语言学教程(第四版)练习 第4章
Chapter Four From Word to Text
I. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.
of the following term does NOT mean the same as the relation of substitutability
A. Associative relation
B. Paradigmatic relation
C. Vertical relation
D. Horizontal relation
2. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents and the three basic types of subordinate clauses are complement clauses, adjuncts clauses and _______.
A. relative clauses
B. adverbial clauses
C. coordinate clauses
D. subordinate clauses
3. Names of the syntactic functions are expressed in all the following terms EXCEPT ______.
A. subjects and objects
B. objects and predicators
C. modifiers and complements
D. endocentric and exocentric
4. In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of perception and noun and it is realized in all the following channels EXCEPT _______.
A. inflection
B. following a preposition
C. word order
D. vertical relation
5. In English, theme and rheme are often expressed by _____ and ____.
A. subject; object
B. subject; predicate
C. predicate; object
D. object; predicate
6. Phrase structure rules have _____ properties.
A. recursive
B. grammatical
C. social
D. functional
7. Which of the following is NOT among the three basic ways to classify languages in the world
A. Word order
B. Genetic classification
C. Areal classification
D. Social classification
8. The head of the phrase the city Rome is ______.
A. the city
B. Rome
C. city
D. the city Rome
9. The phrase on the shelf belongs to ______ construction.
A. endocentric
B. exocentric
C. subordinate
D. coordinate
10. The sentence They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves is a _____ sentence.
A. simple
B. coordinate
C. compound
D. complex
II. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.
1.The relation of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations,
partly to paradigmatic relations.
2.One property coordination reveals is that there is a limit on the number
of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.
3.According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, deep structure contain all
the information necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.
4.In English, the object is recognized by tracing its relation to word
order and by inflections of pronouns.
5.Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one
relation.
https://www.360docs.net/doc/9012503137.html,ually noun phrases, verb phrases and adverbial phrases belong to
endocentric types of constriction.
7.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object
usually follows the verb.
8.In the exocentric construction John kicked the ball, neither
constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.
9.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.
10.In a coordinate sentence, two (or more) S constituents occur as
daughters and co-heads of a higher S.
III. Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given.
1.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the Heads and
consequently, they can be called m____________.
2.John believes (that the airplane was invented by an Irishman). The part
in the bracket is a c_________ clause.
3.In order to account for the case of the subject in passive voice, we
have another two terms, p____________ and n__________.
4.There is a tendency to make a distinction between phrase and w_______,
which is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.
5.Recursiveness, together with o_______, is generally regarded as the
core of creativity of language.
6.Traditionally, p_________ is seen as part of a structural hierarchy,
positioned between clause and word.
7.The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identity
the s______ relationship between words in a sentence.
8.Clause can be classifies into FINITE and NON-FINITE clauses, the latter
including the traditional infinitive phrase, p__________, and gerundial phrase.
9.Gender displays such contrasts as masculine: feminine: n_______.
10.English gender contrast can only be observed in g__________ and a small
number of l__________ and they are mainly of the natural gender type. IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.
1.Syntax
2.IC analysis
3.Relation of co-occurrence
4.Category
5.Recursiveness
V. Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.
VI. Answer the following question.
1.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction
2.What are the basic functional terms in syntax
VII. Essay question.
1.Explain an comment on the following sentence a and b.
a.John is easy to please.
b.John is eager to please.
https://www.360docs.net/doc/9012503137.html,ment on the statement, “Linguistic structure is hiearchical”
I. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.
1.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but they are
capable of yielding an infinite number of sentences.
2.Although, a single word can also be uttered as a sentence, normally
a sentence consists of at least a subject, its predicate and an object.\
3.The sentences are linearly structured, so they are composed of sequence
of words arranged in a simple linear order.
4. his upon an idea.
idea hit upon John.
In the above sentences, the subject and object constituent by the sentences switch their position. Although sentence b is absurd, it is still grammatical, because John and an idea are of the same phrasal category.
5.Though they are of a small number, the combinational rules are powerful
enough to yield all the possible sentences and rule out the impossible ones.
6.In a sentence like Mary likes flowers, both Mary and flowers are not
only Nouns, but also Noun Phrases.
7.The recursive property can basically be discussed in a category-based
grammar, but not in a word-based grammar.
8.An XP must contain an X which is called the phrasal head.
9.In the phrase this very tall girl, tall girl is an obligatory element
and the head of the phrase.
