自动化专业外文翻译--自动控制的发展历史

HISTORY OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL

Feedback control is the basic mechanism by which systems, whether mechanical, electrical, or biological, maintain their equilibrium or homeostasis. In the higher life forms, the conditions under which life can continue are quite narrow. A change in body temperature of half a degree is generally a sign of illness. The homeostasis of the body is maintained through the use of feedback control [Wiener 1948]. A primary contribution of CR Darwin during the last century was the theory that feedback over long time periods is responsible for the evolution of species. In 1931 V. V olterra explained the balance between two populations of fish in a closed pond using the theory of feedback.

The use of feedback to control a system has a fascinating history .The first applications of feedback control appeared in the development of float regulator mechanisms in Greece in the period 300 to1B.C. The water clock of ktesibios used a float regulator. An oil lamp devised by Philon in approximately 250 B.C .Used a float regular in an oil lamp for maintaining a constant levels of fuel oil .Heron of Alexandria, who lived in the first century A.D, published a book entitled Pneumatica, which outlined several forms of water-level mechanisms using floating regulators The first feedback system to be invented in modern Europe was the temperature regulator of CornelisDrebb(1572-1633) of Holland Dennis Papin invented the first pressure regulator for steam boilers In 1681.Papin’s pressure regulator was a form of safety Regulator Similar to a pressure-cooker valve.

Feedback control may be defined as the use of difference signals, determined by comparing the actual values of system variables to their desired values, as a means of controlling a system. An everyday example of a feedback control system is an automobile speed control, which uses the difference between the actual and the desired speed to vary the fuel flow rate. Since the system output is used to regulate its input, such a device is said to be a closed-loop control system.

The first historical feedback system, claimed by Russia, is the water-level float regulator said to have been invented by I. Polzunov in 1765. The float detects the water level and controls the valve that covers the water inlet in the boiler.

There have been many developments in automatic control theory during recent years. It is difficult to provide an impartial analysis of an area while it is still developing; however, looking back on the progress of feedback control theory it is by now possible to distinguish some main trends and point out some key advances. Feedback control is an engineering discipline. As such, its progress is closely tied to the practical problems that needed to be solved during any phase of human history. The key developments in the history of mankind that affected the progress of feedback control were:

1、The preoccupation of the Greeks and Arabs with keeping accurate track of time.。This represents a period from about 300 BC to about 1200 AD.

2、The Industrial Revolution in Europe. The Industrial Revolution is generally agreed to have started in the third quarter of the eighteenth century; however, its roots can be traced back into the 1600's.

3、The beginning of mass communication and the First and Second World

Wars.Thisrepresents a period from about 1910 to 1945.

4、The beginning of the space/computer age in 1957.

At a point between the Industrial Revolution and the World Wars, there was an extremely important development. Namely, control theory began to acquire its written language- the language of mathematics. JC Maxwell provided the first rigorous mathematical analysis of a feedback control system in 1868. The period preceding 1868 was characterized by the development of automatic control systems through intuition and invention. Efforts to increase the accuracy of the control system led to slower attenuation of the transient oscillations and even to unstable systems. It then became imperative to develop a theory of automatic control. J.C. Maxwell formulated a mathematical theory related to control theory using a differential equation model of a governor. Maxwell’s study was concerned wit h the effect various system parameters had on the system performance. During the same period, I.A. Vyshnegradskii formulated a mathematical theory of regulators. Thus, relative to this written language, we could call the period before about 1868 the prehistory of automatic control.

Prior to World War II, control theory and practice developed in a different manner in the United States and Western Europe than in Russia and eastern Europe. A main impetus for the use of feedback in the United States was the development of the telephone system and electronic feedback amplifiers by Bode, Nyquist, and Black at Bell Telephone Laboratories. The frequency domain was used primarily to describe the operation of the feedback amplifiers in the term of bandwidth and other frequency variable. In contrast, the eminent mathematics and applied mechanics in the former Soviet Union inspired and dominated the field of control theory. Therefore, the Russian theory tended to utilize a time-domain formulation using differential equations. A large impetus to the theory and practice of automatic control occurred during World War II when it became necessary to design and construct automatic airplane pilots, gun-positioning systems, radar antenna control system, and other military system based on the feedback control approach. The complexity and expected performance of these military systems necessitated an extension of the available control techniques and fostered interest in control systems and the development of new insights and methods. Prior to 1940, for most cases, the design of control was on air involving a trial-and-error approach. During the 1940s, mathematical and analytical methods increased in number and utility , and control engineering became an engineering discipline in its own right.

