antonymy
2015中考语文初中常见知识点之反义词
2015中考语文初中常见知识点之反义词注意事项1、组成反义词(Antonymy)的一对词必须属于同一意义范畴，如长-短(长度)，开头-结尾(过程)，古-今(时间)。
2、不是任何一个词都有反义词。
反义词以形容词最多，其次是动词;表示具体事物的名词(书、笔)大部分没有反义词。
3、多义词(Polysemant)可以有几个跟不同义项相配的反义词，如快-慢、钝，清淡-浓郁、油腻。
4、反义词包括绝对反义词(Contradictory antonymy)和相对反义词(Contrary antonymy)。
5、只有广泛意义上的形容词才有反义词。
确定的动词、名词之类的没有反义词，比如”飞没有反义词;”鸟没有反义词。
前──后冷──热高──低进──退
死──活公──私快──慢矛──盾
宽──窄强──弱轻──重缓──急
松──紧好──坏美──丑善──恶
是──非闲──忙来──去分──合
存──亡动──静浓──淡偏──正
饥──饱爱──恨升──降开──关
始──终胖──瘦迎──送盈──亏
真──假虚──实有──无雅──俗
是──否稀──密粗──细东──西
巧──拙恩──怨新──旧正──邪
通──堵止──行古──今张──弛。
Sense relations 语义关系
Synonymy
1. Synonymy 2. Types of synonyms 3. Sources of synonyms 4. Discrimination of synonyms
Synonymy
• Synonyms
can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.
conflagration Latin or Greek
trepidation words: more formal,
time
age
epoch
frozen
….
1. sources of synonymy
⑵ Dialects and regional English
• Am E
Brt E
help
servant
Policeman (Brt. & Am. E) and constable are neutral. Bobby is colloquial used only in British English. Cop is slangy.
Discrimination of synonyms
语言学中英术语对照
语言学中英术语对照Glossary and Index Aabbreviation 缩写词,略语Abercrombieablative 夺格,离格abstractness 抽象性accent 重音(符)accuracy 正确性accusative 宾格achievement test 成绩测试acoustic phonetics 声学语音学acquisition习得acronym 缩略语action process 动作过程actor 动作者addition 添加address form 称呼形式addressee 受话人addresser 发话人adjective 形容词adjunct 修饰成分;附加语adverb 副词affix 词缀affix hopping 词缀跳跃affixation词缀附加法affricate 塞擦音agreement 一致关系airstream 气流alliteration 头韵allomorph 词/语素变体allophone 音位变体allophonic variation 音位变体allophony音位变体现象alveolar ridge 齿龈alveolar 齿龈音ambiguity 歧义ambiguous歧义的American descriptive linguistics 美国描写语言学American English 美式英语American Indian languages 美国印第安族诸语言American structuralism 美国结构主义analogical creation 类推造字anapest 抑抑扬格anaphor 前指替代anaphoric reference 前指照应AndersonAnimal communication system 动物交际系统animate 有生命的annotation 注解antecedent 先行词;前在词anthropological 人类学的anthropological linguistics 人类语言学anticipatory coarticulation 逆化协同发音antonomasia 换称;代类名antonym 反义词antonymy 反义(关系)appellative 称谓性applied linguistics 应用语言学applied sociolinguistics 应用社会语言学appropriacy 适宜性appropriateness 适宜性;得体性approximant 无摩擦延续音Apteaptitude test 素质测试Arabic 阿拉伯语arbitrariness 任意性argument 中项;中词;主目article 冠词articulation 发音articulator 发音器官articulatory phonetics 发音语音学artificial speech 人工言语aspect 体aspirated 吐气;送气assimilation 同化associative 联想associative meaning 联想意义assonance 准压韵;半谐音Atkinson, A.M.attributive 属性;修饰语;定语auditory phonetics 听觉语音学Austin, John Langshaw authentic input 真实投入authorial style 权威风格authoring program 编程autonomy 自主性auxiliary 助词auxiliary verb 助动词Bbabbling stage 婴儿语阶段back-formation 逆构词法base component 基础部分behaver 行为者behavioural process 行为过程behaviourism 行为主义bilabial 双唇音bilabial nasal 双唇鼻音bilateral opposition 双边对立bilingualism 双语现象binary division 二分法binary feature 二分特征binary taxonomy 二分分类学binding 制约binding theory 制约论Black English 黑人英语blade 舌叶;舌面前部blank verse无韵诗blending 混成法borrowing 借用;借词bound morpheme 粘着语素bounding theory 管辖论bracketing 括号法brevity maxim 简洁准则bridging 架接British English 英式英语broad transcription 宽式音标broadening 词义扩大Brown corpus 布朗语料库Ccalculability 可计算性calque 仿造;仿造词语cancellability 可删除cardinal numeral 基数cardinal vowel 基本元音case 格case grammar格语法case theory格理论category 范畴categorical component 范畴成分causative 使役的;使投动词CD-I, compact disk-interactive 交互式激光视盘center 中心词central determiner 中心限定词chain relation 链状关系chain system 链状系统Chinese 汉语choice 选择choice system 选择系统circumstance 环境因子class 