interlanguage variation
Exercises acqusition
Exercises - Language AcquisitionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. L1 development and L2 development seem to involve the same processes.2. The capacity to acquire one's first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with.3. All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language.4. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyncratic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar.5. Humans can be said to be predisposed and biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.6. Some languages are inferior, or superior, to other languages.7. Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the vocabulary and the meaning of language.8. Human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is a sufficient condition for language development.9. Children who grow up in culture where caretaker speech is absent acquire their native language more slowly than children who are exposed to caretaker speech.10. In mother tongue acquisition, normal children are not necessarily equally successful.11. For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and require little conscious instruction on the part of adults.12. The available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best.13. Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development as they were claimed to be.14. Imitation, plays at best a very minor role in the child's mastery of language.15. Observations of children in different language areas of the world reveal that the developmental stages are similar, possibly universal, whatever the nature of the input.16. A child's babbling seems to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input.17. In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the second half of the child's first year.18. Children's two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers.19. Children first acquire the sounds in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in late stages acquire the more difficult sounds.20. Language acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the essentials are concerned, by the time that the process of lateralization comes to an end.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:21. The first language a____________ refers to the development of a first or native language.22. According to a n__________ view of language acquisition, humans are quipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use, just as birds are biologically prewired to learn the songs of their species.23. A caretaker speech, also called m______ or b______, is the type of modified speech typically addressed to young children.24. B_________ learning theory suggested that a child's verbal behaviour was conditioned throughassociation between a stimulus and the following response.25. Children's one-word utterances are also called h__________ sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech.26. The early multiword utterances of children lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories, they are often referred to as t__________ speech.27. A___________ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.28. The C________ Analysis was founded on the belief that it was possible, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language systems, to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.29. The language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA is known as i_________.30. Learners subconsciously use their first language knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language t___________.31. Motivation in language learning can be defined in terms of the learner's overall goal or orientation. I_________ motivation occurs when the learner's goal is functional and i________motivation occurs when the learner's goal is social.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the one that can best complete the statement:32. In first language acquisition, imitation plays _________.A. a minor roleB. a significant roleC. a basic roleD. no rule33. Linguists have found that for the vast majority of children, language development occurs _____________.A. with much imitationB. with little conscious instructionC. with much correction from their parentsD. with little linguistic input34. The development of linguistic skills involves the acquisition of ____ rules rather than the mere memorization of words and sentences.A. culturalB. grammaticalC. behaviourD. pragmatic35. ____ has been found to occur usually in children' s pronunciation or reporting of the truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.A. PunishmentB. InstructionC. ReinforcementD. Imitation36. According to the _______, the acquisition of a second language involves, and is dependent on, the acquisition of the culture of the target language community.A. acculturation viewB. mentalist viewC. behaviourist viewD. conceptualist view37. In general, a good second learner is an adolescent ________.A. who has a strong and well-defined motivation to learnB. who seeks out all chances to interact with the inputC. who is willing to identify himself with the culture of the target language communityD. all the above38. The optimum age for second language acquisition is ________________.A. early teenageB. after pubertyC. at pubertyD. after the brain lateralization39. The formal instruction in second language acquisition ___________.A. has no effect at allB. has a powerful delayed effectC. has very little effectD. has unsatisfactory effect 40. ________ is believed to be a major source of incorrect forms resistant to further instruction.A. The second language learners' unwillingness to learnB. The Poor classroom teachingC. The fossilization of the learner's interlanguageD. The learner's lack of instrumental motivation41. Which of the following is not true?A. Interlanguage is a product of communicative strategies of the learner.B. Interlanguage is a product of mother tongue interference.C. Interlanguage is a product of overgeneralization of the target language rules.D. Interlanguage is the representation of learners' unsystematic L2 rules.42. _________, except those with mental or physical impairments, are better or worse first language acquirers.A. Some menB. Almost all menC. No menD. Few menIV. Explain the following terms:43. caretaker speech44. holophrastic sentences45. telegraphic speech46. second language acquisition47. acquisition48. learning49. transfer50. interlanguage51. fossilization52. instrumental motivation53. integrative motivation54. acculturationV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:55. What's the difference between acquisition and learning, according to Krashen?56. How do the learner factors potentially influence the way in which a second language is acquired?57. What is the role of input for SLA?58. How do you understand interlanguage?59. Discuss the contrastive analysis in detail.60. What are the major stages that a child has to follow in first language development? What are the features of the linguistic forms at each stage?61. What is the role of correction and reinforcement in first language acquisition?62. Why do we say language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language?63. Discuss the biological basis of language acquisition.64. What is the role of imitation in first language acquisition?suggested answersChapter 10 Language AcquisitionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.F11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.F 18.T 19.T 20.TII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:21. acquisition 22. nativist 23. motherese, babytalk 24.Behaviorist 25. holophrastic26. telegraphic 27. Acquisition 28. Contrastive 29. interlanguage30. transfer31. Instrumental, integrativeIII. III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the one that can best complete the statement:32.A 33.B 34.B 35.C 36.A 37.D 38.A 39.B 40.C 41.D42. CIV. Explain the following terms:43. caretaker speech: It is the modified speech typically addressed to young children. Such modified speech is called babytalk, motherses, or parentese.44. holophrastic sentences: They are children' s one-word utterances. They are called holophrastic sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech.45. telegraphic speech: They are the early multiword utterances of children which typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Some function words are altogether missing. What occur in these multiword utterances are usually the "substantive" or "content" words that carry the main message. Because of their resemblance to the style of language found in telegrams, utterances at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.46. second language acquisition: Second language acquisition (SLA) is a general term which refers to the acquisition of a second language (L2) , in contrast with first language acquisition (FLA). SLA is also used as a general term to refer to the acquisition of a foreign or subsequent language (such as a third or fourth language). Thus, SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language (LI).47. Acquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.48. Learning: Learning, however, is defined by Krashen as a conscious process of ccumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.49. Transfer: It refers to the phenomenon that learners subconsciously use their LI knowledge in learning a second language.50. Interlanguage: It is a series of internal representations that comprises the learner's interim knowledge of the target language. This is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA. Interlanguage consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner's native and target languages. It represents the learner' s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one' s LI competence to the target language competence.51. Fossilization: it is a process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.52. instrumental motivation: Adults are motivated to learn a second language in order to use it functionally. In other words, the learners desire to learn a second language because it is useful for some functional, “instrumental” goals. This motivation is called instrumental motivation.53. integrative motivation: Adults are motivated to learn a second language in order to use it socially. In other words, the learners learn a second language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language.54. Acculturation: It is the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community. V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:55. What's the difference between acquisition and learning, according to Krashen?According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. Learning, however,is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. A second language, Krashen argues, is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental settingand the input received by the L2 learner. A rule can be learned before it is internalized (i.e., acquired), but having learned a rule does not necessarily prevent having to acquire it later. Forexample, an English language learner may have learned a rule like the third person singular "-s", but is unable to articulate the correct form in casual and spontaneous conversation because the rule has not yet been acquired. This shows that conscious knowledge of rules does not ensure an immediate guidance for actual performance.56. How do the learner factors potentially influence the way in which a second language is acquired? 1) The optimum age for second language acquisition: First language acquisition is most successfulwhen it occurs during the early years of one' s life before puberty, but the optimum age for SLA does not always accord with the maxim of "the younger the better". The optimum age for SLA is early teenage. This claim is justifiable because this is the age when the learner' s flexibility of the language acquisition faculty has not been completely lost while one's cognitive skills have developed considerably.2) Motivation: Motivation in language learning can be defined in terms of the learner's overall goal or orientation. Instrumental motivation occurs when the learner's goal is functional, andintegrative motivation occurs when the learner's goal is social. If the target language functions as a foreign language (used in a limited environment such as in school), the learner is likely tobenefit from an integrative motivation; but if the target language functions as a second language (used as a primary means of communication in the community of the learner), an instrumentalmotivation is more effective.3) Acculturation: The acculturation hypothesis focuses on the social and psychological conditions under which L2 processing is most likely to take place successfully. It states simply that the more a person aspires to acculturate to the community of the target language, the further he or she will progress along the developmental continuum.4) Personality: Intuitively, an outgoing personality may contribute to language acquisition. Research results, however, only partially support this hypothesis. No significant relationship hasbeen found between talkativeness on the one hand and overall proficiency in a second language on the other. But it is recognized that as a result of being frequently exposed to and interacting with the target language, learners with an extroverted personality are likely to achieve better oral fluency than otherwise.In sum, A good second language learner is, among other things, an adolescent who has a strong and well-defined motivation to learn. He is able to respond and adaptable to different learning situations. He seeks out all opportunities and makes maximum use of them to interact with the input. He employs appropriate learning strategies. And he is willing to identify himself or herself with the culture of the target language community.57. What is the role of input for SLA?It is evident that SLA takes place only when the learner has access to L2 input and the opportunity to interact with the input. It appears that what learners need is not mere exposure to L2 data, but the kind of input data that are specially suited to their current stage of development. There is, however, no agreement as to precisely what constitutes optimum input. Some cholars advise that access to comprehensible input is a necessary condition for acquisition to take place. It is suggested that input can be made comprehensible by the use of learned structures and vocabulary, the linguistic and extralinguistic contexts of the input data, and the learner's general knowledge to interpret new language items. It is also suggested that interaction (i.e. , taking part in communicative activities) and intake (i.e. , the input that is assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system) are more important for SLA than input.58. How do you understand interlanguage?Interlanguage consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner's native and target languages. It represents the learner' s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one' s LI competence to the target language competence. As a type of linguistic system in its own right,interlanguage is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and communicative strategies of the learner. 59. Discuss the contrastive analysis in detail.Contrastive Analysis was developed in order to identify and predict the areas of learning difficulty. Given this approach, it was hypothesized that L2 errors were predominantly the result ofnegative transfer, or mother tongue interference and second language learning was believed to be a matter of overcoming the differences between LI and L2 systems.According to this view, the major task of second language teaching should predominantly be: first, contrast the native and the target language systems and make predictions about the language items that would cause difficulty and the errors that learners were likely to make; then use these predictions in deciding on the type of language items that needed special treatment in teaching and in material development and the type of intensive techniques that would be employed to overcome learning difficulties created by the interference.In practice, the Contrastive Analysis is not effective because a large proportion of grammatical errors could not be explained by mother tongue interference. Errors predicted by contrastiveanalysis have often not occurred, whereas many actual errors, such as "goed" and "foots", come from overgeneralization instead of negative transfer. Errors, according to the contrastive analysis approach, are negative and had to be overcome or given up. In fact, errors produced in a learner's second language utterance may very well be developmental errors and therefore, should not be looked upon simply as a failure to learn the correct form, but as an indication of the actual acquisition process inaction. Developmental errors often result from the effort on the part of the learner to construct and test general rules of communication in the target language.60. What are the major stages that a child has to follow in first language development? What are the features of the linguistic forms at each stage?1)The prelinguistic stage: At the babbling stage, the sounds and syllables that children utter are meaningless. Babbling, especially early babbling, is largely independent of the particular language to which children are exposed. The sounds produced in this period seem to include a large variety of sounds. Babbling does not seem to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input. When children are through the tenth and eleventh months, they are capable of using their vocalizations to express emotions and emphasis, and of attempting at the grand task of language acquisition.2)The one-word stage: This stage usually occurs in the late part of the first year or the early part of the second year. At this stage children learn that sounds are related to meanings. They begin to use the same string of sounds of the native language to "mean" the same thing. Children' s one-word utterances are also called holophrastic sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech. One-word utterances sometimes show an overextension or underextension of reference.3)The two-word stage: During the second year of life, child's utterances gradually become longer. Children are heard uttering two-word expressions in a variety of combinations. Children' s two-word utterances can express a certain variety of grammatical relations indicated by word order, for example: Daddy hat.Doggie bark.Shoe mine.Apple me.Two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers. Pronouns are rare.4) The multiword stage: It occurs between two and three years old. The salient feature of the utterances at this stage ceases to be the number of words, but the variation in strings of lexicalmorphemes,for example:Daddy like this book.He play little tune.This shoe all wet.No sit there.The early multiword utterances typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories, therefore they are often called telegraphic speech. Although they lack grammatical morphemes, telegraphic sentences are not simply words that are randomly strungtogether, but follow the principles of sentence formation. As this type of telegram-format speech increases, a number of grammatical morphemes begin to appear in children' s speech. Simple prepositions begin to turn up in their speech. By the age of five, with an operating vocabulary of more than 2,000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.61. What is the role of correction and reinforcement in first language acquisition?According to Behaviorist learning theory, children are believed to gradually assume correct forms of the language of their community when their "bad" speech gets corrected and when their good speech gets positively reinforced.Researchers have found that correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development as they were claimed to be. When adults do attempt to correct children s grammatical errors and the correct form is repeated, their efforts seem to have little effect, or simply doom to failure because children often do not know what the problem is and continue to use a personally constructed form. Children Reinforcement has been found to occur usually inchildren' s pronunciation or reporting of the truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.62. Why do we say language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language?In principle, no human brain can store all the words and expressions of a language. What happens is that when processing the language they hear, children construct the grammar and make sense of the expressions according to the grammar. When producing utterances, they follow the internalized grammatical rules. Without the knowledge of the productive rules, it would be impossible for language users to produce and understand an unlimited number of sentences which they have never heard before.63. Discuss the biological basis of language acquisition.Language acquisition is a genetically determined capacity that all humans possess. Although the development of a communicative system is not unique to human beings, the natural acquisition oflanguage as a system of highly abstract rules and regulations for creative communication distinguishes humans from all other animal species. In this sense, humans can be said to be predisposed, that is, biologically programmed, to acquire at least one language. Language development can thus be regarded as analogous to other biological developments in human growth and maturation, such as the growth and maturation of one's limbs and organs. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use, just as birds are biologically “prewired” to learn the songs of their species.64. What is the role of imitation in first language acquisition?At one time, it was widely believed that children learned language by simply imitating the speech of those around them. We now know that this cannot be true, since many utterance types produced by children do not closely resemble structures found in adult speech. . If children learn their native tongue by imitating their parents, how can we account for the utterances that are typical of children' s language, such as the plural form "my foots," the past tense forms of " I eated," and the negative construction of “No the sun shining”?It is impossible that children imitate these structures from adults because they are never heard in adult conversations. In addition, Children with speech impairment for neurological or physiological reasons learn the language spoken to them and understand what is said. A more reasonable explanation isthat children are attempting to construct and generalize their own grammatical rules.Some young language learners do seem to make selective use of imitation, but they do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted ways to improve their linguistic skills. The point is that imitation plays at best a very minor role in the child' s mastery of language.。
二语习得(L4正)
Labov also deals with variability determined by linguistic factors. He examined the use of the copula (‗be‘) in utterances produced by speakers of Black English Vernacular in New York and found that the presence of absence of the copula was largely systematic. Thus ‗be‘ was variability in all contexts, but certain contexts predisposed the speaker to use it more frequently than other contexts. Labov views contextual factors as an integral part of the user‘s ability to use his linguistic knowledge.