Frequency-domain techniques continued to dominate the field of control following World War II with the increase use of the Laplace transform and the complex frequency plane. During the 1950s, the emphasis in control engineering theory was on the development and use of the s-plane methods and, particularly, the root locus approach. Furthermore, during the 1980s, the utilization of digital computers for control digital computers for control components became routine. The technology of these new control elements to perform accurate and rapid calculations was formerly unavailable to control engineers. There are now over 400,000 digital process control computers installed in the Untied Stated. These computers are employed especially for process control system in which many variables are measured and controlled

simultaneously by the computer.

Following Friedland [1986], we may call the period from 1868 to the early 1900's the primitive period of automatic control. It is standard to call the period from then until 1960 the classical period，and the period from 1960 through present times the modern period .

With the advent of Sputnik and the space age, another new impetus was imparted to control engineering. It became necessary to design complex, highly accurate control system for missiles and space probes. Furthermore, the necessity to minimize the weight of satellites and to control them vary accurately has spawned the important field of optimal control. Due to these requirements, the time-domain methods developed by Liapunov, Minorsky, and others has met with great interest in the last two decades. Recent theories of optimal control developed by L.S. Pontryagin in the former Soviet Union and R. Bellman in the United Stated, as well as recent studies of robust systems, have contributed to the interest in time-domain methods. It now is clear that control engineering must consider both the time-do-main and the frequency-domain approaches simultaneously in the analysis and design of control systems.

A selected history of control system development is summarized in follow table AUTOMATIC ASSEMBLY AND ROBOTS

Feedback control systems are used extensively in industrial applications. Thousands ofindustrial and laboratory robots are currently in use. Manipulators can pick up objects weighing hundreds of pounds and position them with an accuracy of one-tenth of an inch or better. Automatic handling equipment for home, school, and industry is particularly useful for hazardous, repetitious, dull, or simple tasks. Machines that automatically load and unload, cut, weld, or cast are used by industry to obtain accuracy, safety, economy, and productivity. The use of computers integrated with machines that perform tasks like a human worker has been foreseen by several authors. In his famous 1923 play, entitled R.U.R, Karel Capek called artificial workers robots, deriving the word from the Czech noun robot, meaning ”work”.

As stated earlier, robots are programmable computers integrated with machines, and they often substitute for human labor in specific repeated tasks. Some devices even have anthropomorphic mechanisms, including what we might recognize as mechanical arms, wrists, and hands. An example of an anthropomorphic robot is shown in Figure 1.17.

The Future Evolution Of Control System

The continuing goal of control systems is to provide extensive flexibility and a high level of autonomy. Two system concepts are approaching this goal by different evolutionary pathways, as illustrated in Figure.Today’s industrial robot is perceived as quite autonomous—once it is programmed, further intervention is not normally required. Because of sensory limitations, these robotic systems have limited flexibility in adaption to work environment changes, which is the motivation of computer vision research. The control system is very adaptable, but it relies on human supervision, Advanced robotic systems are striving for task adaptability through enhanced sensory feedback. Research areas concentrating on artificial intelligence, sensor integration,

computer vision, and off-time CAD/CAM programming will make systems more universal and economical. Control systems are moving toward autonomous operation as an enhancement to human control. Research in supervisory control, human-machine interface methods to reduce operator burden, and computer database management is intended to improve operator efficiency. Many research activities are common to robotics and control systems and are aimed toward reducing implementation cost and expanding the realm of application. These include improved communication methods and advanced programming languages.

1769 James Watt’s steam engine and governor developed. The Watt steam engine is often used to mark the beginning Industrial Revolution in Great Britain.

During the Industrial Revolution, great strides were made in the

development of mechanization, a technology preceding automation.

1800 Eli Whitney’s concept of interchangeable parts manufacturing demonstrated in the production of muskets. Whitney’s development is often considered to

the beginning of mass production.

1868 J.C. Maxwell formulates a mathematical model for a governor control of a steam engine.

1913 Henry Ford’s mechanized assembly machine introduced for automobile production.

1927 H.W. Bode analyzes feedback amplifiers.

1932 H.Nyquist develops a method for analysis the stability of systems.

1952 Numerical control (NC) developed at Massachusetts Institute of technology for control of machine-tool axes.

1954 Devoldevelops “programmed article transfer”, consider to the first industrial robot design.

1960 Frist Unimate robot introduced, based on Devol’s designs. Unimate installed in 1961 for tending die-casting machine.

1970 State-variable models and optimal control developed.

1980 Robust control system design widely studied.

1900 Export-oriented manufacturing companies emphasize automation.

1994 Feedback control widely used in the automobiles. Reliable, robust systems demanded in the manufacturing.

1997 First ever autonomous rover vehicle, known as Sojourner, explores the Martian surface.

1998-2003 Advances in micro-and nanotechnology. Frist intelligent micromachines are developed and functioning nanomachines are created.