词类class shift 词性变换clause 小句;从句click 吸气音;咂音clipping 截断法closed class 封闭类closed syllable 闭音节cluster 音丛coarticulation 协同发音coda 结尾音节;符尾code 语码;信码cognitive psycholinguistics 认知心理语言学cognitive psychology 认知心理学cognitive system 认知系统coherence 相关;关联cohension 衔接co-hyponym 同下义词colligation 类连结collocative meaning 搭配意义color word 色彩词color word system 色彩词系统command 指令common core 共核common noun 普通名词communication 交际communicative competence 交际能力communicative dynamism, CD 交际性动力communicative language teaching, CLT 交际语言教学法communicative Sentence Pattern, CSP 交际性句子模式communicative syllabus 交际教学大纲communicative test 交际性测试communicative-grammatical approach 交际-语法教学法compact disk 激光盘COMPACT DISD-READ ONLY MEMORY,CD-ROM 激光视盘comparative degree 比较级competence 能力complement 补语complementary antonym 互补反义词complementary antonymy 互补反义关系complementary distribution 互补分布complex predicate 复合谓语component 成分componential analysis 成分分析composite proposition 复合命题compositionality 复合性compound 复合词;复合句comprehension 理解computation 计算computational linguistics 计算语言学computational system 计算系统computer 计算机;电脑computer-assisted learning, CAL 计算机辅助学习computer corpus 计算机语料库computer hardware 计算机硬件computer literacy 计算机操作能力computer networks 计算机网络computer system 计算机系统computer-assisted instruction, CAI 计算机辅助教学computer-assisted learning,CALL 计算机辅助语言学习conative 意动的concept 概念conceptual meaning 概念意义concord 一致(关系)concordance 共现关系concrete noun 具体名词concurrent 同时发生的conjugation 词形变化conjunct 连接副词conjunction 连接词conjunction buttressing 连接词支撑connotation 内涵consequent 跟随成分consonance 辅音韵consonant辅音constant opposition 不变对立constative 表述的constituent command 成分指令constituent proposition 成分命题constituent structure analysis 成分结构分析constituent 成分construct 编制construct validity 编制效度construction 构建constructivism 构建主义contact 接触content analysis 内容分析content validity 内容效度content word 实义词context dependent 语境依赖的context of situation 情景语境context 语境contextual analyses 语境分析contextual meaning 语境意义contrastive analysis 对比分析control theory 控制理论controlled language 有控制的语言convention 常规;规约conventional meaning 常规意义;规约意义conventionality 常规性;规约性conversational implicature 会话含义conversational maxim 会话准则converse antonymy 相反反义现象conversion 变换cooperative principle, CP 合作原则coordinate construction 并列结构coordination 并列Cordercoreferential 互参的coronal 舌面前音corpus data 语料库语料corpus (pl. corpora) 语料;素材corpus linguistics 语料库语言学context 上下文countable 可数(名词)counterfactual proposition 反事实命题couplet 对句;对联creativity 创造性;原创性Creole 克里澳尔语;混和语cross-cultural 跨文化cross-cultural communication 跨文化交际cross-linguistic 跨语言的culture 文化culturally-specific 文化特异的curriculum 教学大纲customizing 定制的Ddactyl 扬抑抑格Dani language 达尼语data retrieval, DR 资料检索database 数据库dative (case) 与格dative movement 与格移动declarative 陈述句decoding 解码deductive 演绎的deep structure 深层结构defeasibility 消除可行性definite 有定的degenerate data 无用的语料deixis 指称delicacy 精密阶denotation 外延;指称dental 齿音dentalization 齿音化derivation 衍生derivational affix. 衍生词汇derivational morphology 派生形态学description 描写descriptive adequacy 描写充分性descriptive linguistics 描写语言学design feature 结构特征determiner 限定词developing grammar 发展语法deviant 变体deviation 偏离;变异devoicing 清音化diachronic linguistics 历时语言学diachronic 历时的diacritic 附加符号;变音符diagnostic test 诊断性测试dialect 方言dialectology 方言学dialogue对话dictionary 词典digitized sound 数字化语音dimetre 二音步诗行diphthong 二合元音;双元音direct object 直接宾语direct speech, DS 直接言语direct thought, DT 直接思想directionality 方向性discourse 语篇;话语discourse analysis 语篇分析;话语分析discourse interpretation 语篇理解discrete 