10.a. The man beat the child. b. The child was beaten by the man.
In the above sentences, the movement of the child from its original place to a new place is a WH- movement.
11.Tense and aspect, the two important categories of the verb, nowadays
are viewed as separate notions in grammar.
12.The structuralists regard linguistic units as isolated bits in a
structure (or system).
13.IC analysis can help us to see the internal structure of a sentence
clearly and it can also distinguish the ambiguity of a sentence. 14.Structural linguists hold that a sentence does only have a linear
structure, but it has a hierarchical structure, made up of layers of word groups.
15.In Saussure’s view, the linguist cannot attempt to explain individual
signs in a piecemeal fashion. Instead he must try to find the value of a sign from its relation to others, or rather, its position in the system.
16.The theme-rheme order is the usual one in unemotional narration, which
is a subjective order.
17.What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functions
of language to its structure.
18.Sentence is a basic unit of structure in functional grammar.
19.The interpersonal function of language refers to the idea held by
Halliday that language serves ot establish and maintain social relations.
20.Finite is a function in the clause as a representation, both the
representation of outer experience and inner experience.
21.The relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations,
partly to paradigmatic relations.
22.According to Chomsky, grammar is a mechanism that should be able to
generate all and only the grammatical sentences of a language.
23.In English, the subject of a sentence is said to be the doer of an
action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.
Therefore, the subject is always an agent and the patient is always the object.
24.In English, the object is recognized by tracing its relation to word
order and by inflections of pronouns.
25.Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one
relation.
26.The syntactic rules of a language are finite in number, and there are
a limited number of sentences which can be produced.
27.Structuralism views language as both linearly and hierarchically
structured.
28.Phrase structure rules provide explanations on how syntactic
categories are formed and sentences generated.
29.UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific
gift which exists in the mind of a normal human being.
30.Tense and aspect are two important categories of the verb, and they
were separated in traditional grammar.
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).
1.As is required by the ______, a noun phrase must have case and case
is assigned by verb, or preposition to the _________ position or by auxiliary to the ________ position.
2.Adjacency condition states that a case _________ and a case _______
should stay adjacent to each other.
3.The general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any
constituent movement is called __________.
4.The phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate
sentences at the level of _________.
5.The application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from
the level of ________ to that of ______.
6.In English there are two major types of movement, one involving the
movement of an NP is called __________ movement and the other a WH-word is called _________movement.
7.a. The boy ate the apple.
c.The apple was eaten by the boy.
In Sentence b, the boy and the apple are moved from their original positions in Sentence a to new positions, with the boy _________ to the right and the man ________ to the left.
8.In the sentence the man was bitten by a dog, the man is both the _______
subject and the ___________ object.
9.The decision on where to make the cuts in IC analysis relies on ________:
whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same.
10.IC Analysis is different from the traditional parsing in that IC
emphasizes the function of the _________ level-word group, seeing a hierarchical structure of the sentence as well.
11.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head and
consequently, they can be called __________.
12.John believes (that the airplane was invented by an Irishman).
The part in the bracket is a __________ clause.
13.In order to account for the case of the subject in passive voice, we
have another two terms, ________ and _________.
14.English gender contrast can only be observed in ________ and a small
number of _______ and they are mainly of the natural gender type. 15.There is tendency to make a distinction between phrase and ________,
which is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.
16.Recursiveness, together with _________, is generally regarded as the
core of creativity of language.
17.Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate
which contains a ________ verb or a verb phrase.
18.The sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure
of a sentence is ________.
19.The starting point of an utterance which is known in the given
situation and from which the speaker proceeds is named ________. 20.___________ structure can become the sole responsible structure for
semantic interpretation by the introduction of the trace theory. III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.
sentence John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history is a _______ sentence.
A. simple
B. coordinate
C. complex
D. relational
2. In the sentence Mary told Jane that John liked linguistics the
introductory word that is called _______.
A. coordinating conjunction
B. conjunction
C. subordinator
D. embedded word
3. The student The above segmentation truthfully reveals the _______ nature of sentence structure.
A. hierarchical
B. linear
C. horizontal
D. parallel
4. The sentence The tall man and women left can be illustrated by tree diagram _____.
A.(1)
B.(2)
C. both (1) and (2)
D. neither
A. sat
B. brought
C. pushed
D. none
given above is NOT true
A.In both sentence a and sentence b, John is the logical subject.