自动控制的发展历史

反馈是通过系统，无论是机械，电气，还是生物，保持平衡或动态平衡的基本机制。在更高的生命形式，生活可以继续在何种条件下是比较窄的。体温半度的变化通常是疾病的征兆。通过使用反馈控制[维纳1948]保持身体的平衡。一个在上世纪达尔文的主要贡献是，在很长一段时间期的反馈负责的物种进化理论。在1931年五.沃尔泰拉使用反馈理论解释在一个封闭池塘里的两种鱼类种群之间的平衡。

利用反馈控制系统有一个引人入胜的历史。第一个应用反馈控制出现在公元前300年到公元前一世纪浮动机制的发展。克特西比乌斯的水钟使用了一个浮动调节器。费隆设计的油灯大约在公元前250年。他为油灯设定了一个浮定期，为了保持固定水平的燃油。在第一世纪公元后，亚历山大利亚出版了一本书题为《Pneumatica》，其中概述了使用浮动监管机构的水位机制的几种形式。

第一个反馈系统是在现代欧洲荷兰丹尼斯?帕潘科内利斯（1572-1633）发明的温度调节器。1681年丹尼斯发明了第一个压力调节阀用于蒸汽锅炉。丹尼斯?帕潘科内利斯的压力调节阀是一种安全调节阀类似于压力锅的阀门反馈控制可以定义为不同信号的使用，确定其所需的值由系统变量的实际值比较得到，作为控制系统的一种手段。反馈控制系统的一个日常的例子是汽车速度控制，它采用了以实际情况所需的速度来改变燃料流量的差异。由于是用来调节其输入输出的系统，这种装置被认为是一个闭环控制系统。

历史上第一次使用反馈系统,据说是1765年由俄罗斯的伊凡?普洛祖诺夫发明的水位浮动调节阀。用浮动原理检测水位和控制锅炉进水口的阀门。

近年来已经有许多自动控制理论的发展。这是很难提供在这个领域内的公正的分析，而它仍处于发展阶段。然而，回首反馈控制理论的进展，它是现在可能区分一些主要趋势和指出一些关键的进步。

反馈控制是一门工程学科。正因为如此，在人类历史的任何阶段，需要加以解决的实际问题与其进展是紧密联系在一起的。在人类历史上的主要发展影响的反馈控制的进展是：

1、希腊人和阿拉伯人在保持时间的紧缺轨道的当务之急。这代表了从公元签300年到公元1200年左右的时期。

2、在欧洲工业革命。一般都同意，在十八世纪的第三季度开始的工业革命，但是其根源可以归宿到1600年。

3、大众传播与第一第二次世界大战的开始。这代表了从1910年到1945年间的时期。

4、1957年的计算机时代的开始。

在工业革命和两次世界大战之间，是它极其重要的发展阶段。即，控制理论开始获得用数学语言表示的书面语言。在1868年JC麦克斯韦对反馈控制系统进行了第一次严格数学的分析。1868 前这一阶段自动控制系统发展的特点是通过直觉和发明得以发展。努力提高控制系统的准确性的同时导致的结果是慢衰减的瞬态振荡，甚至出现不稳定系统。因而必须制定一种自动控制的理论。J.c.麦克斯韦制定有关使用微分方程模型的控制理论的数学理论。麦克斯韦的研究涉及各种系统参数对系统性能的影响。在同一期间，Vyshnegradskii应用数学理论对调节器做了简单的描述。因此，相对于约1868年前的这个书面语言，我们可以称之为自动控制的史前时期。我们可以称之为从1868年到1900年初期间是自动控制的原始时期。

第二次世界大战前,控制理论与其实践美国和西欧与在俄罗斯和东欧以不同的方式发展。使用反馈在美国的主要动力是波特、奈奎斯特，和黑贝尔电话实验室的发展的电话系统和电子反馈放大器。频域主要用于描述由反馈运算放大器和其他变量作用的频带宽。与此相反，著名数学和前苏联应用机械学家在灵感和控制理论领域占主导地位。因此,俄罗斯的理论倾向于采用时域微分方程。

一个比较大对自动控制理论与实践发展的推动力发生在二次世界大战期间, 当时它已成为设计及建造自动飞行员、枪定位系统、雷达天线控制系统和其他基于反馈控制方法的军事系统的必要理论。他们复杂性和预期这些军事系统的性能需要更加广泛的控制技术，这促进了对控制系统的兴趣和发展的方法和新的见解。在1940年之前,因为大多数的情况下,设计控制器是利用空气反复实验的方法。在19世纪40年代数学和分析方法已经被越来越多的人开始使用，控制工程也在工程学科内有了自己的地位。

二战后频域技术在控制领域内继续使用以及拉普拉斯变换和复杂的频率平面逐渐开始被使用。在20 世纪50 年代，在控制工程理论重点是发展了s 平面方法，特别是根轨迹方法的使用。此外，80年代，数字计算机控制部件构成的数字计算机控制已成为惯例。这些新的控制器件达到的准确而快速性的计算技术是以前控制工程师们不可能达到的。现在有超过400,000台数字过程控制计算机安装在美国。这些计算机特别被用于多变量测量和同时控制的过程控制系统中。

弗里德兰[1986]之后,我们可以称从1868年开始到1900年代是自动控制的原始时期。即从那时到1960年古典时期以及从1960年开始至当前时代的现代时期。

人造卫星与太空时代的到来，另一个对控制工程新的动力是不言自明。它成了设计复杂、高度精确导弹和空间探测器的控制系统的必要条件。此外，由于尽量减少卫星重量和精确控制他们必要性而产生了最优控制的重要领域。由于这些需要极大的兴趣，在过去的20 年中出现了由李雅普诺夫、诺斯基和其他人开发的时间域方法。最年来，前苏联列夫?庞特里亚金和美国的贝尔曼发展了最优控制，和最近的鲁棒系统的学说都促进了对时域分析发的兴趣。现在我们必须明确，在控制技术的设计和分析中必须同时考虑频域和时域的方法。

1769年詹姆斯瓦特改良的高效蒸汽机和控制器的发展。瓦特蒸汽机经常被用来纪念英国工业革命的开始。在工业革命时期机械化、自动化技术,也取得了长足的发展。

自动装配和机器人

反馈控制系统广泛用于工业应用中。成千上万的实验室和工业机器人当前正在使用中。机器人可以拿起称数百磅重的物体，其定位的精度在十分之一英寸或更高。自动控制处理家庭、学校及工业设备是特别是在有执行危险、重复、枯燥，或简单的任务是都很有用。机器自动装卸、切割、焊接、铸造被工业生产使用并且能够比较准确、安全和经济、而且还具有较高的生产率。电脑的使用并结合机器执行任务的现象像一个人类工人受到几位科学家的预见。在他著名的1923打,标题为R.U.R,Karel Capek称为人工工人的机器人,推导这个词来自捷克语名词机器人,意思是“工作”。如前所述,机器人可编程计算机集成与机器,他们常常代替人类的劳动在进行特定而重复的任务甚至有某些装置人化机制,包括我们可能识别为机械手臂、手腕和手。例如一个人化机器人被显示在图。

控制系统的前瞻：

现在我们对控制系统的要求仍是提高广泛的灵活性和高度的自主性。两个系统接近这一目标的概念是由不同的演化途径,如图。今天的工业机器人被看作非常自

主的机器人。它的一一编程对于进一步干预通常不是必需的。由于的工业机器人的感官的限制，这些工业机器人系统有限的适应工作环境的变化，这是灵活性计算机视觉研究的动机。该控制系统适应力非常强,但是它依靠人力监督、先进的机器人系统任务适应性都努力争取通过加强感官的反馈。把注意力集中在人工智能研究领域、传感器集成、计算机视觉、不占用时间的CAD / CAM编程将使系统更广泛和更加经济。控制系统作为一个提升人类的控制正在向自主运营发展。对于研究在监控、人机界面的方法来减少操作人员的负担,和计算机数据库管理是旨在改善操作效率。许多研究活动是普遍的,机器人技术和控制系统,并对实施的目的是降低成本、扩大应用领域。其中包括改善的沟通方法和先进的编程语言。1800年以利惠特尼关于人工可互换零件的概念在自动步枪的制造中被得以证明。以利惠特尼的理论常常被认为是这些零件批量生产的开始。

1868 年麦克斯韦负责设计的蒸汽引擎的调速控制的数学模型。

1913 年亨利·福特推出汽车生产的机械化。

1927年波特分析反馈放大器。

1932年奈奎斯特开发的系统稳定性的分方法。

1952年数值控制(NC)在马萨诸塞州理工学院在控制的机床交叉轴的应用。

1954年迪沃尔发展"编程条转移"考虑开始第一个工业机器人设计。

1960年基于迪沃尔设计通用机械手的引进。1962年通用机械手安装于维修压铸机上。

1970 状态变量模型和最优控制的发展。

1980 鲁棒控制系统的设计广泛研究。

1900 以出口为导向的制造企业强调自动化。

1994反馈控制广泛用于汽车中。可靠、系统的鲁棒性要求在制造中加以考虑。1997 第一次过自主漫游车，称为骄子，探索火星表面。

1998-2003年发展微-纳米科技。第一个智能微型机械系统及其功能被创造。

出自：《现代控制系统（英文版）》（第十版）[美] R.C.多尔夫，

R.H.毕晓普