分离的;离散的discrete-point grammar 离散语法discrete point test 分立性测试disjunction 分离关系displacement 移位dissimilation 异化(作用) distinctive feature 区别性特征distinguisher 辩义成分distribution 分布do-insertion rule do 添加规则domain 范围;领域dorsal 舌背音;舌中音dorsum 舌背(音)double comparative 双重比较download 下载drama 戏剧drill-and-practice software 操练软件D-structure D结构dual 双数dualistic view 二分观点duality 二重性Eearly Modern English 早期现代英语economy 经济性;简洁性ejective 爆发音electronic mail 电子邮件Elizabethan English 伊利莎白时期英语ellipsis 省略(法)elliptical sentence structure 省略句子结构embedded element 嵌入成分emic 位学的emotive 感情的emphasis 强调empirical 经验主义的empirical data 经验主义的语料empirical validity 经验效度empiricism 经验主义empty category, EC 空范畴enabling skills 使成技能化encoding 编码end rhyme 末端韵endocentric construction 内向结构entailment 蕴涵entry condition 入列条件epenthesis 插音;增音equipollent opposition 均等对立equivalence 相等equivalence reliability 相等信度error analysis 错误分析EST 科技英语ethnicity identity 民族认同ethnography of communication 交际民族学etic 非位的;素的evaluation 评估event process 事件过程example-based machine translation 基于例句的机器翻译exchange error 交换错误exchange sequence 交际序列exchange structure 交际结构exhaustive 穷尽的;彻底的existent 存在物existential 存在句existential process 存在过程existential quantifier 存在数量词exocentric 外向的exocentric construction 外向结构experiential 经验的experiential function 经验功能experimental psycholinguistics 实验心理语言学explanatory adequacy 解释充分性explicit grammar instruction, EGI 明显的语法教学法expression minimization 表达最底程度expressive 表达的extended standard theory, EST 扩展标准理论extensive 引申的;扩展的extent-condition format 程度条件格式external evaluation 外部评估external qualifier 外部修饰语extrinsic sources of error 外在的错误来源eye movement 眼部移动。
Wordnet中的各种关系
关系英文名词性译名hyponymy名词下位关系hypernymy名词上位关系meronymy名词部分关系component of名词部件部分关系member of名词成员部分关系substance of名词物质部分关系holonymy名词整体关系antonymy名词反义关系attribute名词属性关系Antonymy动词反义关系Troponymy动词下位关系Hypernymy动词上位关系Entailment动词蕴含关系Cause动词致使关系Also See动词相关动词关系Antonymy形容词反义关系Similarity形容词近义关系Relational形容词关系性形容词Also See形容词相关关系Attribute形容词属性关系Antonymy副词反义关系Derived from副词衍生关系含义或示例对应于概念关系的类别表示对某个类的细化，即如果X是一种Y，那么X是Y的下位词(hyponym)is kind of表示对多个具体实例的泛化，即如果X是一种Y，那么Y是X 的上位词(hypernym)is a generalization of如果X是Y的一部分，那么X是Y的部分词(meronym)is part of例如：“鸟嘴/翅膀-鸟”(beak/wing-bird)is component of 例如：“树木”和“森林”(tree-forest)is member of例如：“铝”和“飞机”(aluminum-plane)is substance of 如果X是Y的一部分，那么Y是X的整体词(holonym)contains parts 例如：“胜利-失败”(victory-defeat)opposite of用形容词来表达其值的名词，如“重量”是一个属性，它的值对应的形容词是“轻”和“重”attribute of代表了复杂的若干种语义关系。
如disappear与appear opposite of如果V1在某个特定语义维度表示了V2，那么V1是V2的下位词。
教师资格考试英语备考：“反义关系”知多少
教师资格考试英语备考：“反义关系”知多少提到“反义词”连小学一年级的学生都知道反义词是什么意思，甚至会张口即来：胖-瘦;快-慢;欢乐-悲伤;美丽-丑陋......的确，反义词对于我们来说并不陌生，而且生活中我们会时常碰到或用到反义词。
然而，生活中我们所谓的“反义关系”与语言学中的“反义关系”究竟是不是一回事呢？英语学习中有这么一句话“without grammar ,something can be conveyed , but without vocabulary nothing will be conveyed .” 这句话形象的说明了词汇在语言学习中不可或缺的地位。
没有词汇，人类的文明很难被完整的传承下去。
在词与词的碰撞和交汇中，通常来说，会形成三种语义关系：同义关系(Synonymy)、反义关系(Antonymy)、包含关系(Hyponymy)。
但是针对于教资考试来说，一般最多的出题点主要是在反义关系上会设置问题，所以本文着重谈一谈“反义关系”的要点。
语言学中的反义关系主要包括三个次类：等级反义关系，互补反义关系和反向反义关系。
(1)等级反义关系(Gradable antonymy)是最常见的一种反义关系。
当我们常说的两个词语之间是反义关系的时候，说的就是这种关系。
比如：长-短，大-小，高-矮等。
这与我们日常生活中所说的比较接近，但是在语言学中，两个互为反义的词语之间是性质方面具有等级性，对一方的肯定并不意味着对另一方的否定。
比如说big与small之间的反义关系，乍一看“大与小”就是我们平常所说的一组反义词，对“大”的肯定那么必然就是对“小”的否定。
然而在语言学中，除了“big与small”之外，还会存在着“Middle”。
对“big”的肯定并不是对“small”的否定，二者之间还有一个中间量“Middle”，“big与small”之间只是在性质方面存在一定的等级差异。
类似的反义关系还有如“beautiful与ugly”之间还存在着“plain”。
英语语义学 Semantics
SemanticsSemanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Semantics = Theory of MeaningIts goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language.Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words.Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences.History of Semantics1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖.1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning.1900 – Its English version came out.1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China.One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三角Concept（meaning）refers tosymbolizesSymbol Thing（word）（referent）stands forThe Referential Theory 指称论Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind.Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression.Concept VS. Referent (Thing)A referent may exist in the physical world.The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word.Sense 语义Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context.It’s abstract and de-contextualized.Sense RelationsSense relations between wordsWords are in different sense relations with each other.There are generally 5 kinds of sense relations:1) synonymy 同义2) antonymy 反义3) hyponymy 上下义4) polysemy 一词多义5) homonymy 同音同形异义1. SynonymyIt is the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.2. AntonymyIt is the oppositeness of meaning.Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymy (relational opposites)Gradable antonymy 分级反义词good/ bad, long /short, narrow/ wideThe members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.Not good≠badHot ---warm---cool---coldComplementary antonymy 互补反义词alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girlIt is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.Converse antonymy 换位反义词(relational opposites关系对立反义词)buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after,teacher/ student, above /belowThe members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.ExerciseClassify the following pairs of antonyms:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymymarried-single male-female hot-coldgive-take big-small awake-asleepnorth-south logical-illogical win-losebuy-sell doctor-patient above-below3. Hyponymy上下义关系It is the sense relation between two words in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word.HyponymyMusical instruments ---piano flute guitar violin tuba tromboneFish---snapper salmon bass sole troutSalmon---chinook spring coho king sockey4. PolysemyA word is polysemic if it has more than one meaning.Wood:family treea geographical area with many trees5. HomonymyWhen two or more words are the same in pronunciation or in spelling or in both but different in meaning, they are called homonyms.3 types of homonyms:perfect homonyms(同音同形异义词)homographs（同形异义词）homophones (同音异义词).Perfect homonymsPerfect homonyms are words which are the same in both pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning.bank (银行、河岸)bear (容忍、生（孩子）)sound (声音、完美的)HomographsHomographs are words which are the same in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning."bow" /bəʊ/ -----"弓―"bow" /bau/ -----"鞠躬"HomophonesHomophones are words which are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning.tail / taleto / two / toopair / pearsee / seaI / eyepiece / peace。
语言学-同义词与反义词
E.g. alive-dead true- false
male- female
present- absent
Second, the norm in this type is absolute.
划分规范是绝对的。
Third，there is no cover term for the two members of a pair.