What is variability?
Language users (including language learners) vary in the use they make of their linguistic knowledge. This variability can be unsystematic (i.e. haphazard) or systematic (two or more linguistic forms function as variants, which are used predictably according to the context).
(完整版)语用学级期末复习思考题
I。
Put the following English terms into Chinese. (1'×10＝10’)所指对象referent所指论Referential theory专有名词 proper name普通名词 common nouns固定的指称记号 rigid designators指称词语deixical items确定性描述语definite descriptions编码时间 coding—time变异性variability表示反复的词语 iterative表述句 constative补救策略redressive strategies不可分离性 non—detachability不确定性indeterminacy不使用补救策略，赤裸裸地公开施行面子威胁行bald on record without redressive actions 阐述类言语行为 representatives承诺类言语行为 commissives指令类言语行为directives表达类言语行为expressives，宣告类言语行为declarations诚意条件 sincerity condition次要言外行为 secondary illocutionary act等级含义 scalar implicature等级划分法 rating scales副语言特征 paralinguistic features非公开施行面子威胁行为 off record非规约性non—conventionality非规约性意义 non-conventional implicature非论证性的 non—demonstrative非自然意义non—natural meaning (meaning—nn)否定测试法negation test符号学 semiotics构成性规则 constitutive rules古典格莱斯会话含义理论 Classical Gricean theory of conversational implicature关联论Relevance Theory关联原则Principle of Relevance归属性用法 attributive use规约性含义conventional implicature人际修辞 interpersonal rhetoric篇章修辞textual rhetoric含蓄动词 implicative verbs合适条件 felicity conditions呼语 vocatives互相显映 mutually manifest会话含义 conversational implicature话语层次策略 utterance-level strategy积极面子positive face间接言语行为 indirect speech acts间接指令 indirect directives结语 upshots交际意图communicative intention可撤销性 cancellability可废弃性 defeasibility可推导性 calculability跨文化语用失误cross—cultural pragmatic failure跨文化语用学cross—cultural pragmatics命题内容条件 propositional content condition面子保全论 Face-saving Theory面子论 Face Theory面子威胁行为 Face Threatening Acts （FTAs）蔑视 flouting明示 ostensive明示－推理模式ostensive—inferential model摹状词理论Descriptions粘合程度 scale of cohesion篇章指示 discourse deixis前提 presupposition前提语 presupposition trigger强加的绝对级别absolute ranking of imposition确定谈话目的 establishing the purpose of the interaction确定言语事件的性质 establishing the nature of the speech event 确定性描述语 definite descriptions认知语用学 cognitive pragmatics上下文 co—text社会语用迁移sociopragmatic transfer社交语用失误 sociopragmatic failure施为句 performative省力原则 the principle of least effort实情动词 factive verbs适从向 direction of fit手势型用法 gestural usage首要言外行为 primary illocutionary act双重或数重语义模糊 pragmatic bivalence/ plurivalence顺应的动态性 dynamics of adaptability顺应性adaptability语境关系的顺应(contextual correlates of adaptability)、语言结构的顺应(structural objects of adaptability)、顺应的动态性（dynamics of adaptability)和顺应过程的意识程度（salience of the adaptation processes）。
二语习得理论.doc
二语习得理论著名二语习得理论SLA TheoriesContrastive Analysis -- by Lado, R. Bialystok's Model of Second Language AcquisitionError Analysis -- by Corder, S. P. Homogeneous Competence Paradigm -- by AdjemianClassifications of Errors -- by Richards, J. Tarone's Capability ContinuumLanguage Transfer Ellis's Variable Competence ModelInterlanguage Theory Preston's Sociolinguistic ModelAcquisition Sequence Theory Functionalist theories of SLA -- by TomlinUniversal Grammar Theory Functional-Typological Theory -- by Givon Learnability Theory The Competition Model -- by MacWhinneyU-shaped Pattern of Development Theory -- by Kellerman Form-Function Mapping TheorySilent-Period Theory Operating Principles Theory -- by Andersen Critical Period Theory Nativization and denativization theory -- by AndersenBehaviourist Theory The one-to-one principle -- by AndersenMentalist Theory The multi-functionality principleCognitive Processing Model Theory Formal determinism principleStructural and Semantic Simplification Theory Distributional bias principleNatural Order Theory -- by Krashen Relevance principlePronominal Copy Theory Transfer to somewhere principleInter-learner Variability Theory Relexification principleInterlanguage Continuum Theory The Multidimensional Model -- by ZISA The Labovian Paradigm Skill Learning TheoryThe Dynamic Paradigm -- by Bailey, Bickerton Anderson's Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) ModelInter-learner Variation and Intra-learner Variation McLaughlin's information processing modelSpeech Accommodation Theory -- by GilesExplicit/implicit/controlled/aotomatic knowledge distinction Psycholinguistic Models: Planning and Monitoring Procedural knowledge and procedural skillTypology of Learner's Variability Parallel Distributed Processing -- by Rumelhart and McCllandForm-function Analysis Theory ConnectionismLearner's Style Shifting Theory -- by Tarone Typological universal Multi-factor Influence Theory Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy -- by Comrie and KeenanSociopragmatic Failure RelativizationPragmalinguistic Failure Government / Binding TheoryLinguistic Competence and Pragmatic Competence The subjacency principleBICS and CALP -- by Cummins The poverty of the stimulusInter-group Theory -- by giles and Byrne Language Acquisition Device TheoryNativization theory Subset PrincipleRegression and Fossilization Theory The autonomy of grammar theory The Acculturation Theory -- by Schumann UG Accessibility Theory Ethnolinguistic Vitality Theory Field dependence / independence theoryThe Social-educational Model -- by Gardner Motivation TheoryKrashen's Monitor theories Affect-filter TheoryComprehensible Input Theory Learning Strategy TheoryCognitive Interaction Theory Formal learning and informal learning theoryTop-down and Bottom-up Processes Teachability hypothesis theory -- by PienemannComprehensible Output -- by Swain Fundamental Difference hypothesis TheoryMarkedness Theory -- by Eckman Behaviourism TheoryPrototypicapity Theory -- by Kellerman Cognitivism TheoryPsytypology Theory -- by Kellerman Metalingual KnowledgeExplicit and Implicit Knowledge -- by Krashen Connectionism Theory Nativism Theory Constructivism TheoryUniversal Grammar Theory Speech Accommodation TheoryInter-group Theory Krashen's Monitor theoriesFunctionalist theories of SLA欢迎您阅读该资料，希望该资料能给您的学习和生活带来帮助，如果您还了解更多的相关知识，也欢迎您分享出来，让我们大家能共同进步、共同成长。
二语习得(L1)
Course components
Lectures Discussions Assignments Research
Course assessment
Attendance and participation in class discussion (10%) Assignment (20%) Course paper (70%)
Course outline
L1 Introduction to SLA and SLA research L2 The role of the first language L3 The ‘natural’ route of development L4 Contextual variation in language-learner language L5 Individual learner differences L6 The role of the input L7 Learner processes(Learner strategies) L8 Learner processes(The universal hypothesis and SLA) L9 The role of formal instruction L10 Theories of second language acquisition
Students will be able to better describe the psychological and linguistic processes of second language acquisition Students will be able to better identify what internal and external factors help account for why learners do or do not acquire a second language Students will be able to better explain how such factors affect students' classroom performance Students will be able to have a greater understanding of the literature in the field of second language acquisition and develop greater skills in critically reading, understanding, and dissecting that literature Students will be able to relate issues discussed in class to past, current, and prospective learning/teaching experiences and to their future formal and informal research
语言学
1. Which of the following isn’t a factor that may influence SLA?A. AgeB. MotivationC. PersonalityD. Sex2. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their ________ language of the community in which a child has been brought up.A. FirstB. SecondC. ThirdD. foreign3. ________ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school setting.A. AcquisitionB. LearningC. StudyingD. Acquirement4. ________ transfer is a process that is more commonly known as interference.A. IntentionalB. PositiveC. NegativeD. Interrogative5. ________ was believed to be the major source of difficulties experienced and errors made by L2 learners.A. TransferB. Positive transferC. Negative transferD. Overgeneralization6. ________ approach shows that there are striking similarities in the ways in which different L2 learners acquire a new language.A. TransferB. InterferenceC. Contrastive AnalysisD. Error Analysis7. During the process of SLA, a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, this is ________.A. InterlanguageB. first languageC. second languageD. foreign language8. The optimum age for SLA is ________.A. ChildhoodB. early teensC. TeensD. adulthood答案(反白可见)：D A B C C D A A1. ________ deals with how language is acquired, understood, and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. NeurolinguisticsD. Anthropological linguistics2. The left hemisphere of human brain is responsible for the functions of ________.A. language and speechB. CalculationC. analytic reasoning and associative thoughtD. all of the above3. ________ refers to the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.A. Language lateralizationB. Brain lateralizationC. Right ear advantageD. None of the above4. Linguistic ________ is the brain’s neurological speci alization for language.A. DeterminismB. RelativismC. CompetenceD. lateralization5. The ________ age for the acquisition of the first language coincides with the period of brain lateralization.A. YoungB. OldC. CriticalD. flexible答案(反白可见)：B D B D C1. The goal of ________ is to explore the nature of language variation and language use amonga variety of speech communities and different social situations.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. historical linguisticsD. general linguistics2. The situation in which two or more languages are used side by side is referred to as ________.A. DiglossiaB. BilingualismC. PidginizationD. blending3. A linguistic ________ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.A. SlangB. EuphemismC. JargonD. taboo4. A ________ is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when a speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.A. linguistic tabooB. EuphemismC. address termD. pidgin5. In normal situations, ________ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ________ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old6. It is ________ for individuals to be a perfect user of two languages in a full range of situations.A. CommonB. RareC. ImpossibleD. none of the above答案(反白可见)：B A D B A B1. Chinese, the most popular language of the world, belongs to the ________ family.A. Indo-EuropeanB. Sino-TibetanC. AustronesianD. Afroasiatic2. An important set of extensive sound changes affecting vowels, known as the Great Vowel Shift, occurred at the end of the ________.A. Old English periodB. Middle English periodC. Modern English periodD. Middle ages3. The most widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of ________.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. AffixesD. case markings4. The most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of ________.A. gender markingsB. case markingsC. tense markingsD. both A and B5. The most vigorous and on-going change in the historical development of a language is the change in its ________.A. SoundB. VocabularyC. morphological systemD. syntax6. The most obvious way in which Modern English differs lexically from Old English is in the number of borrowed words from other languages, particular from ________.A. LatinB. FrenchC. GreekD. German答案(反白可见)：B B C D B A1. Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if ________ of language use was left unconsidered.A. BrevityB. ContextC. AccuracyD. none of the above2. If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes ________.A. a sentenceB. an actC. a unitD. an utterance3. ________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A. SpeakingB. SpeechC. SoundD. Spoken4. One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of ________ acts.A. LocutionaryB. IllocutionaryC. PerlocutionaryD. speech5. Of the three speech act, linguistics are most interested in the ________.A. locutionary actB. perlocutionary actC. illocutionary actD. none of the above6. Most of the violation of the maxims of the CP give rise to ________.A. utterance meaningB. speech act theoryC. conversational implicaturesD. all of the above7. The significance of Grice’s CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey ________ is literally said.A. more thanB. less thanC. the same asD. none of the above答案(反白可见)：B D A B C C A1. Semantics can be defined as the study of ________.A. wordsB. MeaningC. CommunicationD. context2. Sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves (mostly words); it is concerned with _________ relations.A. extra-linguisticB. intra-linguisticC. non-linguisticD. multi-linguistic3. Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements (words, sentences, etc) and the ________ of experience.A. extra-linguisticB. intra-linguisticC. non-linguisticD. multi-linguistic4. Two words that are opposite in meaning are called ________.A. SynonymsB. HomonymsC. AntonymsD. homophones5. The pair of words “wide / narrow” are called ________.A. gradable oppositesB. complementary antonymsC. co-hyponymsD. relational opposites6. What is the meaning relationship between the two words “flower/ rose”?A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HyponymyD. Antonymy7. The words “railway” and “railroad” are ________.A. emotive synonymsB. dialectal synonymsC. stylistic synonymsD. collocational synonyms8. The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ________.A. SynonymyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. polysemy9. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are ________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. none of the above10. The way to analyze sentence meaning is called ________ analysis.A. ComponentialB. PredicationC. SyntacticD. logical答案(反白可见)：B B C C A C B D D A1. Syntax is the study of the interrelationships between elements of sentence structure and of the rules governing the way words are ________ to form sentences in a language.A. AnalyzedB. ExaminedC. LinkedD. arranged2. ________ lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.A. MinorB. MajorC. AllD. None of the above3. NP and ________ are essential components of a sentence.A. VPB. PPC. APD. CP4. The two clauses in a ________ sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence.A. SimpleB. CompleteC. ComplexD. coordinate5. The embedded clause in a complex sentence is normally called ________ clause.A. a subordinateB. a mainC. a matrixD. a major6. Transformational grammar is a type of grammar first proposed by ________ in the mid-1950s.A. SaussureB. BloomfieldC. ChomskyD. Halliday7. The rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences are called ________ rules.A. LexicalB. StructuralC. CoordinateD. combinational8. ________ can generate an infinite number of sentences.A. Phrase structure rulesB. Movement rulesC. Syntactic rulesD. None of the above答案(反白可见)：C B A D A C D A1. Morphology refers to the ________ of words.A. ScienceB. FormC. HistoryD. system2. The smallest meaningful unit of language is ________.A. MorphemeB. PhoneC. PhonemeD. allomorpheme3. The word “boyish” contains two ________.A. PhonemesB. MorphsC. MorphemesD. allomorphs4. ________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix5. Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case” and so forth are called ________ morphemes.A. InflectionalB. IndependentC. FreeD. derivational6. ________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes7. In English “-ise” and “-tion” a re called ________.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. InfixesD. free morphemes8. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ________ to form a new word.A. RootB. AffixC. StemD. word9. The words such as “lab” and “doc” are ________.A. formed by blendingB. AcronymsC. coined by back-formationD. clipped words答案(反白可见)：B A C B A A B C D1. ________ is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.A. PhonologyB. Phonetics 语音学C. MorphologyD. Phonemics2. Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the ________ properties of the stream of sounds whicha speaker issues.A. OralB. MentalC. PhysicalD. recorded3. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ________ sounds.A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. VowelD. consonantal4. [p] is a voiceless bilabial ________.A. AffricateB. FricativeC. StopD. liquid5. ________ aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.A. LinguisticsB. PhoneticsC. PhonologyD. Articulatory phonetics6. A ________ is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. Phoneme音位B. PhoneC. SoundD. speech7. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ________ of that phoneme.A. PhonesB. SoundsC. PhonemesD. Allophones语位变体8. ________ is a typical tone language.A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. American English答案(反白可见)：B C A C C A D B1. The study of language as a whole is often called ________ linguistics.A. ParticularB. GeneralC. OrdinaryD. generative2. Traditional grammar regards the ________ form of language as primary, not the spoken form.A. OralB. WrittenC. WritingD. vocal3. The description of a language at some point in time is a ________ study.A. SynchronicB. DiachronicC. HistoricalD. comparative4. According to F. de Saussure, ________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. ParoleB. PerformanceC. LangueD. Language5. Language is arbitrary in that there is no logical connection between meanings and ________.A. WordsB. SoundsC. ObjectsD. ideas6. Which of the fol lowing isn’t the design features of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. PerformanceC. DualityD. displacement7. The core of linguistics excludes ________.A. SemanticsB. MorphologyC. PhoneticsD. PsycholinguisticsB D BC B B D。
二语习得教学大纲
⼆语习得教学⼤纲《第⼆语⾔习得》课程教学⼤纲⼀、说明（⼀）课程简介：本课程是为英语专业和对外汉语专业三年级学⽣开设的⼀门专业选修课。
主要向学⽣介绍语⾔学习规律、影响语⾔学习的内外部因素以及学习者的个性特征。
(⼆)编写依据：《⾼等学校英语专业英语教学⼤纲》提出要培养具有扎实的基本功、宽⼴的知识⾯、⼀定的相关专业知识、较强的能⼒和较⾼的素质、⾯向21世纪的复合型外语⼈才。
其中⼀定的专业知识指英语专业学⽣毕业后可能从事的某⼀专业的基础知识。
英语师范专业学⽣毕业后将投⾝语⾔教育事业，因此很有必要学习第⼆语⾔习得领域的知识，以提⾼⾃⾝的语⾔学习效果，为今后的语⾔教育⼯作打下良好的基础。
(三)⽬的任务：让学⽣更好地了解语⾔学习规律、影响语⾔学习的内外部因素以及⾃⼰的个性特征，从⽽获得更好的外语学习效果。
(四)课程类别：专业选修课⼆、教学安排与学时分配表三、教学内容与知识点第⼀章绪论知识点：1. Why study the course?2. Definitions of SLA and L2A.3. Goals of SLA.4. Objects of SLA.5. The development of SLA.6. Basic terminology.第⼆章母语习得知识点：1. Behaviorist learning theory2. The nativist approach3. The cognitive approach4. The functional approach5. L1A vs. FLL:A.Physiological aspectB.Cognitive aspectC.Affective aspectD.Sociocultural aspect6. Error Analysis：Its purposeMajor stepsContributions and weakness7. Developmental pattern in learner’s language：‘L1A=L2A’ hypothesis8. Variability of learner languagedefinition of interlanguage / characteristics of interlanguage / systematic variability/ free variation9. Pragmatic aspects of learner languageA.requestsB.apologiesC.refusals第四章影响⼆语习得的外部因素知识点：1. Social factors and L2A: (age, sex , social class, ethnic identity, social environment: natural environment classroom environment)2. Input and interaction and L2A: (caretaker talk , foreigner talk, interlanguage talk, input frequency and L2A , comprehensible input and L2A , learner output and acquisition)第五章影响⼆语习得的内部因素知识点：1. Cognitive view vs. mentalist view.2. Cognitive accounts of L2A: (A general theoretical framework, Interlanguage theory, Monitor model, Competition model)3. Linguistic universals and L2A: (Typological universals and L2A, UG and L2A.)第六章学习者的个别差异知识点：1. Personal differences:2. General differences: (social/ cognitive/ affective differences)3. learner strategies: (metacognitive/ cognitive/ affective strategies)第七章课堂环境中的⼆语习得知识点：1. Classroom interaction and L2A:2. Aspects of classroom interaction: (Types of language use/ Teacher talk/ Error treatment / Teachers’ questions/ Learner participation3. The relationship between classroom interaction and L2 learning4. Formal instruction and L2A: (Language-centered instruction/ The effects of formal instruction on L2 learning/ The effects of different types of formal instruction/ Learner-instruction matching)5. The role of formal instruction: some theoretical positions: (The ‘zero option’/ Instruction asfacilitation/ The necessity for instruction)第⼋章关于我国学⽣的外语学习模式的讨论知识点：1. External factors: ( Sociocultural environment/ Classroom training/ Exposure to language input)2. Internal factors: (Language aptitude/ Affective factors/ Cognitive factors/ Age factors)3. Learning outcomes: (Implicit and explicit linguistic knowledge/ Linguistic performance)4. Suggestions四、考核⽅法与要求（⼀）考核形式：闭卷（⼆）成绩计算⽅法：期末考占60%，课堂表现+作业占40%五、教材与参考教材王初明，1990，《应⽤⼼理语⾔学》，湖南教育出版社。
语言学
1.In broad terms, linguists agree to define language as a system of __arbitrary___vocal symbols used for human communication.2. In semantic studies, ___sense____ refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3.Natural languages that are used to break the barrier of communication between nations are called ___c. lingua francas4. The study of language in general is often termed general linguistics. It is based on the view that language as a system is composed of three aspects ___d. sound, structure and meaning5. Modern linguistics has been distinguished from the linguistics of the previous periods in some respects such as its focus is on __ synchronic______study of language and is __descriptive____ in nature.6. Semantics is defined as the study of ___sentence meaning_____.7. If sounds appear on the same environment, they are said to be __in contrastive distribution______.8. Features found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segment are called suprasegmental features. In Chinese, we have them all. But in English, there is no ___tone______.9. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called ---------------__morpheme____ .10. Deviational affixes are bound morphemes added to exiting form to construct new words. English affixes are divided into __ prefixes______and _suffixes___.pounding, the combination of free morphemes, is a common way to form words. In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines ____c. part of speech____ of the word.12. The process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words is termed __c. blending13. BASIC is one of recent ____b. acronyms_____ which tend to be accepted as English words.14. Among the four well-recognized grammars, ___c. transformational –generative grammar_____ can be used to account for the mental process of speaking.15. As for the systemic-functional grammar, the ideational function is realized by the _a. transitivity____ system of language.II. True or False Questions.(x 2)16.Sentences are considered grammatical if they are judged by native speakers,Tinstead of grammarians, to be well-formed sentences.F17.A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standardvariety ofthat language.F18.There are four rules under the politeness principle---the maxim of quality,quantity, relevance and manner.T19.The speaker’s internalized system of rules refers to one’s linguisticcompetence instead of linguistics performance or communicative competence.F20. Pidgins differ from Creoles in that pidgins are used as the primary language and acquired by children as their native language while Creoles do not have native speakers.F20.It is generally believed the first language is learned, while a secondlanguage is acquired.T22. Syllabus is an official document that authoritatively determines the contentand principles of teaching and learning.T23.Intra-lingual errors are caused by mother tongue interference.F24.If a learner says “ I eated too much”, he has simplified the formation of pasttense.F25.The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as theylearn is of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed cognitive motivation.T26.SLA may be defined as the process by which a language other than mothertongue is learnt in a natural setting.Fmunicative competence is the most general term to account for bothtacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it.T28. It is observed that there is more meaning than what is said if the maxims are violated by the speaker. This kind of implicit, non-conventional meaning is called conversational relevance.F29.The act of communicating intention through utterance is termedperlocutionary act.F30.The deixis that replaces the initial expression is called anaphora, and theinitial expression called cataphora.FIII. Definition Questions.(x 4)32. principle of relevance:In verbal communication, the speaker must attract the hearer’s attention. To succeed, the communicator necessarily chooses the most relevant utterance from a range at his/her disposal that fits best to the context, the one that will call for the least processing effort. This is summarized as the principle of relevance.33. grades of formality (by Joos):Joos (1962) differentiated five grades of formality in English: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.34. Krashen’s five hypothesis:The Acquisition-learning Distinction , Natural order, Monitor, Input, and Affective Filter.35. Homonymy:Homonyms are words which have the same form, but differentmeanings. Words which have the same spelling but different meanings are called homographs. Words which have the same pronunciation but different meanings are called homophones. Words which have the same spelling and pronunciation but different meanings are full homonyms.IV. Short Essay Questions.(x10)36.Different theories of second language acquisition have been advanced.Discuss the three contrasting views with reference to the nativist, environmentalist, and functionalist theories.Nativist theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible. A number of models have been proposed since the 1960s, which were prompted by Chomsky’s hypothesis that there is a language acquisition device in the human brain. One of the best-known nativist theories is Krashen’s Monitor Theory. Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in leaning a second language. This view is represented by the Acculturation Model.Functionalist theories attempt to explain SLA from interpersonal as well as intrapersonal perspectives. Halliday (1975) has shown that the development of the formal devices for realizing basic language functions grows out of the interpersonal uses to which language is put.II. True or False Questions.(x 2)16.It is generally believed the first language is learned, while a secondlanguage is acquired.F17.Syllabus is an official document that authoritatively determines the contentand principles of teaching and learning.T18.Intra-lingual errors are caused by mother tongue interference.F19.If a learner says “ I eated too much”, he has simplified the formation of pasttense.F20.The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as theylearn is of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed cognitive motivation.T21.SLA may be defined as the process by which a language other than mothertongue is learnt in a natural setting.Fmunicative competence is the most general term to account for bothtacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it.T23.It is observed that there is more meaning than what is said if the maximsare violated by the speaker. This kind of implicit, non-conventional meaning is called conversational relevance.F24.The act of communicating intention through utterance is termedillocutionary act.T25.The deixis that replaces the initial expression is called anaphora, and theinitial expression called cataphora.F26.Pragmatics analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with thestudy of what is communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener.T 27.The domain to be conceptualized is called source domain while theconceptualized domain is termed the target domain.F28.The theory of prototypes eliminates the dilemma of the traditionalconception of category as it postulates that typical members may possess more attributes or features that non-typical members.T29.The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomicfeatures is called immediate constituent analysis.F30.Hyponyms are words which have the same form, but different meanings.F III. Definition Questions.(x 4)31. three meta-functions of human language:The general roles language plays are termed metafunctions. According to Halliday(1970) language plays three metafunctions simultaneously: the ideational functions, the interpersonal function, and the textual function.32. cooperative principle:The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice(1975) as cooperative principle with four maxims under this general principle: the maxim of quantity, quality, relevance, and manner.33. varieties of language:The term variety is the label given to the form of a language used by any group of speakers or used in a particular field. Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialects, sociolects and registers.34. Interlanguage:Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language. 35. Antonyms:Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning. There are three types of opposition: gradable antonyms, complementary antonyms, and reversal antonyms.IV. Short Essay Questions.(x10)36.According to the version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, languagedetermines speakers’ perceptions and patterns of their way of life. How, in your view, does language relate to thought and culture?The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is the view on the interdependence of language, culture and thought. The hypothesis has been interpreted in two ways. One is known as determinism. In this view our language determines our thinking. The other interpretation, known as relativism, has drawn more attention in the late 1990s. This view holds that culture affects the way we think through language, especially in our classification of the experienced world.Ⅰ、Turn the following linguistic terms into Chinese(15 points):1、adjacency pair ( )2、allophone ( )3、bound morpheme ( )4、cooperative principle ( )5、diachronic study ( )6、distinctive feature ( )7、free variation ( )8、hyponymy ( )9、ideational function ( ) 10、illocutionary act ( ) 11、linguistic relativity ( ) 12、metafunction ( ) 13、minimal pairs ( ) 14、paradigmatic relation ( ) 15、signifier ( )1 毗邻语对2 音位变体3 粘着词素4 合作原则5 历时性研究6 区别性特征7 自由变体8 上下义关系9 概念功能10 言外行为11 语言相对论/语言相关性12 元功能/纯理功能13 最小对立体14 聚合关系15能指/施指Ⅱ、Fill in the blanks(25 points):1、Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, languagehas __ , ___ and ___ functions.1 ideational，interpersonal，textual2、Saussure’s __linguistics is the study of a language through the course of itshistory. 2 diachronic3、The speech organs include the___ cavity, the___ cavity and the ___ cavity.3 oral，nasal，pharyngeal4、Among all grammars, four appear to be well recognized, namely, traditionalgrammar, structural grammar, ___ and ___ grammar.4 transformational-generative，systemic-functional5、Human languages can be used to describe themselves. The language used totalk about language is called ___. 5 metalanguage6、The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure is regarded as father of .6modern linguistics7、The most contribution of the PragueSchool to linguistics is that it seeslanguage in terms of . 7 function8、Register is defined by Halliday as “variation according to use”. We typicallyuse certain linguistic resources in certain context. It can be divided into three dimensions: ___: what is being talked about; : people involved and their relation; ___: how the language is functioning, written or spoken.8 field, tenor, mode9、refers to the linguistic devices, by which the speaker can signal the coherence of the text, thus is a textual phenomenon. 9 Cohesion10、Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. One aspect of meaning is ___, the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world.10 reference11、___ is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. 11 Blending12、Sociolinguistics studies language in relation to ___. Psycholinguistics deals with the relation between ___ and ___. 12 society, language, mind13、Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of ____(sound image) and ___(referent).13 signifier, signified14、A syntactic category is a class of expressions that substitute for one another without loss of _ __. 14 grammaticality1.As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for“correct”linguistic behavior, it is said to be .C. descriptive2.The morpheme“vision”in the common word“television”is a(n) .D. subordinator3.In semantic studies, refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. B. sense4.The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called .C. pragmatics5. refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight-forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.C. Pidgin6. Psycholinguists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, .A.Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area and the angular gyrus7. The famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play“Romeo and Julie”'A rose by any other name would smell as sweet’ well illustrates .C.the conventional nature of language9. The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a formula“S→NP VP”.B. linear10. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called .A. commissivesⅣ、True or False (15 points)(T ) 1. Sentences are considered grammatical if they are judged by native speakers, instead of grammarians, to be well-formed sentences.(F ) 2. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language.( T) 3. Pidgin is a variety of language characteristically with a limited vocabulary and reduced grammar, and used by people speaking different languages for restricted purposes.(T ) 4. The speaker’s internalized system of rules refers to one’s linguistic competence instead of linguistics performance or communicative competence. ( F) nguage change is invariably a change in the direction of simplification. (T ) 6. Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader.(F ) 7. People from different social classes may speak differently. That is the regional variety.(F ) 8. Language is not always to exchange information, but rather it is sometimesused to fulfill a social function.(F ) 9. Clipping is formed by putting together the initial letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.