain, is a sovereign country located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe. It is a land rich in history, culture, and tradition, and its influence on the world stage is significant. Here is an introduction to the UK in the form of an English essay:The United Kingdom: A Nation of Diverse Traditions and Rich HistoryThe United Kingdom is a country that has captivated the world with its royal heritage, iconic landmarks, and rich literary contributions. Comprising England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the UK is a mosaic of distinct cultures and landscapes.History and MonarchyThe history of the UK is a tapestry woven with threads of conquest, exploration, and industrial revolution. From the Roman invasions to the Norman Conquest, the UK has seen many pivotal moments that have shaped its identity. The monarchy,a symbol of continuity, has been a central figure in British history. The current reigning monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, is the longest-serving monarch in British history, providing a sense of stability and continuity to the nation.Cultural DiversityEach of the four nations within the UK has its own distinct culture and traditions. England, with its bustling citieslike London, is known for its iconic landmarks such as the Tower of London and Buckingham Palace. Scotland, with its rugged highlands and historic castles, offers a glimpse into a rich Gaelic heritage. Wales, with its Welsh language and Celtic traditions, is known for its choirs and rugby passion. Northern Ireland, with its rolling green hills and historic sites, carries a legacy of Irish folklore and conflict.Education and LiteratureThe UK is renowned for its educational institutions, with prestigious universities such as Oxford and Cambridge attracting scholars from around the globe. The country has also been the birthplace of many literary giants, including William Shakespeare, Jane Austen, and Charles Dickens, whose works continue to be celebrated and studied worldwide.Economy and InnovationThe UK has a strong economy with a focus on financial services, technology, and creative industries. London, the capital, is a global financial hub and a leading city for innovation and business. The country's economy has been shaped by its industrial past and continues to evolve with the digital age.Tourism and LandmarksTourism is a vital part of the UK's economy, with millions visiting each year to explore its rich history and natural beauty. From the ancient stones of Stonehenge to the modern architecture of the Shard, the UK offers a wide range of attractions. The British countryside, with its quaintvillages and rolling hills, is a haven for those seeking tranquility and natural beauty.ConclusionThe United Kingdom is a country of contrasts, where the old and new coexist harmoniously. It is a place where one can immerse themselves in history, culture, and innovation. Whether it's the allure of the royal family, the charm of its countryside, or the vibrancy of its cities, the UK offers an experience that is uniquely its own.This essay provides a brief overview of the United Kingdom, touching upon its history, cultural diversity, educational prowess, economy, and tourism. It aims to give readers a glimpse into what makes the UK a fascinating and influential country.。
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An Overview of Roman Britain By Dr Mike Ibeji Last updated 2011-02-17
Did ordinary people suffer under a tyranny, when Rome seized power in Britain, or were there advantages to foreign rule? Dr Mike Ibeji explores the realities of British life at the time of the Romans. Striving to be Roman The Roman invasion of Britain was arguably the most significant event ever to happen to the British Isles. It affected our language, our culture, our geography, our architecture and even the way we think. Our island has a Roman name, its capital is a Roman city and for centuries (even after the Norman Conquest) the language of our religion and administration was a Roman one. In the wake of the Roman occupation, every "Briton" was aware of their "Britishness". For 400 years, Rome brought a unity and order to Britain that it had never had before. Prior to the Romans, Britain was a disparate set of peoples with no sense of national identity beyond that of their local tribe. In the wake of the Roman occupation, every 'Briton' was aware of their 'Britishness'. This defined them as something different from those people who came after them, colouring their national mythology, so that the Welsh could see themselves as the true heirs of Britain, whilst the Scots and Irish were proud of the fact that they had never been conquered by Rome. Yet perhaps Rome's most important legacy was not its roads, nor its agriculture, nor its cities, nor even its language, but the bald and simple fact that every generation of British inhabitant that followed them - be they Saxon, Norman, Renaissance English or Victorian - were striving to be Roman. Each was trying to regain the glory of that long-lost age when Britannia was part of a grand civilisation, which shaped the whole of Europe and was one unified island. The truth about Roman Britain is much more subtle and surprising... I am usually asked five questions whenever people talk to me about Roman Britain, and they find the answers profoundly surprising. People's view of Rome is of a grand, monolithic dictatorship which imposed its might upon an unwilling people, dictating how they lived, how they spoke and how they worshipped. They see the Romans as something akin to the Nazis (which is hardly surprising since the fascists tried to model themselves on Rome). The truth about Roman Britain is much more subtle and surprising, and serves to show why on the one hand their legacy has endured so long, and on the other, why their culture vanished so quickly once they departed from these shores. Top Roman invasion
Roman soldiers ©Rome invaded Britain because it suited the careers of two men. The first of these was Julius Caesar. This great republican general had conquered Gaul and was looking for an excuse to avoid returning to Rome. Britain afforded him one, in 55 BC, when Commius, king of the Atrebates, was ousted by Cunobelin, king of the Catuvellauni, and fled to Gaul. Caesar seized the opportunity to mount an expedition on behalf of Commius. He wanted to gain the glory of a victory beyond the Great Ocean, and believed that Britain was full of silver and booty to be plundered. His first expedition, however, was ill-conceived and too hastily organised. With just two legions, he failed to do much more than force his way ashore at Deal and win a token victory that impressed the senate in Rome more than it did the tribesmen of Britain. In 54 BC, he tried again, this time with five legions, and succeeded in re-establishing Commius on the Atrebatic throne. Yet he returned to Gaul disgruntled and empty-handed, complaining in a letter to Cicero that there was no silver or booty to be found in Britain after all. He needed the prestige of military conquest to consolidate his hold on power. Caesar's military adventurism set the scene for the second exploitation of Britain - by the Emperor Claudius. He was to use an identical excuse to Caesar for very similar reasons. Claudius had recently been made emperor in a palace coup. He needed the prestige of military conquest to consolidate his hold on power. Into this situation came Verica, successor to Commius, complaining that the new chief of the Catuvellauni, Caratacus, had deprived him