B.In structural concept, John is the structural subject of a sentence.
C.It in sentence b is the structural subject of the matrix clause.
D.John is the structural subject in both a and b.
conclusion that a set of principles or rules govern language use is based on the observation that _________.
make acceptability judgment about sentences they have never heard before.
is a habit-structure.
accounts for language acquisition.
information must form part of syntactic movement.
symbol N indicates a/an ________.
category category
category D. lexical insertion rule
the following combination possibilities, ______ can NOT be generated from the following rule: NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S).
A. NP→N →Det Adj S →Det N →Det Adj N PPS.
advantage of X-bar syntax over phrase structure syntax is that X-bar.
a ploliferation of redundant intermediate categories.
us to identify indefinitely long embedded sentences.
C. allows as to postulate categories other than lexical and phrasal.
D. forces us to conclude that the ambiguity of phrases like the English
King is lexical rather than structural.
11. Which set of rules generates the following tree structures
A. S→
NP→ N PP NP→ NP NP PP
VP→ V NP VP→ V NP PP
PP →P NP PP →P NP
NP→ N NP →N
VP VP D, S NP VP
NP→ (NP/PP) NP →NP (NP /PP)
VP →V NP VP →V NP
PP →P NP PP →P NP
NP→ N NP →N
seems they are quite fit for the job.
b. They seem quite fit for the job.
Sentence b is a result of ______ movement.
. D. None
13. The head of the phrase underneath the open window is _______.
following statements are in accordance with Hallliday’s opinion on language EXCEPT _______.
use of language involves a network of systems of choices.
B. Language is never used as a mere mirror of reflected thought.
is a system of abstract forms and signs.
functions as a piece of human behavior.
is more concerned with ____ relations in his approach to syntax.
is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in Certain syntactic constructions and in terms of certain category.
C. Binding
D. Co-command
17. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents and the three basic
types of subordinate clauses are complement clauses, adjunct clauses and _____.
clauses clauses
clauses clauses
of the syntactic functions are expressed in all the following terms EXCEPT_____.
and objects and predicators
and complements D. endocentric and exocentric
English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun and it is realized in all the following channels EXCEPT ______.
a preposition order relation
20. Clauses can be classified into finite and non-finite clauses, _____ including the traditional infinitive phrases, participial phrase and gerundial phrase.
A. the former
B. the latter D. neither
is the _______ on case assignment that states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.
A. Case Condition Condition
Condition Parameter.
analysis is a way to analyze _______ meaning.
A. phoneme
B. word
C. phrase…d. sentence
of the following italic parts is NOT an idiom
A. How to you do
B. How did you do
C. He went to it hammer and tongs.
D. They kept tabs on the Russian spy.
we say that we can change the second word in the sentence she is singing in the room with another word or phrase, we are talking about ______.
A. government
B. linear relations
C. syntactic relations
D. paradigmatic relations
the phrase structure rule S→NP VP, the arrow can be read as ______.
A. has
B. generates
C. consists of
D. is equal to
IV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible, giving examples if necessary.
1.The following two sentences are ambiguous. Show the two readings of
each by drawing its respective tree diagrams.
(1)The ball man and woman left
(2) Visiting professor can be interesting
https://www.360docs.net/doc/9012503137.html,e an example to show what a tree diagram is (as it is used in
Transformational-Generative Grammar).
https://www.360docs.net/doc/9012503137.html,e an example to show what IC analysis is.
4.What are the three general functions of language according to Halliday
5.What distinguishes the structural approach to syntax from the
traditional one
6.Some grammar books say there are three basic tenses in English-the
present, the past and the future; others say there are only two basic tenses –the present and the past. Explain what tense is and whether it is justifiable to say there is a future tense in English.
语言学教程第一章ppt
语言学教程胡壮麟主编
Contents ?Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds(Phonetics) Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase (Morphology) Chapter 4 From Word to Text(Syntax) Chapter 5 Meaning(Semantics) Chapter 6 Language and Cognition ?Chapter 8 Language in Use(Pragmatics)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics ?1.1 Why study linguistics? ?1.2 What is language? ?1.3 Features of language ?1.4. Origin of language ?1.5. Functions of language ?1.6. What is linguistics ?1.7 Main branches of linguistics ?1.8. Macrolinguistics ?1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics
Lead-in ?Qestion1: Other animals can beat us in many different ways, but what makes us superior to all of them? ?Qestion2: Why are children easy to undrstand their mother's tongue??Qestion3: Why do people in different social classes speak in different ways??Qestion4: Why is it "I love you" in English, but "私はあなたを愛して" in Japanese?