( T) 10. According to Chomsky(1965), a TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.V. Define the following terms (15 points)1、Parole & Langue1 Parole is the executive side of language. Langue is the system of language; individual assimilation; exists in the mind of each speaker. It is a social product whose existence permits the individual to exercise his linguistic faulty. The distinction between langue and parole has important implications for other disciplines as well. It is essential for any field of study to distinguish what belongs to the underlying system which makes possible various types of behavior and what belongs to actual instances of such behavior.3、three meta-functions3Ideational Metafunction: describe the experience of the world and that of others.Interpersoal Metafunction: establish and maintain social and personal relations, influence behaviors of others.Textual Metafunction: refer to the fact that language has mechanism to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text.VI、Answer the following questions (20 points)1.Different theories of child language acquisition have been advanced. Discuss two contrasting views with reference to the behaviorist and nativist models.1 Two contrasting theories of child language acquisition have been proposed by linguists, namely, the behaviorist view and the nativist view. The behaviorist view: Language acquisition is a process of habit formation. Language is learned through stimulus and response. Reinforcement of selected responses is the key to understand language development. Children learn to produce correct sentences because they are positively reinforced when they say something right and negatively reinforced when they say something wrong. The nativist view: Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language, and they acquire their native language using principles unique to language development.1.General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, whichis composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.T2.The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.F3.The sentence “The woman can’t bear children.”is structurallyambiguous.F4.Categorization refers to the process by which people use language toclassify the world around and inside them.T5.Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and thesource domain.T6.According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, placedeixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.T7.Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntacticcategories.T8.Modality can be categorized into Probability and Usuality.F9.Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second languageacquisition research.F10.Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions:field, mode and tenor.T11.Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning.T12.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.T13.Varieties of language are of four types: the standard variety, regionaldialects, sociodialects and registers.T14.The word “went” contains two morphemes.T15.The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomicfeatures is called componential analysis.TII. Choose the best answer among A, B, C or D, and put the letter you choose on the Answer Sheet. (15 points)1._________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. Creativity2.Syntactically, Japanese is a (an) _______ language. D. agglutinating3.The general roles language plays are termed ________. B. meta-functions4._________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real orsupposed suffix. C. Backformation6._________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on thebasis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible. C. Nativist7.Words and phrases like now, yesterday, nest week, in three days, etc. arecalled _______. B. time deixis8.Every syllable has a (n) _______, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleus9._________ is defined as the study of meaning.B. Semantics10.A _______ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of aspeech community. B. creole11.The followings are all features of language except ______. C. changeability12.The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is______.D. homonymy13.The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second languageacquisition except _____. B. nationality14.The fundamental difference between a religious belief and a scientific theory iswhether it is ______. C. verifiable15.The Swiss linguist ______ regarded the linguistic sign as composed ofsignifier and B. de SaussureIII. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given.(10 points)1. Specially, there are four m____ under cooperative principle generalized by Grice. 1. Maxism,2. M____ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and language teachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.2. motivation3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called l____ act. The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i____ act. The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____ act. 3. locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary,4. The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as m____. 4. mapping,5. C____ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.5. clipping,6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a____. 6. allomorphs,7. The term language a____ refers to the natural process of children’ language development.7. acquisition,8. A d____ is a variety of la language that is distinctive from other regional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.8. dialectVI. Answer the following questions. (30 points)1.What is the difference between a redcoat and a red coat?1. Redcoat is a compound word, while red coat is a noun phrase. The stress of the word, redcoat, is on red, but the stress of the noun phrase, red coat, is on coat. Redcoat refers to British soldiers and a red cot means a coat whose color is red.2.What are the components of metaphors? Illustrate it with examples.All metaphors are composed of two domains ----target domain and source domain. This allows us to understand one domain of experiences in terms of another. The domain to be conceptualized is called target domain while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source domain. The transference of properties of the source domain tothe target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguistics as mapping. The source domain is concrete and familiar. The target domain is abstract and novel.3 According to the version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language determines speakers’ perceptions and patterns of their way of life. How, in your view, does language relate to thought and culture?The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is the view on the interdependence of language, culture and thought. The hypothesis has been interpreted in two ways. One is known as determinism. In this view our language determines our thinking. The other interpretation, known as relativism, has drawn more attention in the late 1990s. This view holds that culture affects the way we think through language, especially in our classification of the experienced world.。
自考英语语言学Chapter_10_Language_Acquisition
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition语言习得一、本章纲要二、本章重点Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up. The development of a first or native language (L1)is called first language acquisition (FLA), and then second language acquisition (SLA). L1 and L2 development do not seem to involve identical processes. 语言习得关注的是人类语言能力发展。
语言习得一般指儿童母语的发展。
有些孩子除了习得母语外，还要继续习得第二语言或外国语。
习得母语或第一语言称为第一语言习得，除了母语再习得另一门语言或外语称为第二语言习得。
The study of language acquisition enables linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to better understand the nature of human language and developmental processes of language acquisition.1.First language acquisition第一语言习得Whatever their culture, all normal human beings acquire their native language at a given time of life and in an appropriate linguistic environment that provides sufficient language exposure.(2004, 2007, 判断) It is an established understanding among linguists that the capacity to acquire one’s first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with.No one is more successful than others in acquiring a first language. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyntactic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. 儿童在习得母语时虽然会有个性差异，但是正常儿童只要有正常的交际环境和正常的母语输入都可以成功地习得母语，他们习得母语的过程也非常相似。
Fossilization vs Stabilization
In addition, some learners' interlanguage stabilizes temporarily while some others’ becomes fossilized permanently. This has been established in many researchers' studies on the development of second language acquisition. In An Integrated Model of Language, Preson(1989)describes stability as a characteristic of the structure of the learner's interlanguage system.
中介语的定义
中介语又称过渡语，即学习者在某一阶段所
建立起来的目标语知酿系统和由此相互连接 而引起的一种连续体。 Selinker早在1969年在剑桥国际会议上就提 出了这一术语，并在1972年正式发表论文对 其进行全面阐述，In his interlanguage , Selinker introduced the concept of fossilization. 从此就确立了其在第二语言习得理论中的主 要地位。
2. The definition of stabilization
Stabilization comes from the verb "stabilize", which means "to (cause to) become firm, steady, or unchanging”. In second language acquisition, stabilization refers to the steady State in which there is no change occurring.
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Interlanguagevariationandtransferoflearning∗MARKANDREWJAMES
IRAL45(2007),95–1180019042X/2007/045-095DOI10.1515/IRAL.2007.004cWalterdeGruyter
AbstractOnebranchofresearchinsecondlanguageacquisitionhasinvestigatedthewaysalearner’sinterlanguage(IL)variesbetweentasks.ILvariationresearchhasexaminedlinguistic,psycholinguistic,andsociolinguisticconstraints,andhasrevealedmuchaboutthisphenomenon.Anadditionalpotentially-usefulperspectivethathas,tothispoint,beenvirtuallyunusedinILvariationre-searchandtheory,isthecognitivepsychologyconstructtransferoflearning.ThispaperexaminestherelationshipbetweenILvariationandtransferoflearning.AnargumentismadethatILperformanceislearningtransfer;so,variationinILperformancemayinsomecasesberelatedtoconstraintsonlearningtransfer.Ifthatisthecase,researchandtheoryonlearningtransfercancontributetoresearchandtheoryonILvariation,andseveralwaysthismayhappenaredescribed.
[L]inguisticformsproducedbysecondlanguagelearnersvarymarkedlyasthoselearnersmovefromonesituationtoanother,andonetasktoanother.(Tarone1989:13)
[R]esearchincognitivepsychologyhassuggestedthattransferoflearningdoesnotalwaysoccurwhenonemightexpectit.(DziembowskiandNewcombe2005:338)
1.IntroductionInthispaper,Idiscusstwophenomena,interlanguage(IL)variationandtrans-feroflearning.Morespecifically,Ilookatthefirst,ILvariation,fromtheperspectiveofthesecond,learningtransfer.Ibelievethereisarelationshipbe-tweenthesetwophenomenathathasnotbeendirectlyaddressedinliteraturethatdealswithsecondlanguagelearning.Basically,IthinkthatILperformanceislearningtransfer;so,variationinILperformancemayinsomecasesbere-latedtoconstraintsonlearningtransfer.Ifthatisthecase,researchandtheoryonlearningtransfercaninformresearchandtheoryonILvariation.96MarkAndrewJamesThispaperexaminestheargumentsetoutinthepreviousparagraph.Itbe-ginsbylookingatthenotionthatILperformanceislearningtransfer.Then,itdiscussestheideathatILvariationmayinsomecasesberelatedtoconstraintsonlearningtransfer.Finally,itconsiderswaysthatlearningtransferresearchandtheorycaninformILvariationresearchandtheory.
2.ILperformanceislearningtransferLearningtransferisafamiliarconceptinSLA,whereithasbeenconceptual-izedprimarilyastheinfluenceofalearner’sL1knowledgeandskillsonL2learningandperformance,andithascommonlybeencalledlanguagetransfer:
Languagetransferisoneoftheimportantfactorsshapingthelearner’sinterlan-guage.Theoriginsofthetermgobacktobehaviourismanditsviewthatthefirst/nativelanguage(L1)habitsinfluencetheacquisitionofthesecond/foreignlanguage(L2)habits.ItisoneofthemostfundamentalnotionsinL2acquisitionresearch.(JohnsonandJohnson1998:353).
OutsideSLA,learningtransferhasbeenconceptualizedmorebroadly.Inpsychology,education,andhumanresourcesdevelopment,learningtransferisseenasoccurring“whenlearninginonecontextorwithonesetofmaterialsimpactsonperformanceinanothercontextorwithanothersetofmaterials”(PerkinsandSalomon1994:6452).TypicalexamplesincludethewaythatImightapplymycardrivingskillswhenIamdrivingatruckforthefirsttime,orthewaythatImightapplymyhighschoolmathskillswhenIamshopping.IntheworldofL2teachingandlearning,thisbroaderdefinitionoflearningtransferwouldincludesituationsinwhichL1skillsandknowledgeinfluenceL2learningandperformance(i.e.,SLA’slanguagetransfer);but,itwouldalsoincludesituationsinwhichL2skillsandknowledgethathavebeenlearnedaresubsequentlyappliedbeyondtheinitiallearningtaskandcontext.Withthisbroaderdefinitioninmind,ILperformancecanbeseenasanex-ampleoflearningtransfer.ILperformanceistheapplicationofaL2learners’L2skillsandknowledge.IfalearnerhasdevelopedL2skillsandknowledgeinonecontext(e.g.,formalinstructioninaclassroom)andappliestheseskillsandknowledgeinothercontexts(e.g.,intheworkplaceorathome),heorsheistransferringlearningoutcomes.Similarly,ifalearnerhasdevelopedL2skillsandknowledgebycarryingoutparticulartasks(e.g.,completinggrammarac-tivitiesinaclassroomworkbook)andappliestheseskillsandknowledgewhencarryingoutothertasks(e.g.,writingreportsforwork),heorsheistransferringlearningoutcomes.Inthesesituations,ILperformanceislearningtransfer.ThisisnotthefirsttimeaconnectionhasbeenmadebetweenILperfor-manceandtransferoflearnedL2knowledgeandskills.Inanearly,seminalpaperonIL,Selinker(1972)pointedoutthatsomegroupsofeasternEuropean