2. 从色彩方面辨析
1）感情色彩不同 褒义 black---中性Negro----nigger贬义 Statesman--------------politician Slender------------------skinny 口语 tell----inform书面语 Answer---reply Go down---decline
2) 语体色彩不同
3. 从用法方面辨析
1）搭配不同 whales a flock of sheep---a herd of cows---a school of Solve a problem---overcome a difficulty---settle a dispute 2)词性和句法功能不同
英语近义词之间的差异
随着英语词汇的增加, 英语的近义词越来越丰富, 除以上例子外, 还有四、五个一组的 跳的近义词有jump、hop、leap、spring;
语言的有language、dialect、tongue、speech、idiom; 狡猾的有sly、cunning、crafty、tricky、foxy、artful; 部分的有part、portion、piece、member、division、section、 segment、fragment;
词汇名词解释
Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.(1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email、microelectronics、futurology、AIDS、internet、freak out) Content words/notional words(nouns、verbs、adjectives、adverbs and numerals)Functional words/empty words(Prepositions、conjunctions、auxiliaries and articles) on、of、upon、but be a the Native words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Borrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group：（2）The Indo-Iranian Group:(3)The Armenian Group：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group：Greek;.(6)The Italian Group：(7)The Celtic Group;(8)The Germanic Group：Terminology:Terminology is technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in music, symphony.Jargon:Jargon is the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves as in business, bottom line for unavoidable result.Slang:Slang is the sub-standard language, which seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like jargon and argot, eg. Dough and bread means money.Argot:Argot is the jargon of criminals. Only thesub-cultural groups use it, and outsiders can hardly understand it, eg, Persuader means dagger.dialectal words:Dialectal words is words used only by speakers of the dialect in question, eg. Beauty in Australia means excellent.Archaisms:Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. Eg, brethren means brother.Neologisms:Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. Eg, internet.Morpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningfree morphemes：free morphemes, also called free root, is the morphemes which have complete meaning and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences, eg. cat, walk.bound morphemes：Bound morphemes is Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words, eg, recollection = re+collect+ion.bound root：Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning like a free root, but it is bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Affixes：Affixes is forms that are attached to words orword elements to modify meaning or function.inflectional affixes:Inflectional affixes, also calledinflectional morphemes, is affixes which attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships areinflectionalderivational affixes:Derivational affixes are affixesadded to other morphemes to create new words.Root： is the basic form of a word, which can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg, international, the root is nation.Stem： is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added in word formation.affixationAffixation, also called derivation, is a way to addword-forming or derivational affixes to stems in wordformation.Prefixation：Prefixation is a way to add prefixes to stems in word formation. It does not change the word-class ofthe stem but change its meaning.Suffixation：Suffixation is a way to suffixes to stems in word formation, and the suffixes mainly change the wordclass.Compounding：Compounding, also called composition, is away to join two or more stems in word formation. Compound is produced in this way.Compound：A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than onestem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as asingle word.Conversion: is the formation of new words by convertingwords of one class to another class.Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another wordClipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains insteadAcronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.Initialism: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)Acronym:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)Back-formation： It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It isa kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, itcan refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation：Motivation accounts for the connection between1/ 3the linguistic symbol / word-form and its meaning. onomatopoeic motivation：Onomatopoeic Motivation is the character of some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, eg, crow by cocks.Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.semantic motivation：Semantic motivation is the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. Eg, the mouth of the river.etymological motivation：The meanings of many words relate directly to their origins.Grammatical meanings is the part of the word’s meaning which indicates grammatical relationships such as speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns and their inflectional forms and so on.Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaningaffective meaning：Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards theperson or thing in question, eg, notorious, meaning famous, shows the attitude of disapproval.collocative meaning：Collocative meaning is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见) Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Polysemy is a fact that a word has more than one meaning Synonymy(同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ]relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.contradictory terms：Contradictory terms are antonyms truly representing oppositeness of meaning, so they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. Eg, male vs female.contrary terms：Contrary terms are antonyms in terms of a scalerunning between two poles or extremes. Eg, rich vs poor. relative terms：Relative terms are words indicating such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other. Eg, parent vs child.Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate(上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presentinga vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinateswhich convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name givento the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the oppositeof widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl).[ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to theprocess by which words rise from humble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process wherebywords of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：Ina narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentencesin which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary..Semantic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they2/ 3have lost their individual identity. Their meanings arenot often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of eachof the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of anidiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or addedto, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableidioms nominal in nature ：Idioms nominal in nature havea noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences.idioms adjectival in nature：Idioms adjectival in nature function as a adjective but are not necessarily composedof adjectives.Idioms verbal in nature can be divided into phrasal verbsand other verb phrases.Idioms adverbial in nature contains many prepositional phrases and function as adverbial.Eg, tooth and nail, in nothing flat, through thick and thin,in clover, in the clover.Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar,and in some, their etymology3/ 3。