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
《普通语言学教程》读书笔记
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语言学教程中文版
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费迪南德?德?索绪尔（Ferdinand de Saussure，1857-1913）是现代语言学的创始人。他是一位杰出的语言学家。作为一门新兴人文学科的开创者，他对语言哲学的影响也极为广泛深刻。 索绪尔出生于日内瓦，父亲是一位科学家。他从小受到自然科学的教育，同时也得到良好的语言教育和语言学教育，掌握法语、德语、英语和拉丁语，初通梵文。15岁时就写了一篇《语言论》。曾于日内瓦大学和莱比锡大学，研习物理、化学和希腊文。莱比锡大学当时是新语法学家的中心，在那的学习大致确定了索绪尔后来以语言学为业的道路。也就在这个时期，他发表了他的第一篇重要论文，《论印欧系语言中原因的原始系统》，引起学术界的重视，而那时他才年仅21岁。获得博士学位后，索绪尔移居巴黎，在高等研究学院讲授梵文、哥特语、古高地德语以及印欧语文学概况。1891年，他开始到日内瓦大学任教。日内瓦与巴黎的学术研究相比相对滞后。索绪尔穷究一生，不带任何传奇色彩。他在世时只是著名的语言学家，但他作为一个哲学家的地位，却是直到他死后才为人们所认可的。 索绪尔生前只发表过很少几篇相当专业的论文。1907-1911年期间，他在日内瓦大学担任普通语言学课程的教学。1913年他去世以后，他的学生和同事根据几本听课笔记才汇编成《普通语言学教程》一书，出版发行。索绪尔不仅吝于发表，他留下的笔记也很少，因此编辑这本书很不容易。因为，跟所有的老师一样，他讲课时也是有很多重复，甚至不一致的内容。难得的是编辑者们没有放弃，合并梳理成一本书，从而造就了一部惊世巨著。 《普通语言学教程》这部著作主要由绪论和附录两部分组成。绪论部分主要阐述了索绪尔对于语言系统的看法。索绪尔认为语言系统具有自主性和形式化这两个特点。他把语言现象划分为“内部要素”和“外部要素”两部分，并以此作为语言研究的前提。“内部要素”是指语言系统内符号与符号之间所形成的相互制约、相互对立的关系；“外部要素”则是指与语言有间接关系的政治、经济、文化、宗教、地理、历史等社会因素。因为索绪尔认为“内部要素”与“外部要素”之间无联系，且进行语言研究必须建立起一个界限清晰的“语言系统”。所以，他说：“我们关于语言的定义是要把一切跟语言的组织、语言的系统无关的东西，简言之，一切跟我们用‘外部语言学’这个术语所指的东西排除出去。”另外，索绪尔还阐发了“语言符号的价值决定于语言系统整体性质”的观点，并将此观点以及上面所提及的观点合在一起，共同支撑起关于语言系统具有自主性的说法。实际上，此举的真正目的是为语言学的研究对象下定义，且以此厘清语言和言语之间的关系。 语言是言语行为的社会部分，是个人被动地从社会接受而储存于头脑中的系统。它存在于个人意志之外，是社会每个成员共同具有的，是一种社会心理现象。言语是言语行为的个人部分，是个人对语言系统的运用。语言和言语紧密相连，互为前提。个人要说话使人理解，必须用语言，同时语言的存在又必须体现在言语当中，而且，使语言发生变化的也是言语。所以，语言既是言语的工具，又是言语的产物，但“这并不妨碍它们是两种绝对不同的东西” 在对语言学进行概述之后，《普通语言学教程》的附录部分进一步详细叙述了索绪尔的音位观、符号观以及结构主义研究方法论。他认为语言可为语音符号和文字符号，语音由心灵激活而被赋予意义，文字则只是语音的无生命的、随意的、可有可无的替代物。在符号观中，索绪尔对符号的“任意性”和“线条性”展开阐述，并且重点论述了符号的“不变性”与“可变性”特点。由此他不但揭
新编语言学教程刘润清版1,2章复习大纲
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy. Linguistics Linguistics versus traditional grammar: Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguistics Definition: Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered. Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise. Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions. Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. Design features Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word . pen) and the thing. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak